Shiva: Difference between revisions
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{{Otheruses2|Siva}} |
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{{Hdeity infobox| <!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Hindu mythology--> |
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Image = Sivakempfort.jpg |
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| Caption = A statue in [[Bangalore]] depicting Shiva meditating |
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| Name = Shiva |
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| Sanskrit_Transliteration = {{IAST|Śiva}} |
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| Devanagari = {{lang|sa|शिव}} |
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| God of = |
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| Mantra = [[Aum Namah Sivaya]] |
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| Weapon = Trident ([[Trishula]]) |
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| Consort = [[Parvati]] |
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| Abode = [[Mount Kailash|Mount {{IAST|Kailāsa}}]]<ref>For the name ''Kailāsagirivāsī'' (''Sanskrit'' कैलासगिरिवासी), "With his abode on Mount Kailāsa", as a name appearing in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=281}}.</ref> |
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| Mount = [[Nandi (bull)]] |
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}} |
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'''Shiva''' ([[IAST]]: '''{{IAST|Śiva}}''', also spelled '''Siva'''; Hindi, '''Shiv''' , [[Telugu]]: శివుడు ) is one of the principal [[deity|deities]] of [[Hinduism]]. Often called "the Destroyer", Shiva is one of the [[Trimurti]], along with Brahma the Creator and Vishnu the Preserver. Within [[Shaivism]] he is viewed as the supreme deity, whereas in other branches of Hinduism such as the [[Smarta]] tradition he is worshipped as one of five manifestations of the divine. Followers of Hinduism who focus their worship upon Shiva are called ''Shaivites'' or ''Shaivas'' (Sanskrit {{IAST|Śaiva}}).<ref>Tattwananda, p. 45.</ref> His role as the primary deity of Shaivism is reflected in his epithets ''{{IAST|Mahādeva}}'' ("great god"; ''{{IAST|mahā}}'' = great + ''deva'' = god),<ref>Kramrisch, p. 476.</ref><ref>For appearance of the name {{lang|sa|महादेव}} in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'' see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=297}}</ref> ''{{IAST|Maheśvara}}'' ("great lord"; ''{{IAST|mahā}}'' = great + ''{{IAST|īśvara}}'' = lord),<ref>Kramrisch, p. 477.</ref><ref>For appearance of the name {{lang|sa|महेश्वर}} in the Shiva Sahasranama see:{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=299}}.</ref> and ''[[Parameshwara (God)|{{IAST|Parameśvara}}]]'' ("Supreme Lord").<ref>For {{IAST|Parameśvara}} as "Supreme Lord" see: Kramrisch, p. 479.</ref> Shaivism, along with {{IAST|Vaiṣṇava}} traditions that focus on [[Vishnu]], and {{IAST|Śākta}} traditions that focus on the [[Devi|goddess]] ({{IAST|Devī}}) are three of the most influential denominations in Hinduism.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 17.</ref> |
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Shiva is one of the five primary forms of the Divine in [[Smartism]], a denomination of [[Hinduism]] that puts particular emphasis on five deities, the other four being [[Vishnu]], [[Devi]], [[Ganesha]], and [[Surya]].<ref>Flood (1996), p. 17.</ref> Another way of thinking about the divinities in Hinduism identifies [[Brahma]], Vishnu, and Shiva as each representing one of the three primary aspects of the divine in Hinduism, known collectively as the [[Trimurti]]. In the Trimurti system, [[Brahma]] is the creator, [[Vishnu]] is the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva is the destroyer or transformer.<ref>Zimmer (1972) p. 124.</ref> |
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Shiva is usually represented by the ''[[Lingam|Shiva linga]]''. In images, he is generally represented as immersed in deep meditation. |
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==Etymology== |
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The Sanskrit word '''{{IAST|śiva}}''' ([[Devanagari]] {{lang|sa|शिव}}) is an adjective meaning kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious.<ref>Apte, p. 919.</ref><ref>Macdonell, p. 314.</ref> As a proper name it means "The Auspicious One", used as a euphemistic name for [[Rudra]].<ref>Macdonell, p. 314.</ref> In simple English transliteration it is written either as ''Shiva'' or ''Siva''. Pronunciation is written in the International Phoentic Alphabet as {{IPA2|ɕivə}}. The adjective '''{{IAST|śiva}}''' meaning "auspicious" is used as an attributive epithet not particularly of Rudra, but of several other Vedic deities.<ref>For use of the term ''{{IAST|śiva}}'' as an epithet for other Vedic deities, see: Chakravarti, p. 28.</ref> In the [[Rig Veda]], [[Indra]] uses this word to describe himself several times. (2:20:3, 6:45:17, 8:93:3) |
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The Sanskrit word '''{{IAST|śaiva}}''' means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism, and for a member of one of those sects.<ref>Apte, p. 927</ref> It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as [[Shaivism]].<ref>For the definition "Śaivism refers to the traditions which follow the teachings of {{IAST|Śiva}} (''{{IAST|śivaśāna}}'') and which focus on the deity {{IAST|Śiva}}... " see: Flood (1996), p. 149.</ref> |
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==Historical development== |
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:''For the early history see [[Rudra]]'' |
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The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced widely across all of India.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 17</ref><ref>Keay, p.xxvii.</ref> Modern historians believe that the figure of Shiva as we know him today was built-up over time, with the ideas of many regional cults being amalgamated into a single figure.<ref>Keay, p. xxvii.</ref> How the ''persona'' of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well-documented.<ref>For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well-documented, see: Keay, p. 147.</ref> Axel Michaels explains the composite nature of Shaivism as follows: |
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">Like {{IAST|Vişņu}}, {{IAST|Śiva}} is also a high god, who gives his name to a collection of theistic trends and sects: {{IAST|Śaivism}}. Like {{IAST|Vaişņavism}}, the term also implies a unity which cannot be clearly found either in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric doctrine. Furthermore, practice and doctrine must be kept separate.<ref>Michaels, p. 215.</ref> |
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</blockquote> |
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An example of assimilation took place in [[Maharashtra]], where a regional deity named [[Khandoba]] is a patron deity of [[farming]] and [[herding]] [[caste]]s.<ref>Courtright, p. 205.</ref> The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in [[Jejuri]].<ref>For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: Mate, p. 162.</ref> Khandoba has been assimilated both as a name for Karttikya<ref>For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, see: Gupta, ''Preface'', and p. 40.</ref> and also as a form of Shiva himself<ref>'Khandoba: Ursprung, Geschiche und Umvelt von Pastoralem Gotheiten in Maharashtra, Wiesbaden 1976 (German with English Synopsis) pp. 180-98, "Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva."</ref> in which case he is worshipped in the form of a [[lingam]].<ref>Courtright, p. 205.</ref><ref>For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p. 176.</ref> Shakti M. Gupta clarifies the possible confusion between these two identifications by explaining that one of Karttikeya's functions is as the patron deity of thieves, and it is in this capacity that the tribe called Ramoshis, who are thieves by profession, worship Khandoba.<ref>For association of Kartikkeya as patron of thieves and worship by the Ramoshis as Khandoba, see: Gupta, p. 40.</ref> Khandoba's varied associations also include an indentification with Surya.<ref>Courtright, p. 205.</ref> The derivation of the name Khandoba has been variously interpreted, and M. S. Mate says that the most commonly-held belief is that it was a distorted form of Skanda, but also notes alternate theories.<ref>Mate, p. 176.</ref> |
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===The Pashupati seal=== |
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[[Image:Pashupati.gif|thumb|right|An Indus Valley seal with the seated figure termed ''pashupati'']] |
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A seal discovered during excavation of the [[Mohenjodaro|Mohenjo-daro]] archaeological site in the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "proto-Shiva" figure.<ref>Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.</ref> This "[[Pashupati]]" (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit ''{{IAST|paśupati}}'')<ref>For translation of ''{{IAST|paśupati}}'' as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.</ref> seal shows a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals.<ref>For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 ''in'': Flood (1996), p. 29.</ref> Sir John Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, and have described the figure as having three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined. |
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This claim has not fared well with some modern academics. Gavin Flood characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that while it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure, it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull.<ref>Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.</ref><ref>Flood (2003), pp. 204-205.</ref> Historian John Keay is more specifically dismissive, saying: |
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{{Quotation|...there is little evidence for the currency of this myth. Rudra, a Vedic deity later identified with Shiva, is indeed referred to as ''pasupati'' because of his association with cattle; but asceticism and meditation were not Rudra's specialties, nor is he usually credited with an empathy for animals other than kine. More plausibly, it has been suggested that the Harappan figure's heavily horned headgear bespeaks a bull cult, to which numerous other representations of bulls lend substance.<ref>Keay, p. 14.</ref>}} |
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===Rudra=== |
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{{main|Rudra}} |
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Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god [[Rudra]]<ref>Michaels, p. 216.</ref> and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in a number of Hindu traditions. Rudra, the god of the roaring [[storm]], is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity. |
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The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the [[Rigveda|Rig Veda]], which is dated to between 1700–1100 BCE based on [[Linguistics|linguistic]] and [[philology|philological]] evidence.<ref>For dating based on "cumulative evidence" see: Oberlies, p. 158.</ref> A god named [[Rudra]] is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33 he is described as the "Father of the Maruts", a group of storm gods.<ref>Doniger, pp. 221-223.</ref> |
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The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudra is not universally accepted, as Axel Michaels explains: |
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;"> |
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To what extent {{IAST|Śiva}}'s origins are in fact to be sought in Rudra is extremely unclear. The tendency to consider {{IAST|Śiva}} an ancient god is based on this identification, even though the facts that justify such a far-reaching assumption are meager.<ref>Michaels, p. 217.</ref> |
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</blockquote> |
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Rudra is called "The Archer" (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|Śarva}}'')<ref>For {{IAST|Śarva}} as a name of Shiva see: Apte, p. 910.</ref> and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra.<ref>For archer and arrow associations see Kramrisch, Chapter 2, and for the arrow as an "essential attribute" see: Kramrisch, p. 32.</ref> This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=306}}</ref> The word is derived from the Sanskrit root ''{{IAST|śarv}}-'' which means "to injure" or "to kill"<ref>For root ''{{IAST|śarv}}-'' see: Apte, p. 910.</ref> and Sharma uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of the name {{IAST|Śarva}} as "One who can kill the forces of darkness".<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=306}}</ref> The names {{IAST|Dhanvin}} ("Bowman")<ref>Chidbhavananda, p. 33.</ref> and {{IAST|Bāṇahasta}} ("Archer", literally "Armed with arrows in his hands")<ref>Chidbhavananda, p. 33.</ref><ref>For translation of {{IAST|Bāṇahasta}} as "Armed with arrows in his hands") see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=294}}.</ref> also refer to archery. |
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===Identification with Vedic Deities=== |
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Shiva's rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilitated by his identification with a host of Vedic deities, including [[Agni]], [[Indra]], [[Prajapati|{{IAST|Prajāpati}}]], [[Vayu|{{IAST|Vāyu}}]], and others.<ref>For Shiva being identified with Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Vāyu, and others see: Chakravarti, p. 70.</ref> |
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====Agni==== |
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Rudra and Agni have a close relationship.<ref>For general statement of the close relationship, and example shared epithets, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.</ref><ref>For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas, see: Kramrisch, pp. 15-19.</ref> The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva.<ref>For quotation "An important factor in the process of Rudra's growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as {{IAST|Rudra-Śiva}}." see: Chakravarti, p. 17.</ref> The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the ''[[Nirukta]]'', an important early text on etymology, which says "Agni is called Rudra also".<ref>For translation from ''Nirukta'' 10.7, see: Sarup (1927), p. 155.</ref> The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch: |
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;"> |
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The fire myth of {{IAST|Rudra-Śiva}} plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.<ref>Kramrisch, p. 18.</ref> |
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</blockquote> |
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In the [[Shri Rudram Chamakam|''Śatarudrīa'']], some epithets of Rudra such as {{IAST|Sasipañjara}} ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and {{IAST|Tivaṣīmati}} ("Flaming bright") suggest a fusing of the two deities.<ref>For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in epithets {{IAST|Sasipañjara}} and {{IAST|Tivaṣīmati}} see: Sivaramamurti, p. 45.</ref> Agni is said to be a bull<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv06048.htm]</ref> and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, [[Nandi bull|Nandi]]. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned.<ref>For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 89.</ref><ref>RV 8.49; 10.155.</ref> In medieval sculpture both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.<ref>For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.</ref> |
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====Indra==== |
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The Indologist, [[Koenraad Elst]] proposes that Shiva of Puranic Hinduism is a continuation of the Vedic [[Indra]].{{Fact|date=October 2007}} He gives several reasons for his hypothesis. Both Shiva and Indra are known for having a thirst for [[Soma]]. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, transgression of established mores, the [[Aum]] sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term ''{{IAST|śiva}}'' is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,<ref>For text of RV 2.20.3a as {{lang|sa|स नो युवेन्द्रो जोहूत्रः सखा शिवो नरामस्तु पाता ।}} and translation as "May that young adorable ''Indra'', ever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector of us, his worshipper" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.</ref> 6.45.17,<ref>For text of RV 6.45.17 as {{lang|sa|यो गृणतामिदासिथापिरूती शिवः सखा । स त्वं न इन्द्र मृलय ॥ }} and translation as "''Indra'', who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 91, volume 3.</ref><ref>For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O Indra, favour us" see: {{Harvnb|Griffith|1973|p=310}}.</ref> and 8.93.3.<ref>For text of RV 8.93.3 as {{lang|sa|स न इन्द्रः सिवः सखाश्चावद् गोमद्यवमत् । उरूधारेव दोहते ॥}} and translation as "May ''Indra'', our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.</ref> |
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Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.<ref>For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see: Chakravarti, p. 89.</ref><ref>RV 7.19.</ref> |
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In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the [[Maruts]], but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.<ref>For the lack of warlike connections and difference between Indra and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 8.</ref> |
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Indra himself is called shiva several times (Rg-Veda 2:20:3, 6:45:17, 8:93:3). |
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==Attributes of Shiva== |
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[[Image:Gangadhara.jpg|thumb|Shiva Bearing the Descent of the Ganges River as Parvati and Bhagiratha, and the bull Nandi look, folio from a Hindi manuscript by the saint Narayan, circa 1740]] |
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*'''Third Eye:''' Shiva is often depicted with a [[third eye]] with which he burned Desire ({{IAST|Kāma}}) to ashes.<ref>For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref> There has been controversy regarding the original meaning of Shiva's name ''Tryambakam'' (''Sanskrit'': त्र्यम्बकम्), which occurs in many scriptural sources.<ref>For a review of theories about the meaning of ''tryambaka'', see: Chakravarti, pp.37-39.</ref> In classical Sanskrit the word ''ambaka'' denotes "an eye", and in the ''Mahabharata'' Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "Having Three Eyes".<ref>For usage of the word ''ambaka'' in classical Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see: Chakravarti, pp. 38-39.</ref> However, in Vedic Sanskrit the word ''{{IAST|ambā}}'' or ''{{IAST|ambikā}}'' means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "Having Three Mothers" that was used by [[Max Müller]] and [[Arthur Anthony Macdonell|Arthur Macdonell]].<ref>For translation of Tryambakam as "having three mothers" and as an epithet of Rudra, see: Kramrisch, p. 483.</ref><ref>For vedic Sanskrit meaning and "having three mothers" as the translation of Max Müller and Macdonell, see: Chakravarti, pp. 37-38.</ref> Since no story is known in which Shiva had three mothers, E. Washburn Hopkins suggested that the name refers not to three mothers, but to three Mother-goddesses who are collectively called the {{IAST|Ambikās}}.<ref>For discussion of the problems in translation of this name, and the hypothesis regarding the {{IAST|Ambikās}} see: Hopkins (1968), p. 220.</ref> Other related translations have been "having three wives or sisters", or based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess {{IAST|Ambikā}}.<ref>For the {{IAST|Ambikā}} variant, see: Chakravarti, pp. 17, 37.</ref> |
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*'''Blue Throat:''' The epithet ''{{IAST|Nīlakaṇtha}}'' (''Sanskrit'' {{lang|sa|नीलकण्ठ}}; ''nīla'' = blue, ''{{IAST|kaṇtha}}'' = throat)<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=290}}</ref><ref>See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31.</ref> refers to a story in which Shiva drank the poison churned up from the world ocean.<ref>For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: Flood (1996), p. 78.</ref><ref>Kramrisch, p. 473.</ref> (see: [[Halahala|Halāhala]]) |
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*'''Crescent Moon:''' Shiva bears on his head the crescent of the moon.<ref>For the moon on the forehead see: Chakravarti, p. 109.</ref> The epithet ''{{IAST|Chandraśekhara}}'' (''Sanskrit'': {{lang|sa|चन्द्रशेखर}} "Having the moon as his crest" - ''[[chandra]]'' = Moon, ''{{IAST|śekhara}}'' = crest, crown)<ref>For ''{{IAST|śekhara}}'' as crest or crown, see: Apte, p. 926.</ref><ref>For {{IAST|Chandraśekhara}} as an iconographic form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 56.</ref><ref>For translation "Having the moon as his crest" see: Kramrisch, p. 472. </ref> refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva.<ref>For the moon iconography as marking the rise of Rudra-Shiva, see: Chakravarti, p. 58.</ref> The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with [[Soma]], and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly emplored, and in later literature Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the Moon.<ref>For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon, and Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: Chakravarti, pp. 57-58.</ref> |
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*'''Matted Hair:''' Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets ''{{IAST|Jaṭin}}'', "The One with matted hair"<ref>Chidbhavananda, p. 22.</ref> and ''Kapardin'', "Endowed with matted hair"<ref>For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted hair" see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=279}}.</ref> or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion".<ref>Kramrisch, p. 475.</ref> A ''kaparda'' is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or more generally hair that is shaggy or curly.<ref>For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of the kaparda hair style, see, Macdonell, p. 62.</ref> |
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*'''Sacred Ganga:''' The [[Ganges|Ganga]] rivers flows from the matted hair of Shiva. The epithet ''[[Gangadhara|{{IAST|Gaṅgādhara}}]]'' ("Bearer of the [[Ganga in Hinduism|river {{IAST|Gaṅgā}}]]") refers to this feature.<ref>For alternate stories about this feature, and use of the name {{IAST|Gaṅgādhara}} see: Chakravarti, pp. 59 and 109.</ref><ref>For description of the {{IAST|Gaṅgādhara}} form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 8.</ref> The Ganga (Ganges), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.<ref>For Shiva supporting {{IAST|Gaṅgā}} upon his head, see: Kramrisch, p. 473.</ref> |
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*'''Ashes:''' Shiva smears his body with ashes (bhasma).<ref>Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref> Some forms of Shiva, such as Bhairava, are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation-ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy.<ref>Flood (1996), pp. 92, 161.</ref> These practices associated with cremation grounds are also mentioned in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 161.</ref> One epithet for Shiva is "Inhabitant of the cremation ground" (''Sanskrit'': {{IAST|śmaśānavāsin}}, also spelled Shmashanavasin) referring to this connection.<ref>Chidbhavananda, p. 23.</ref> |
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*'''[[Tiger]] skin:''' He is often shown seated upon a tiger skin.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref> |
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*'''Serpents:''' Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 151</ref> |
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*'''Trident:''' (Sanskrit: [[Trishula]]) Shiva's particular weapon is the trident.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref> |
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*'''Drum:''' A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a "damaru" (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|ḍamaru}}'').<ref>Michaels, p. 218.</ref><ref>For definition and shape, see: Apte, p. 461.</ref> This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation<ref>Jansen, p. 44.</ref> known as [[Nataraja]]. A specific hand gesture ([[mudra]]) called ''{{IAST|ḍamaru-hasta}}'' (Sanskrit for "{{IAST|ḍamaru}}-hand") is used to hold the drum.<ref>Jansen, p. 25.</ref> This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the {{IAST|Kāpālika}} sect.<ref>For use by {{IAST|Kāpālikas}}, see: Apte, p. 461.</ref> |
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*'''[[Nandi (bull)|{{IAST|Nandī}}]]''', also known as ''Nandin'', is the name of the [[Bull (mythology)|bull]] that serves as Shiva's mount (Sanskrit: ''[[Vahana|{{IAST|vāhana}}]]'').<ref>For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull (Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: Chakravarti, pp. 99-105.</ref><ref>For spelling of alternate proper names {{IAST|Nandī}} and Nandin see: Stutley, p. 98.</ref> Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name ''{{IAST|Paśupati}}'' or [[Pashupati]] (''Sanskrit'' पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "Lord of cattle"<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=291}}</ref> and by Kramrisch as "Lord of Animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.<ref>Kramrisch, p. 479.</ref> |
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* '''[[Gana|Gaṇa]]''' : In [[Hinduism]], the '''{{IAST|Gaṇa}}s''' ([[Devanagari]]: {{lang|sa|गण}}) are attendants of [[Shiva]] and live in [[Kailasa]]. '''[[Ganesha]]''' was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence [[Ganesha]]'s title ''{{IAST|gaṇa-īśa}}'' or ''{{IAST|gaṇa-pati}}'', "lord of the {{IAST|gaṇas}}".<ref>[[Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend]] (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna L. Dallapiccola</ref> |
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*'''[[Mount Kailash|Mount {{IAST|Kailāsa}}]]''' in the [[Himalayas]] is his traditional abode.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref> In Hindu mythology, Mount {{IAST|Kailāsa}} is conceived as resembling a ''linga'', representing the center of the universe.<ref>For identification of Mount {{IAST|Kailāsa}} as the central ''linga'', see: Stutley (1985), p. 62.</ref> |
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*'''[[Varanasi]]''' (Benares) is considered as the city specially-loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India.<ref>Keay, p. 33.</ref> |
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==Forms and depictions== |
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According to Gavin Flood, "Śiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox", whose attributes include opposing themes.<ref>For quotation "Śiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: Flood (1996), p. 150.</ref> The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him. |
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===Destroyer versus benefactor=== |
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In the [[Yajurveda]] two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terriffic (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|rudra}}'') and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|śiva}}'') forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva cult of later ages are to be found here."<ref>For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later cult forms, see: Chakravarti, p. 7.</ref> In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.<ref>For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1988|p=20-21}}.</ref> The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names. |
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The name ''[[Rudra]]'' (''Sanskrit'' रुद्र) reflects his fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name ''Rudra'' is derived from the root ''rud-'' which means "to cry, howl."<ref>For ''rud-'' meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: Kramrisch, p. 5.</ref> Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form ''raudra'', which means wild, of ''rudra'' nature, and translates the name ''Rudra'' as "the Wild One" or "the Fierce God".<ref>Citation to M. Mayrhofer, ''Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary'', ''s.v.'' "rudra", is provided in: Kramrisch, p. 5.</ref> R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "Terrible".<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=301}}.</ref> ''Hara'' (''Sanskrit'' हर) is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "One who captivates", "One who consolidates", and "One who destroys."<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=314}}.</ref> Kramrisch translates it as "The Ravisher".<ref>Kramrisch, p. 473.</ref> Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as ''{{IAST|Kāla}}'' (''Sanskrit'': {{lang|sa|काल}}), "Time", and as ''{{IAST|Mahākāla}}'' (''Sanskrit'': {{lang|sa|महाकाल}}), "Great Time", which ultimately destroys all things.<ref>For translation of {{IAST|Mahākāla}} as "Time beyond time" see: Kramrisch, p. 476.</ref><ref>For the name {{IAST|Kāla}} translated as "time; death", see: Kramrisch, p. 474.</ref><ref>The name {{IAST|Kāla}} appears in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(The Supreme Lord of) Time". See: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=280}}.</ref> [[Bhairava]] (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|भैरव}}), "Terrible" or "Frightful"<ref>For {{lang|sa|भैरव}} as one of the eight forms of Shiva, and translation of the adjectival form as "terrible" or "frightful" see: Apte, p. 727, left column.</ref> is a fierce form associated with annihilation.<ref>For Bhairava form as associated with terror see: Kramrisch, p. 471.</ref> |
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In contrast, the name {{IAST|Śaṇkara}} (''Sanskrit'' शङ्कर), "Beneficent"<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=306}}</ref> or "Conferring Happiness"<ref>Kramrisch, p. 481.</ref> reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher [[Adi Shankara|{{IAST|Śaṇkara}}]] (c. 788-820 CE), who is also known as Shankaracharya.<ref>For adoption of the name {{IAST|Śaṇkara}} by Shankaracarya see: Kramrisch, p. 481.</ref><ref>For dating Shankaracarya as 788-820 CE see: Flood (1996), p. 92.</ref> The name ''{{IAST|Śambhu}}'' (''Sanskrit'': {{lang|sa|शम्भु}}), "Causing Happiness", also reflects this benign aspect.<ref>For translation of {{IAST|Śambhu}} as "Causing Happiness" see: Kramrisch, p. 481.</ref><ref>For speculation on the possible etymology of this name, see: Chakravarti, pp. 28 (note 7), and p. 177.</ref> |
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===Ascetic versus householder=== |
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[[Image:Shiva parivar.jpg|thumb|right|An illustration of the family of Shiva, consisting of Shiva, [[Parvati]], [[Ganesha]] and [[Murugan|Skanda]] (Kartikeya)]] |
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He is depicted as both an ascetic [[yogi]]n and as a householder, roles which are mutually exclusive in Hindu society.<ref>For the contrast beteween ascetic and householder depictions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 150-151.</ref> When depicted as a yogin he may be shown sitting and meditating.<ref>For Shiva's representation as a yogin, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.</ref> His epithet ''Mahāyogin'' (The Great [[Yoga|Yogi]]: {{IAST|Mahā}} = great, Yogin = one who practices [[Yoga]]) refers to his association with yoga.<ref>For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga, see, Chakravarti, pp. 23, 32, 150.</ref> While [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the [[Indian epic poetry|Epic period]] that concepts of [[Tapas (Sanskrit)|tapas]], [[yoga]], and [[asceticism]], became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.<ref>For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.</ref> |
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As a family man and householder he has a wife, [[Parvati]] (also known as {{IAST|Umā}}), and two sons, [[Ganesha]] and [[Skanda]]. His epithet ''{{IAST|Umāpati}}'' ("The husband of {{IAST|Umā}}") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, {{IAST|Umākānta}} and {{IAST|Umādhava}}, also appear in the sahasranama.<ref>For {{IAST|Umāpati}}, {{IAST|Umākānta}} and {{IAST|Umādhava}} as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=278}}.</ref> {{IAST|Umā}} in epic literature is known by many names, including [[Parvati|{{IAST|Pārvatī}}]].<ref>For {{IAST|Umā}} as the oldest name, and variants including {{IAST|Pārvatī}}, see: Chakravarti, p. 40.</ref><ref>For {{IAST|Pārvatī}} identified as the wife of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 479.</ref> She is identifed with [[Devi]], the Divine Mother, and with [[Shakti]] (divine energy). |
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Shiva and Parvati are the parents of [[Karthikeya]] and [[Ganesha]]. Karttikeya is popular in South India (especially in [[Tamil Nadu]] as [[Tamil people|Tamil]]God) by the names Subrahmanya and [[Murugan]], and in North India he is more popular by the name Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.<ref>For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: Gupta, ''Preface''.</ref> |
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===Nataraja=== |
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[[Image:NatarajaMET.JPG|left|thumbnail|[[Bronze]] [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] Statue depicting Shiva dancing as ''[[Nataraja]]''. [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York City.]] |
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{{main|Nataraja}} |
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The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]: நடராஜா, Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|naṭarāja}}'', "Lord of Dance") is popular.<ref>For description of the nataraja form see: Jansen, pp. 110-111.</ref><ref>For interpretation of the ''{{IAST|naṭarāja}}'' form see: Zimmer, pp. 151-157.</ref> The names ''Nartaka'' ("Dancer") and ''Nityanarta'' ("Eternal Dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.<ref>For names Nartaka (''Sanskrit'' नर्तक) and Nityanarta (Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) as names of Shiva, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=289}}.</ref> His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the [[Puranas|Puranic]] period.<ref>For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.</ref> In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|nṛtyamūrti}}'') are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in [[Tamil Nadu]] Southern India in particular.<ref>For popularity of the ''{{IAST|nṛtyamūrti}}'' and prevalence in South India, see: Chakravarti, p. 63.</ref> |
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==={{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}}=== |
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{{main|Dakshinamurthy}} |
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{{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} (''Sanskrit'': {{lang|sa|दक्षिणामूर्ति}})<ref>For iconographic description of the {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 47.</ref> literally describes a form (''{{IAST|mūrti}}'') of Shiva facing south (''{{IAST|dakṣiṇa}}''). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of [[yoga]], music, and wisdom, and giving exposition on the shastras.<ref>For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: Kramrisch, p. 472.</ref> This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from [[Tamil Nadu]], south Indian in character.<ref>For characterization of {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} as a mostly south Indian form, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.</ref> Elements of this ''motif'' can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.<ref>For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}}, see: Chakravarti, p. 155.</ref> |
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===Ardhanarishvara=== |
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[[Image:Arthanari.png|right|thumb|Chola bronze from the [[11th century]]. Shiva in the form of [[Ardhanarisvara]]]] |
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{{main|Ardhanari}} |
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An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanarishvara shows him with one half of the body as male, and the other half as female.<ref>Goldberg, p. 1.</ref> According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form, (''{{IAST|Ardhanārīśvara}}'') is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", and not as "half-man, half-woman".<ref>Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.</ref> |
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==={{IAST|Tripurāntaka}}=== |
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{{main|Tripura (mythology)}} |
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Shiva is often depicted in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, ''Tripura'', of the Asuras.<ref>For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p. 46.</ref> Shiva's name {{IAST|Tripurāntaka}} (''Sanskrit'': {{lang|sa|त्रिपुरान्तक}}), "Ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.<ref>For the {{IAST|Tripurāntaka}} form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), pp. 34, 49.</ref> |
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===Lingam=== |
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{{main|Lingam}} |
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''Also see:'' ''[[Jyotirlinga]]'' |
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Apart from antropomorphic images of Shiva, the worship of Shiva in the form of a ''[[lingam]]'' is also important.<ref>Michaels, p. 216.</ref><ref>Flood (1996), p. 29.</ref><ref>Tattwananda, pp. 49-52.</ref> These are depicted in various forms. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column. |
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==The five mantras== |
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[[Image:Five headed Shiva.jpg|thumb|left|Adoration of Five-headed Shiva by [[Vishnu]] (blue figure, to left of Shiva),[[Brahma]] (four headed figure to the right of Shiva), [[Ganesha]] (elephant-headed son of Shiva, bottom left) and other deities. Painting from [[LACMA]]]] |
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Five is a sacred number for Shiva.<ref>For five as a sacred number, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref> One of his most important mantras has five syllables (''{{IAST|namaḥ śivāya}}'').<ref>For the five syllable mantra see: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref> |
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Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the ''{{IAST|pañcabrahmans}}'':<ref>For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: Kramrisch, pp. 182-189.</ref> As forms of god, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:<ref>For distinct iconography, see Kramrisch, p. 185.</ref> |
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*[[Sadyojata|{{IAST|Sadyojāta}}]] |
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*[[Vamadeva|{{IAST|Vāmadeva}}]] |
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*[[Aghora]] |
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*[[Tatpurusha|{{IAST|Tatpuruṣa}}]] |
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*[[Ishana|{{IAST|Īsāna}}]] |
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These are represented as the five faces of Shiva, and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.<ref>For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref><ref>For the epithets ''{{IAST|pañcamukha}}'' and ''{{IAST|pañcavaktra}}'', both of which mean "five faces", as epithets of {{IAST|Śiva}}, see: Apte, p. 578, middle column.</ref> Doctrinal differences and possibly errors in transmission have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.<ref>For variation in attributions among texts, see: Kramrisch, p. 187.</ref> But the overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch: |
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.<ref>Kramrisch, p. 184.</ref> |
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</blockquote> |
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According to the ''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'': |
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of {{IAST|Śiva}} is of the character of the fivefold [[Brahman]]. (''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31)<ref>Quotation from ''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31 is from: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref></blockquote> |
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==Relationships in the pantheon== |
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===Vishnu=== |
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[[Image:Harihara.jpg|thumb|right|[[Vishnu]] (right half - blue) and [[Shiva]] (left half - white)]] |
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During the Vedic period, both Vishnu and Shiva (as identified with Rudra) played relatively minor roles, but by the time of the Brahmanas (c. 1000-700 BCE) both were gaining ascendance.<ref>For relatively minor position in Vedic times, and rise in progress by 1000-700 BCE see: Zimmer (1946), p. 125, note 2.</ref> By the Puranic period both deities had major cults that competed with one another for devotees.<ref>For the rise in popularity of Shiva and Vishnu, and the role of Puranas in promoting sectarian positions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 110-111.</ref> Many stories developed showing different types of relationships between these two important deities. |
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Sectarian forces each presented their own preferred deity as supreme. Vishnu in his myths "becomes" Shiva.<ref>For Visnu becoming Shiva in [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] myths, see: Zimmer (1946), p. 125.</ref> The ''Vishnu Purana'' (4th c. CE) shows Vishnu awakening and becoming both {{IAST|Brahmā}} to create the world, and Shiva to destroy it.<ref>For Vishnu Purana dating of 4th c. CE and role of Vishnu as supreme deity, see: Flood (1996), p. 111.</ref> Shiva also is viewed as a manifestation of Vishnu in the ''Bhagavata Purana''.<ref>For identification of Shiva as a manifestation of Vishnu see: ''Bhagavata Purana'' 4.30.23, 5.17.22-23, 10.14.19.</ref> In Shaivite myths, on the other hand, Shiva comes to the fore and acts independently and alone to create, preserve, and destroy the world.<ref>For predominant role of Shiva in some myths, see: Zimmer (1946), p. 128.</ref> In one Shaivite myth of the origin of the lingam, both Vishnu and {{IAST|Brahmā}} are revealed as emanations from Shiva's manifestation as a towering pillar of flame.<ref>For the ''lingodbhava'' myth, and Vishnu and Brahmā as emanations of Shiva, see: Zimmer (1946), pp. 128-129.</ref> The [[Shri Rudram|''Śatarudrīya'']], a Shaivite hymn, says that Shiva is "of the form of Vishnu".<ref>For translation of the epithet {{lang|sa|शिपिविष्ट}} (IAST: ''{{IAST|śipiviṣṭa}}'') as "salutation to him of the form of Vishṇu" included in the fifth ''{{IAST|anuvāka}}'', and comment that this epithet "links {{IAST|Śiva}} with {{IAST|Vishṇu}}" see: Sivaramamurti, pp. 21, 64.</ref> Rivalry between the two cults is apparent in the story of [[Sharaba|{{IAST|Śarabha}}]] (also spelled "Sharabha"), the name of Shiva's incarnation in the composite form of man, bird, and beast. Shiva assumed that unusual form to chastise Vishnu in his hybrid form as [[Narasimha]], the man-lion, who killed [[Hiranyakashipu]], an ardent devotee of Shiva.<ref>For {{IAST|Śarabha}} as an "animal symplegma" form of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 481.</ref><ref>For incarnation in composite form as man, bird, and beast to chastise Narasimha, see: Chakravarti, p. 49.</ref> |
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Syncretic forces produced stories in which the two deities were shown in cooperative relationships and combined forms. [[Harihara]] is a the name of a combined deity form of both [[Vishnu]] ([[Hari]]) and Shiva ([[Hara]]).<ref>Chakravarti, pp. 54-55.</ref> This dual form, which is also called Harirudra, is mentioned in the [[Mahabharata]].<ref>For Harirudra citation to Mbh. III.39.76f see: Hopkins (1969), p. 221.</ref> An example of a collaboration story is one given to explain Shiva's epithet {{IAST|Mahābaleśvara}}, "Lord of Great Strength" (Maha = great, Bala = strength, {{IAST|Īśvara}} = Lord). This name refers to story in which [[Ravana|{{IAST|Rāvaṇa}}]] was given a ''[[linga]]'' as a boon by Shiva on the condition that he carry it always. During his travels, he stopped near the present [[Deoghar]] in [[Bihar]] to purify himself and asked [[Vishnu]] in the guise of a [[Brahmin]] to hold the ''linga'' for him, but after some time Vishnu put it down on the ground and vanished. When Ravana returned, he could not move the ''linga'', and it is said to remain there ever since.<ref>For the story of {{IAST|Rāvaṇa}} and the {{IAST|Mahābaleśvara}} ''linga'' see: Chakravarti, p. 168.</ref> |
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==Avatars== |
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Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have several incarnations, known as [[Avatars]]. [[Adi Shankara]], the 8th-century philosopher of non-dualist [[Vedanta]] was named "Shankara" after Lord Shiva and is considered to have been an incarnation of Shiva.<ref>Padma Purana 6.236.7-11</ref> In the ''Hanuman Chalisa'' [[Hanuman]] is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.<ref>Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5</ref> |
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==Worship== |
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[[Image:108shivalingas.jpg|right|200px|thumb|108 shiva [[linga]]s carved on the rock at the banks of river [[Tungabhadra]], [[Hampi]]]] |
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In [[Shaivism]], Shiva is the God of all and is worshipped by all, from [[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]] (gods) such as [[Brahma]], [[Indra]], by [[Asuras]](demons) like [[Bana]], [[Ravana]], by humans like [[Adi Shankara]], [[Nayanars]], by creatures such as [[Jatayu (Ramayana)|Jatayu]], an eagle, [[Vali]], an ape, and the list goes on and on. Furthermore, people of different backgrounds and qualities worship the Good Lord with many temples having histories of even [[crane (bird)|crane]]s, [[bee]]s, [[elephant]]s, (see [[Kalahasti]]), [[spider]]s, [[snake]]s, worshipping Shiva and getting blessed. It concludes that the Good Lord blesses anyone who worships him with sincere devotion as there is no discrimination based on the seeker. |
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Although Lord Shiva loves His devotees equally as He does not ignore the [[tapasya]] of [[rakshasa]]s, [[asura]]s or anybody, even those with bad intentions, He always finds ways to protect [[dharma]] and not allow any evil to triumph over good. |
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Major deities, [[rishi]]s, [[planet]]s, worshipped Shiva and established [[Shivalinga]]s in various places. |
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# [[Pashupatinath]] Lord of all living beings, located at Kathmandu, Nepal. |
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# [[Somnath]] located at Prabhas Patan in [[Saurashtra]] in [[Gujarat]]. |
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# [[Dwarka]] in Gujarat is home to the Nageshwar Jyotirlinga temple. |
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# [[Mahakal|Mahakal, Ujjain]] (or Avanti) in [[Madhya Pradesh]] is home to the Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga temple. |
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# [[Srisailam]] - Srisailam near [[Kurnool]] enshrines Mallikarjuna in an ancient temple architecturally and sculpturally rich. |
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# [[Bhimashankar]], in the [[Sahyadri]] range of [[Maharashtra]], contains a Jyotirlinga shrine associated with Shiva destroying the demon Tripurasura. |
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# [[Omkareshwar]] in Madhya Pradesh is an island in the [[Narmada river]], home to a Jyotirlinga shrine and the Amareshwar temple. |
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# Sukreswar Temple located on Sukreswar hill in [[Guwahati]] on the southern bank of Brahmaputra, with the ghat leading down to the river. |
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# [[Uma Nanda Temple]] located on the Peacock island in middle of River [[Brahmaputra]] in [[Guwahati]]. |
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# [[Kedarnath]] in [[Uttarakhand]] is the northernmost of the Jyotirlingas. |
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# [[Varanasi]] (Benares) in [[Uttar Pradesh]] is home to the Vishwanath Jyotirling temple. |
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# [[Trimbakeshwar]], near [[Nashik]] in [[Maharashtra]], has a Jyotirlinga shrine located associated with the origin of the [[Godavari river]]. |
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# [[Grishneshwar]] Jyotirlinga shrine, in [[Maharashtra]], is located near the rock-cut temples of [[Ellora]]. |
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# [[Deoghar]], in the [[Santhal Parganas]] region of [[Jharkhand]], is home to the Vaidyanath Jyotirlinga temple. |
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# [[Ganesh]] worshipped Shiva at [[Pillayar patti]] (100 km from [[Madurai]], India) |
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# The four [[Veda]]s worshipped Shiva at [[Thirumaraikaadu]] (i.e., [[Vedaaranyam]] near [[Tanjore]]) |
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# [[Skanda]] worshipped Shiva at [[Thiruchendur]] (200 km from Madurai, India) |
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# [[Rama]] ([[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]]) worshipped Shiva in [[Rameswaram]](India) |
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# [[Vishnu]] worshipped Shiva at[[Kanchipuram]] ([[Kachiswarar]] Temple) |
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# [[Parasurama]] (avatar of Vishnu) worshipped Shiva at [[Sreesailam]], [[Karnataka]] and also at [[Chennai]] (Parasurama at [[Lingeshwara]] Temple, [[Iyanavaram]]) |
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# Goddess [[Lakshmi]] (wife of Vishnu) worshipped Shiva at [[Tirupachethi]] (50 km from [[Madurai]]). |
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# [[Surya]] worshipped Shiva at Srivilliputhur (Vaidhyanathaar Temple 100 km from Madurai) |
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# [[Brahma]] and [[Vishnu]] at [[Tiruvannamalai]] (180 km from Chennai) |
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# Brahma at [[Vrinchipuram]] (155 km from [[Chennai]], 15 km from [[Vellore]]) |
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# [[Rahu]] and [[Ketu]] at [[Kaalahasthi]] (50 km from [[Tirupathi]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]]) |
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# [[Indra]] at [[Madurai]] ([[Soma Sundareeswar]] Temple) |
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# The Rishi [[Agastya]] at [[Papanasam]] (100 km from [[Tirunelveli]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India) |
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# Goddess [[Parvati]] at [[Kancheepuram]] ([[Ekambeeswarar]] [[Temple]], 70 km from [[Chennai]], India) |
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# [[Shani]] at [[Thirnallar]] (near [[Kaaraikal]], [[Pondicherry]]) |
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# [[Moongod]] at [[Thingalur]] (near [[Tanjore]]) |
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# Shiva and [[Sani]] at [[Thirvidaimaruthoor]] (near [[Kumbakonam]]) |
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# [[Brahma]] at [[Kumbakoonam]] ([[Kumbeeswarar]], near [[Tanjore]]) |
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# [[Ujjain]] Jyotirlinga shrine, in [[Madhya Pradesh]]. |
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# Lord Shiva at Trilochan, is famous with name of Trilochan Mhadev Temple, 30 km from [[varanasi]] , [[india]] |
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# [[Manjunatha]]-Lord of mist at [[Dharmasthala]] this one famous pilgrim of [[Dakshina Kannada]],[[Karnataka]]. |
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# [[Nanjundeshwara]] -One who has gulped nanju-pain or [[Halahala]] in his throat or [[SriKanteshwara]] at [[Nanjangud]] near [[Mysore]],[[Karnataka]] |
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# Atma[[Linga]] at [[Gokarna]] ,[[Karnataka]]. |
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# [[Panchalingeshwara]]-5 [[Linga]] all of which is covered with sand but opens up at specific dates at [[Talakad]] ,Karnataka. |
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# [[Shivagange]]-Believed to be patala[[Ganga]] flowing by rishi [[Agastya]] worship. [[Bengalooru]],Karnataka. |
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# [[Murudeshwara]] in [[Uttara Kannada]],Karnataka. |
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# [[Kudalasangama]] in [[Basavakalyana]],Karnataka. |
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==Names of Shiva== |
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[[Image:statueofshiva.JPG|right|thumb|A statue of Shiva near [[Indira Gandhi International Airport]], [[Delhi]]]] |
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In Hinduism, deities are called by many names, which describe them in different ways. These names often refer to specific stories about the deities, functions they perform, or ways of thinking about them. Study of these names is helpful to understanding deities from multiple points of view. Some names are used by more than one deity, so looking for names that ''uniquely'' describe a deity is one way to pinpoint their functions. |
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===Sahasranamas=== |
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There are at least eight different versions of the ''[[Shiva Sahasranama]]'', devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=viii-ix}}</ref> The version appearing in Book 13 ({{IAST|Anuśāsanaparvan}}) of the [[Mahabharata]] is considered the kernel of this tradion.<ref>This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda, who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly clairify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using. See Chidbhavananda, p.5.</ref> |
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The eight versions analyzed by Ram Karan Sharma are:<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=viii-xxviii}}</ref> |
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:1. ''Mahabharata'' 13.17.30-150 ({{IAST|Anuśāsanaparvan}} Version) |
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:2. ''Linga Purana'' (version 1, LP 1.65.54-168) is close to the Mahabharata {{IAST|Anuśāsanaparvan}} version. |
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:3. ''Linga Purana'' (version 2, LP 1.98.27-159) has some passages in common with LP version 1, but also with other sources |
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:4. ''Shivapurana'' 4.35.1-131. |
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:5. ''Mahabharata'' ({{IAST|Śāntiparvan}} version). The critical edition of the Mahabharata does not include this version, relegating it to Appendix 28 to {{IAST|Śāntiparvan}}. It does appear in the text of the Gita Press edition as 12.284.68-180. |
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:6. ''Vayu Purana'' (1.30.179-284) is almost the same as the Mahabharata {{IAST|Śāntiparvan}} version. |
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:7. ''Brahmanda Purana'' (38.1.1-100) is almost the same as the Vayu Purana version. |
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:8. ''{{IAST|Mahābhāgavata}} Upapurana'' (67.1-125) appears to be of comparatively recent origin. |
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===Chamakam=== |
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The [[Shri Rudram Chamakam]], also known as the ''Śatarudriya'', is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.<ref>For an overview of the ''Śatarudriya'' see: Kramrisch, pp. 71-74.</ref><ref>For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and commentary see: Sivaramamurti (1976).</ref> |
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== See also == |
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{{commonscat|Shiva}} |
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*[[Shaivism]] |
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*[[History of Shaivism]] |
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*[[Shiva Puja]] |
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*[[Lingayat]] |
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*[[Kapalika]] |
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*[[Ramnathi]] |
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== Notes == |
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{{reflist|2}} |
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==References== |
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[[Image:Shivalinga.png|right|thumb|A Shiva Linga]] |
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*{{Citation |
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| last=Apte |
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| first=Vaman Shivram |
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| year=1965 |
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| title=The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary |
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| place=Delhi |
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| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |
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| edition=Fourth revised and enlarged |
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| isbn=81-208-0567-4 |
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}} |
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*Arya, Ravi Prakash & K. L. Joshi. ''Ṛgveda Saṃhitā: Sanskrit Text, English Translation''. Parimal Publications, Delhi, 2001, ISBN 81-7110-138-7 (Set of four volumes). Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45; 2003 reprint: 81-7020-070-9. |
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*{{Citation |
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| last=Chakravarti |
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| first=Mahadev |
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| year=1994 |
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| title=The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through The Ages |
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| place=Delhi |
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| publisher= Motilal Banarsidass |
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| edition=Second Revised |
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| isbn=81-208-0053-2 |
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}} |
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*{{cite book |last=Chidbhavananda |first=Swami |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Siva Sahasranama Stotram: With Navavali, Introduction, and English Rendering. |year=1997 |publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam |location= |isbn=81-208-0567-4 }} (Third edition). The version provided by Chidbhavananda is from chapter 17 of the Anuśāsana Parva of the Mahābharata. |
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*{{cite book |last=Courtright |first=Paul B. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title={{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings |year=1985 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=ISBN 0-19-505742-2 }} |
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*{{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn= 0-521-43878-0}} |
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*{{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin (Editor)|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|year=2003 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd.|location=Malden, MA|isbn=1-4051-3251-5 }} |
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*{{cite book |last=Goldberg |first=Ellen |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Lord Who is Half Woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective|year=2002 |publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany, New York |isbn= 0-7914-5326-X}} |
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*{{Citation |
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| last=Griffith |
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| first=T. H. |
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| year=1973 |
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| title=The Hymns of the Ṛgveda |
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| place=Delhi |
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| publisher= Motilal Banarsidass |
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| edition=New Revised |
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| isbn=81-208-0046-X |
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}} |
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*{{cite book |last=Gupta |first=Shakti M.|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Karttikeya: The Son of Shiva|year=1988 |publisher=Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd.|location=Bombay |isbn=81-7039-186-5 }} |
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*{{cite book |last=Hopkins |first=E. Washburn |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Epic Mythology|year=1969 |publisher=Biblo and Tannen |location=New York |isbn= }} Originally published in 1915. |
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*{{cite book |last=Jansen |first=Eva Rudy|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Book of Hindu Imagery|year=1993 |publisher=Binkey Kok Publications BV |location=Havelte, Holland |isbn=90-74597-07-6 }} |
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*{{cite book |last=Keay |first=John|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=India: A History |year=2000 |publisher=Grove Press |location=New York |isbn=0-8021-3797-0 }} |
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*{{cite book |series= |last=Kramrisch |first=Stella |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Presence of Śiva |year=1981 |publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, New Jersey |isbn=0-691-01930-4 }} |
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*{{cite book |last=Macdonell |first=Arthur Anthony |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary |year=1996 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-215-0715-4 }} |
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*{{cite book |last=Mate |first=M. S. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Temples and Legends of Maharashtra |year=1988 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |location=Bombay |isbn= }} |
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*{{cite book |last=Michaels |first=Axel|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Hinduism: Past and Present |year=2004 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey|isbn=0-691-08953-1 }} |
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*{{cite book |last=Sarup |first=Lakshman|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The {{IAST|Nighaṇṭu}} and The Nirukta |year=1920-1927 |publisher=|location=|isbn= }} Reprint: Motilal Banarsidass, 2002, ISBN 81-208-1381-2. |
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*{{Citation |
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| last=Sharma |
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| first=Ram Karan |
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| year=1988 |
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| title=Elements of Poetry in the Mahābhārata |
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| place=Delhi |
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| publisher= Motilal Banarsidass |
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| edition=Second |
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| isbn=81-208-0544-5 |
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}} |
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*{{Citation |
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| last=Sharma |
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| first=Ram Karan |
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| year=1996 |
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| title={{IAST|Śivasahasranāmāṣṭakam}}: Eight Collections of Hymns Containing One Thousand and Eight Names of Śiva |
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| place=Delhi |
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| publisher= Nag Publishers |
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| edition= |
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| isbn=81-7081-350-6 |
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}} This work compares eight versions of the Śivasahasranāmāstotra with comparative analysis and Śivasahasranāmākoṣa (A Dictionary of Names). The text of the eight versions is given in Sanskrit. |
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*{{cite book |series= |last=Sivaramamurti |first=C. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Śatarudrīya: Vibhūti of Śiva's Iconography |year=1976 |publisher= Abhinav Publications|location=Delhi|isbn= }} |
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*{{cite book |last=Stutley |first=Margaret|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Iconography|year=1985 |publisher=|location=|isbn= }} First Indian Edition: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2003, ISBN 81-215-1087-2. |
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*{{cite book |last=Tattwananda |first=Swami|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship |year=1984 |publisher=Firma KLM Private Ltd. |location=Calcutta |isbn= }} First revised edition. |
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*{{cite book |last=Zimmer |first=Heinrich|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization |year=1946 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey |isbn=0-691-01778-6 }} First Princeton-Bollingen printing, 1972. |
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*{{cite book |last= |first=|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Hanuman Chalisa |year=1985 |publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math |location=Chennai, India|isbn=81-7120-086-9 }} |
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{{Hindu Culture and Epics}} |
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{{Jyotirlinga temples}} |
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[[Category:Destroyer gods]] |
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[[Category:Hindu gods]] |
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[[Category:Shaivism|*]] |
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[[Category:Tamil deities]] |
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[[Category:Triune gods]] |
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[[Category:Sanskrit words and phrases]] |
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[[Category:Aspects of Shiva|*]] |
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[[bs:Šiva]] |
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Revision as of 17:07, 29 October 2007
Shiva | |
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Devanagari | शिव |
Shiva (IAST: Śiva, also spelled Siva; Hindi, Shiv , Telugu: శివుడు ) is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. Often called "the Destroyer", Shiva is one of the Trimurti, along with Brahma the Creator and Vishnu the Preserver. Within Shaivism he is viewed as the supreme deity, whereas in other branches of Hinduism such as the Smarta tradition he is worshipped as one of five manifestations of the divine. Followers of Hinduism who focus their worship upon Shiva are called Shaivites or Shaivas (Sanskrit Śaiva).[2] His role as the primary deity of Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva ("great god"; mahā = great + deva = god),[3][4] Maheśvara ("great lord"; mahā = great + īśvara = lord),[5][6] and Parameśvara ("Supreme Lord").[7] Shaivism, along with Vaiṣṇava traditions that focus on Vishnu, and Śākta traditions that focus on the goddess (Devī) are three of the most influential denominations in Hinduism.[8]
Shiva is one of the five primary forms of the Divine in Smartism, a denomination of Hinduism that puts particular emphasis on five deities, the other four being Vishnu, Devi, Ganesha, and Surya.[9] Another way of thinking about the divinities in Hinduism identifies Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva as each representing one of the three primary aspects of the divine in Hinduism, known collectively as the Trimurti. In the Trimurti system, Brahma is the creator, Vishnu is the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva is the destroyer or transformer.[10]
Shiva is usually represented by the Shiva linga. In images, he is generally represented as immersed in deep meditation.
Etymology
The Sanskrit word śiva (Devanagari शिव) is an adjective meaning kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious.[11][12] As a proper name it means "The Auspicious One", used as a euphemistic name for Rudra.[13] In simple English transliteration it is written either as Shiva or Siva. Pronunciation is written in the International Phoentic Alphabet as IPA: [ɕivə]. The adjective śiva meaning "auspicious" is used as an attributive epithet not particularly of Rudra, but of several other Vedic deities.[14] In the Rig Veda, Indra uses this word to describe himself several times. (2:20:3, 6:45:17, 8:93:3)
The Sanskrit word śaiva means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism, and for a member of one of those sects.[15] It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.[16]
Historical development
- For the early history see Rudra
The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced widely across all of India.[17][18] Modern historians believe that the figure of Shiva as we know him today was built-up over time, with the ideas of many regional cults being amalgamated into a single figure.[19] How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well-documented.[20] Axel Michaels explains the composite nature of Shaivism as follows:
Like Vişņu, Śiva is also a high god, who gives his name to a collection of theistic trends and sects: Śaivism. Like Vaişņavism, the term also implies a unity which cannot be clearly found either in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric doctrine. Furthermore, practice and doctrine must be kept separate.[21]
An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra, where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding castes.[22] The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri.[23] Khandoba has been assimilated both as a name for Karttikya[24] and also as a form of Shiva himself[25] in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam.[26][27] Shakti M. Gupta clarifies the possible confusion between these two identifications by explaining that one of Karttikeya's functions is as the patron deity of thieves, and it is in this capacity that the tribe called Ramoshis, who are thieves by profession, worship Khandoba.[28] Khandoba's varied associations also include an indentification with Surya.[29] The derivation of the name Khandoba has been variously interpreted, and M. S. Mate says that the most commonly-held belief is that it was a distorted form of Skanda, but also notes alternate theories.[30]
The Pashupati seal
A seal discovered during excavation of the Mohenjo-daro archaeological site in the Indus Valley has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "proto-Shiva" figure.[31] This "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit paśupati)[32] seal shows a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals.[33] Sir John Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, and have described the figure as having three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined.
This claim has not fared well with some modern academics. Gavin Flood characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that while it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure, it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull.[34][35] Historian John Keay is more specifically dismissive, saying:
...there is little evidence for the currency of this myth. Rudra, a Vedic deity later identified with Shiva, is indeed referred to as pasupati because of his association with cattle; but asceticism and meditation were not Rudra's specialties, nor is he usually credited with an empathy for animals other than kine. More plausibly, it has been suggested that the Harappan figure's heavily horned headgear bespeaks a bull cult, to which numerous other representations of bulls lend substance.[36]
Rudra
Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra[37] and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in a number of Hindu traditions. Rudra, the god of the roaring storm, is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.
The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rig Veda, which is dated to between 1700–1100 BCE based on linguistic and philological evidence.[38] A god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33 he is described as the "Father of the Maruts", a group of storm gods.[39]
The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudra is not universally accepted, as Axel Michaels explains:
To what extent Śiva's origins are in fact to be sought in Rudra is extremely unclear. The tendency to consider Śiva an ancient god is based on this identification, even though the facts that justify such a far-reaching assumption are meager.[40]
Rudra is called "The Archer" (Sanskrit: Śarva)[41] and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra.[42] This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages.[43] The word is derived from the Sanskrit root śarv- which means "to injure" or "to kill"[44] and Sharma uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of the name Śarva as "One who can kill the forces of darkness".[45] The names Dhanvin ("Bowman")[46] and Bāṇahasta ("Archer", literally "Armed with arrows in his hands")[47][48] also refer to archery.
Identification with Vedic Deities
Shiva's rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilitated by his identification with a host of Vedic deities, including Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Vāyu, and others.[49]
Agni
Rudra and Agni have a close relationship.[50][51] The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva.[52] The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta, an important early text on etymology, which says "Agni is called Rudra also".[53] The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:
The fire myth of Rudra-Śiva plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.[54]
In the Śatarudrīa, some epithets of Rudra such as Sasipañjara ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and Tivaṣīmati ("Flaming bright") suggest a fusing of the two deities.[55] Agni is said to be a bull[56] and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned.[57][58] In medieval sculpture both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.[59]
Indra
The Indologist, Koenraad Elst proposes that Shiva of Puranic Hinduism is a continuation of the Vedic Indra.[citation needed] He gives several reasons for his hypothesis. Both Shiva and Indra are known for having a thirst for Soma. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,[60] 6.45.17,[61][62] and 8.93.3.[63]
Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.[64][65]
In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.[66]
Indra himself is called shiva several times (Rg-Veda 2:20:3, 6:45:17, 8:93:3).
Attributes of Shiva
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Shiva_Bearing_the_Descent_of_the_Ganges_River%2C_folio_from_a_Hindi_manuscript_by_the_saint_Narayan_LACMA_M.86.345.6.jpg/220px-Shiva_Bearing_the_Descent_of_the_Ganges_River%2C_folio_from_a_Hindi_manuscript_by_the_saint_Narayan_LACMA_M.86.345.6.jpg)
- Third Eye: Shiva is often depicted with a third eye with which he burned Desire (Kāma) to ashes.[67] There has been controversy regarding the original meaning of Shiva's name Tryambakam (Sanskrit: त्र्यम्बकम्), which occurs in many scriptural sources.[68] In classical Sanskrit the word ambaka denotes "an eye", and in the Mahabharata Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "Having Three Eyes".[69] However, in Vedic Sanskrit the word ambā or ambikā means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "Having Three Mothers" that was used by Max Müller and Arthur Macdonell.[70][71] Since no story is known in which Shiva had three mothers, E. Washburn Hopkins suggested that the name refers not to three mothers, but to three Mother-goddesses who are collectively called the Ambikās.[72] Other related translations have been "having three wives or sisters", or based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess Ambikā.[73]
- Blue Throat: The epithet Nīlakaṇtha (Sanskrit नीलकण्ठ; nīla = blue, kaṇtha = throat)[74][75] refers to a story in which Shiva drank the poison churned up from the world ocean.[76][77] (see: Halāhala)
- Crescent Moon: Shiva bears on his head the crescent of the moon.[78] The epithet Chandraśekhara (Sanskrit: चन्द्रशेखर "Having the moon as his crest" - chandra = Moon, śekhara = crest, crown)[79][80][81] refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva.[82] The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly emplored, and in later literature Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the Moon.[83]
- Matted Hair: Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets Jaṭin, "The One with matted hair"[84] and Kapardin, "Endowed with matted hair"[85] or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion".[86] A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or more generally hair that is shaggy or curly.[87]
- Sacred Ganga: The Ganga rivers flows from the matted hair of Shiva. The epithet Gaṅgādhara ("Bearer of the river Gaṅgā") refers to this feature.[88][89] The Ganga (Ganges), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.[90]
- Ashes: Shiva smears his body with ashes (bhasma).[91] Some forms of Shiva, such as Bhairava, are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation-ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy.[92] These practices associated with cremation grounds are also mentioned in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism.[93] One epithet for Shiva is "Inhabitant of the cremation ground" (Sanskrit: śmaśānavāsin, also spelled Shmashanavasin) referring to this connection.[94]
- Serpents: Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.[96]
- Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a "damaru" (Sanskrit: ḍamaru).[98][99] This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation[100] known as Nataraja. A specific hand gesture (mudra) called ḍamaru-hasta (Sanskrit for "ḍamaru-hand") is used to hold the drum.[101] This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kāpālika sect.[102]
- Nandī, also known as Nandin, is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva's mount (Sanskrit: vāhana).[103][104] Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name Paśupati or Pashupati (Sanskrit पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "Lord of cattle"[105] and by Kramrisch as "Lord of Animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.[106]
- Gaṇa : In Hinduism, the Gaṇas (Devanagari: गण) are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailasa. Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title gaṇa-īśa or gaṇa-pati, "lord of the gaṇas".[107]
- Mount Kailāsa in the Himalayas is his traditional abode.[108] In Hindu mythology, Mount Kailāsa is conceived as resembling a linga, representing the center of the universe.[109]
- Varanasi (Benares) is considered as the city specially-loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India.[110]
Forms and depictions
According to Gavin Flood, "Śiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox", whose attributes include opposing themes.[111] The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.
Destroyer versus benefactor
In the Yajurveda two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terriffic (Sanskrit: rudra) and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: śiva) forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva cult of later ages are to be found here."[112] In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.[113] The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names.
The name Rudra (Sanskrit रुद्र) reflects his fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud- which means "to cry, howl."[114] Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means wild, of rudra nature, and translates the name Rudra as "the Wild One" or "the Fierce God".[115] R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "Terrible".[116] Hara (Sanskrit हर) is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "One who captivates", "One who consolidates", and "One who destroys."[117] Kramrisch translates it as "The Ravisher".[118] Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as Kāla (Sanskrit: काल), "Time", and as Mahākāla (Sanskrit: महाकाल), "Great Time", which ultimately destroys all things.[119][120][121] Bhairava (Sanskrit: भैरव), "Terrible" or "Frightful"[122] is a fierce form associated with annihilation.[123]
In contrast, the name Śaṇkara (Sanskrit शङ्कर), "Beneficent"[124] or "Conferring Happiness"[125] reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Śaṇkara (c. 788-820 CE), who is also known as Shankaracharya.[126][127] The name Śambhu (Sanskrit: शम्भु), "Causing Happiness", also reflects this benign aspect.[128][129]
Ascetic versus householder
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Shiva_parivar.jpg/220px-Shiva_parivar.jpg)
He is depicted as both an ascetic yogin and as a householder, roles which are mutually exclusive in Hindu society.[130] When depicted as a yogin he may be shown sitting and meditating.[131] His epithet Mahāyogin (The Great Yogi: Mahā = great, Yogin = one who practices Yoga) refers to his association with yoga.[132] While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the Epic period that concepts of tapas, yoga, and asceticism, became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.[133]
As a family man and householder he has a wife, Parvati (also known as Umā), and two sons, Ganesha and Skanda. His epithet Umāpati ("The husband of Umā") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, Umākānta and Umādhava, also appear in the sahasranama.[134] Umā in epic literature is known by many names, including Pārvatī.[135][136] She is identifed with Devi, the Divine Mother, and with Shakti (divine energy).
Shiva and Parvati are the parents of Karthikeya and Ganesha. Karttikeya is popular in South India (especially in Tamil Nadu as TamilGod) by the names Subrahmanya and Murugan, and in North India he is more popular by the name Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.[137]
Nataraja
The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Tamil: நடராஜா, Sanskrit: naṭarāja, "Lord of Dance") is popular.[138][139] The names Nartaka ("Dancer") and Nityanarta ("Eternal Dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.[140] His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period.[141] In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: nṛtyamūrti) are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu Southern India in particular.[142]
Dakṣiṇāmūrti
Dakṣiṇāmūrti (Sanskrit: दक्षिणामूर्ति)[143] literally describes a form (mūrti) of Shiva facing south (dakṣiṇa). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom, and giving exposition on the shastras.[144] This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu, south Indian in character.[145] Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.[146]
Ardhanarishvara
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Ardhanari.png/220px-Ardhanari.png)
An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanarishvara shows him with one half of the body as male, and the other half as female.[147] According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form, (Ardhanārīśvara) is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", and not as "half-man, half-woman".[148]
Tripurāntaka
Shiva is often depicted in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, Tripura, of the Asuras.[149] Shiva's name Tripurāntaka (Sanskrit: त्रिपुरान्तक), "Ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.[150]
Lingam
Also see: Jyotirlinga
Apart from antropomorphic images of Shiva, the worship of Shiva in the form of a lingam is also important.[151][152][153] These are depicted in various forms. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column.
The five mantras
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Five_headed_Shiva.jpg/220px-Five_headed_Shiva.jpg)
Five is a sacred number for Shiva.[154] One of his most important mantras has five syllables (namaḥ śivāya).[155]
Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the pañcabrahmans:[156] As forms of god, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:[157]
These are represented as the five faces of Shiva, and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.[158][159] Doctrinal differences and possibly errors in transmission have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.[160] But the overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:
Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.[161]
According to the Pañcabrahma Upanishad:
One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of Śiva is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31)[162]
Relationships in the pantheon
Vishnu
During the Vedic period, both Vishnu and Shiva (as identified with Rudra) played relatively minor roles, but by the time of the Brahmanas (c. 1000-700 BCE) both were gaining ascendance.[163] By the Puranic period both deities had major cults that competed with one another for devotees.[164] Many stories developed showing different types of relationships between these two important deities.
Sectarian forces each presented their own preferred deity as supreme. Vishnu in his myths "becomes" Shiva.[165] The Vishnu Purana (4th c. CE) shows Vishnu awakening and becoming both Brahmā to create the world, and Shiva to destroy it.[166] Shiva also is viewed as a manifestation of Vishnu in the Bhagavata Purana.[167] In Shaivite myths, on the other hand, Shiva comes to the fore and acts independently and alone to create, preserve, and destroy the world.[168] In one Shaivite myth of the origin of the lingam, both Vishnu and Brahmā are revealed as emanations from Shiva's manifestation as a towering pillar of flame.[169] The Śatarudrīya, a Shaivite hymn, says that Shiva is "of the form of Vishnu".[170] Rivalry between the two cults is apparent in the story of Śarabha (also spelled "Sharabha"), the name of Shiva's incarnation in the composite form of man, bird, and beast. Shiva assumed that unusual form to chastise Vishnu in his hybrid form as Narasimha, the man-lion, who killed Hiranyakashipu, an ardent devotee of Shiva.[171][172]
Syncretic forces produced stories in which the two deities were shown in cooperative relationships and combined forms. Harihara is a the name of a combined deity form of both Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara).[173] This dual form, which is also called Harirudra, is mentioned in the Mahabharata.[174] An example of a collaboration story is one given to explain Shiva's epithet Mahābaleśvara, "Lord of Great Strength" (Maha = great, Bala = strength, Īśvara = Lord). This name refers to story in which Rāvaṇa was given a linga as a boon by Shiva on the condition that he carry it always. During his travels, he stopped near the present Deoghar in Bihar to purify himself and asked Vishnu in the guise of a Brahmin to hold the linga for him, but after some time Vishnu put it down on the ground and vanished. When Ravana returned, he could not move the linga, and it is said to remain there ever since.[175]
Avatars
Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have several incarnations, known as Avatars. Adi Shankara, the 8th-century philosopher of non-dualist Vedanta was named "Shankara" after Lord Shiva and is considered to have been an incarnation of Shiva.[176] In the Hanuman Chalisa Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.[177]
Worship
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/108shivalingas.jpg/200px-108shivalingas.jpg)
In Shaivism, Shiva is the God of all and is worshipped by all, from Devas (gods) such as Brahma, Indra, by Asuras(demons) like Bana, Ravana, by humans like Adi Shankara, Nayanars, by creatures such as Jatayu, an eagle, Vali, an ape, and the list goes on and on. Furthermore, people of different backgrounds and qualities worship the Good Lord with many temples having histories of even cranes, bees, elephants, (see Kalahasti), spiders, snakes, worshipping Shiva and getting blessed. It concludes that the Good Lord blesses anyone who worships him with sincere devotion as there is no discrimination based on the seeker. Although Lord Shiva loves His devotees equally as He does not ignore the tapasya of rakshasas, asuras or anybody, even those with bad intentions, He always finds ways to protect dharma and not allow any evil to triumph over good.
Major deities, rishis, planets, worshipped Shiva and established Shivalingas in various places.
- Pashupatinath Lord of all living beings, located at Kathmandu, Nepal.
- Somnath located at Prabhas Patan in Saurashtra in Gujarat.
- Dwarka in Gujarat is home to the Nageshwar Jyotirlinga temple.
- Mahakal, Ujjain (or Avanti) in Madhya Pradesh is home to the Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga temple.
- Srisailam - Srisailam near Kurnool enshrines Mallikarjuna in an ancient temple architecturally and sculpturally rich.
- Bhimashankar, in the Sahyadri range of Maharashtra, contains a Jyotirlinga shrine associated with Shiva destroying the demon Tripurasura.
- Omkareshwar in Madhya Pradesh is an island in the Narmada river, home to a Jyotirlinga shrine and the Amareshwar temple.
- Sukreswar Temple located on Sukreswar hill in Guwahati on the southern bank of Brahmaputra, with the ghat leading down to the river.
- Uma Nanda Temple located on the Peacock island in middle of River Brahmaputra in Guwahati.
- Kedarnath in Uttarakhand is the northernmost of the Jyotirlingas.
- Varanasi (Benares) in Uttar Pradesh is home to the Vishwanath Jyotirling temple.
- Trimbakeshwar, near Nashik in Maharashtra, has a Jyotirlinga shrine located associated with the origin of the Godavari river.
- Grishneshwar Jyotirlinga shrine, in Maharashtra, is located near the rock-cut temples of Ellora.
- Deoghar, in the Santhal Parganas region of Jharkhand, is home to the Vaidyanath Jyotirlinga temple.
- Ganesh worshipped Shiva at Pillayar patti (100 km from Madurai, India)
- The four Vedas worshipped Shiva at Thirumaraikaadu (i.e., Vedaaranyam near Tanjore)
- Skanda worshipped Shiva at Thiruchendur (200 km from Madurai, India)
- Rama (avatar of Vishnu) worshipped Shiva in Rameswaram(India)
- Vishnu worshipped Shiva atKanchipuram (Kachiswarar Temple)
- Parasurama (avatar of Vishnu) worshipped Shiva at Sreesailam, Karnataka and also at Chennai (Parasurama at Lingeshwara Temple, Iyanavaram)
- Goddess Lakshmi (wife of Vishnu) worshipped Shiva at Tirupachethi (50 km from Madurai).
- Surya worshipped Shiva at Srivilliputhur (Vaidhyanathaar Temple 100 km from Madurai)
- Brahma and Vishnu at Tiruvannamalai (180 km from Chennai)
- Brahma at Vrinchipuram (155 km from Chennai, 15 km from Vellore)
- Rahu and Ketu at Kaalahasthi (50 km from Tirupathi, Andhra Pradesh, India)
- Indra at Madurai (Soma Sundareeswar Temple)
- The Rishi Agastya at Papanasam (100 km from Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, India)
- Goddess Parvati at Kancheepuram (Ekambeeswarar Temple, 70 km from Chennai, India)
- Shani at Thirnallar (near Kaaraikal, Pondicherry)
- Moongod at Thingalur (near Tanjore)
- Shiva and Sani at Thirvidaimaruthoor (near Kumbakonam)
- Brahma at Kumbakoonam (Kumbeeswarar, near Tanjore)
- Ujjain Jyotirlinga shrine, in Madhya Pradesh.
- Lord Shiva at Trilochan, is famous with name of Trilochan Mhadev Temple, 30 km from varanasi , india
- Manjunatha-Lord of mist at Dharmasthala this one famous pilgrim of Dakshina Kannada,Karnataka.
- Nanjundeshwara -One who has gulped nanju-pain or Halahala in his throat or SriKanteshwara at Nanjangud near Mysore,Karnataka
- AtmaLinga at Gokarna ,Karnataka.
- Panchalingeshwara-5 Linga all of which is covered with sand but opens up at specific dates at Talakad ,Karnataka.
- Shivagange-Believed to be patalaGanga flowing by rishi Agastya worship. Bengalooru,Karnataka.
- Murudeshwara in Uttara Kannada,Karnataka.
- Kudalasangama in Basavakalyana,Karnataka.
Names of Shiva
In Hinduism, deities are called by many names, which describe them in different ways. These names often refer to specific stories about the deities, functions they perform, or ways of thinking about them. Study of these names is helpful to understanding deities from multiple points of view. Some names are used by more than one deity, so looking for names that uniquely describe a deity is one way to pinpoint their functions.
Sahasranamas
There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva.[178] The version appearing in Book 13 (Anuśāsanaparvan) of the Mahabharata is considered the kernel of this tradion.[179]
The eight versions analyzed by Ram Karan Sharma are:[180]
- 1. Mahabharata 13.17.30-150 (Anuśāsanaparvan Version)
- 2. Linga Purana (version 1, LP 1.65.54-168) is close to the Mahabharata Anuśāsanaparvan version.
- 3. Linga Purana (version 2, LP 1.98.27-159) has some passages in common with LP version 1, but also with other sources
- 4. Shivapurana 4.35.1-131.
- 5. Mahabharata (Śāntiparvan version). The critical edition of the Mahabharata does not include this version, relegating it to Appendix 28 to Śāntiparvan. It does appear in the text of the Gita Press edition as 12.284.68-180.
- 6. Vayu Purana (1.30.179-284) is almost the same as the Mahabharata Śāntiparvan version.
- 7. Brahmanda Purana (38.1.1-100) is almost the same as the Vayu Purana version.
- 8. Mahābhāgavata Upapurana (67.1-125) appears to be of comparatively recent origin.
Chamakam
The Shri Rudram Chamakam, also known as the Śatarudriya, is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.[181][182]
See also
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
Notes
- ^ For the name Kailāsagirivāsī (Sanskrit कैलासगिरिवासी), "With his abode on Mount Kailāsa", as a name appearing in the Shiva Sahasranama, see: Sharma 1996, p. 281.
- ^ Tattwananda, p. 45.
- ^ Kramrisch, p. 476.
- ^ For appearance of the name महादेव in the Shiva Sahasranama see: Sharma 1996, p. 297
- ^ Kramrisch, p. 477.
- ^ For appearance of the name महेश्वर in the Shiva Sahasranama see:Sharma 1996, p. 299.
- ^ For Parameśvara as "Supreme Lord" see: Kramrisch, p. 479.
- ^ Flood (1996), p. 17.
- ^ Flood (1996), p. 17.
- ^ Zimmer (1972) p. 124.
- ^ Apte, p. 919.
- ^ Macdonell, p. 314.
- ^ Macdonell, p. 314.
- ^ For use of the term śiva as an epithet for other Vedic deities, see: Chakravarti, p. 28.
- ^ Apte, p. 927
- ^ For the definition "Śaivism refers to the traditions which follow the teachings of Śiva (śivaśāna) and which focus on the deity Śiva... " see: Flood (1996), p. 149.
- ^ Flood (1996), p. 17
- ^ Keay, p.xxvii.
- ^ Keay, p. xxvii.
- ^ For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well-documented, see: Keay, p. 147.
- ^ Michaels, p. 215.
- ^ Courtright, p. 205.
- ^ For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: Mate, p. 162.
- ^ For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, see: Gupta, Preface, and p. 40.
- ^ 'Khandoba: Ursprung, Geschiche und Umvelt von Pastoralem Gotheiten in Maharashtra, Wiesbaden 1976 (German with English Synopsis) pp. 180-98, "Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva."
- ^ Courtright, p. 205.
- ^ For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p. 176.
- ^ For association of Kartikkeya as patron of thieves and worship by the Ramoshis as Khandoba, see: Gupta, p. 40.
- ^ Courtright, p. 205.
- ^ Mate, p. 176.
- ^ Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.
- ^ For translation of paśupati as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.
- ^ For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 in: Flood (1996), p. 29.
- ^ Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.
- ^ Flood (2003), pp. 204-205.
- ^ Keay, p. 14.
- ^ Michaels, p. 216.
- ^ For dating based on "cumulative evidence" see: Oberlies, p. 158.
- ^ Doniger, pp. 221-223.
- ^ Michaels, p. 217.
- ^ For Śarva as a name of Shiva see: Apte, p. 910.
- ^ For archer and arrow associations see Kramrisch, Chapter 2, and for the arrow as an "essential attribute" see: Kramrisch, p. 32.
- ^ Sharma 1996, p. 306
- ^ For root śarv- see: Apte, p. 910.
- ^ Sharma 1996, p. 306
- ^ Chidbhavananda, p. 33.
- ^ Chidbhavananda, p. 33.
- ^ For translation of Bāṇahasta as "Armed with arrows in his hands") see: Sharma 1996, p. 294.
- ^ For Shiva being identified with Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Vāyu, and others see: Chakravarti, p. 70.
- ^ For general statement of the close relationship, and example shared epithets, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.
- ^ For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas, see: Kramrisch, pp. 15-19.
- ^ For quotation "An important factor in the process of Rudra's growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as Rudra-Śiva." see: Chakravarti, p. 17.
- ^ For translation from Nirukta 10.7, see: Sarup (1927), p. 155.
- ^ Kramrisch, p. 18.
- ^ For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in epithets Sasipañjara and Tivaṣīmati see: Sivaramamurti, p. 45.
- ^ [1]
- ^ For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 89.
- ^ RV 8.49; 10.155.
- ^ For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.
- ^ For text of RV 2.20.3a as स नो युवेन्द्रो जोहूत्रः सखा शिवो नरामस्तु पाता । and translation as "May that young adorable Indra, ever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector of us, his worshipper" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.
- ^ For text of RV 6.45.17 as यो गृणतामिदासिथापिरूती शिवः सखा । स त्वं न इन्द्र मृलय ॥ and translation as "Indra, who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 91, volume 3.
- ^ For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O Indra, favour us" see: Griffith 1973, p. 310.
- ^ For text of RV 8.93.3 as स न इन्द्रः सिवः सखाश्चावद् गोमद्यवमत् । उरूधारेव दोहते ॥ and translation as "May Indra, our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.
- ^ For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see: Chakravarti, p. 89.
- ^ RV 7.19.
- ^ For the lack of warlike connections and difference between Indra and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 8.
- ^ For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: Flood (1996), p. 151.
- ^ For a review of theories about the meaning of tryambaka, see: Chakravarti, pp.37-39.
- ^ For usage of the word ambaka in classical Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see: Chakravarti, pp. 38-39.
- ^ For translation of Tryambakam as "having three mothers" and as an epithet of Rudra, see: Kramrisch, p. 483.
- ^ For vedic Sanskrit meaning and "having three mothers" as the translation of Max Müller and Macdonell, see: Chakravarti, pp. 37-38.
- ^ For discussion of the problems in translation of this name, and the hypothesis regarding the Ambikās see: Hopkins (1968), p. 220.
- ^ For the Ambikā variant, see: Chakravarti, pp. 17, 37.
- ^ Sharma 1996, p. 290
- ^ See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31.
- ^ For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: Flood (1996), p. 78.
- ^ Kramrisch, p. 473.
- ^ For the moon on the forehead see: Chakravarti, p. 109.
- ^ For śekhara as crest or crown, see: Apte, p. 926.
- ^ For Chandraśekhara as an iconographic form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 56.
- ^ For translation "Having the moon as his crest" see: Kramrisch, p. 472.
- ^ For the moon iconography as marking the rise of Rudra-Shiva, see: Chakravarti, p. 58.
- ^ For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon, and Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: Chakravarti, pp. 57-58.
- ^ Chidbhavananda, p. 22.
- ^ For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted hair" see: Sharma 1996, p. 279.
- ^ Kramrisch, p. 475.
- ^ For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of the kaparda hair style, see, Macdonell, p. 62.
- ^ For alternate stories about this feature, and use of the name Gaṅgādhara see: Chakravarti, pp. 59 and 109.
- ^ For description of the Gaṅgādhara form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 8.
- ^ For Shiva supporting Gaṅgā upon his head, see: Kramrisch, p. 473.
- ^ Flood (1996), p. 151.
- ^ Flood (1996), pp. 92, 161.
- ^ Flood (1996), p. 161.
- ^ Chidbhavananda, p. 23.
- ^ Flood (1996), p. 151.
- ^ Flood (1996), p. 151
- ^ Flood (1996), p. 151.
- ^ Michaels, p. 218.
- ^ For definition and shape, see: Apte, p. 461.
- ^ Jansen, p. 44.
- ^ Jansen, p. 25.
- ^ For use by Kāpālikas, see: Apte, p. 461.
- ^ For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull (Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: Chakravarti, pp. 99-105.
- ^ For spelling of alternate proper names Nandī and Nandin see: Stutley, p. 98.
- ^ Sharma 1996, p. 291
- ^ Kramrisch, p. 479.
- ^ Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna L. Dallapiccola
- ^ Flood (1996), p. 151.
- ^ For identification of Mount Kailāsa as the central linga, see: Stutley (1985), p. 62.
- ^ Keay, p. 33.
- ^ For quotation "Śiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: Flood (1996), p. 150.
- ^ For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later cult forms, see: Chakravarti, p. 7.
- ^ For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata, see: Sharma 1988, p. 20-21.
- ^ For rud- meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: Kramrisch, p. 5.
- ^ Citation to M. Mayrhofer, Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary, s.v. "rudra", is provided in: Kramrisch, p. 5.
- ^ Sharma 1996, p. 301.
- ^ Sharma 1996, p. 314.
- ^ Kramrisch, p. 473.
- ^ For translation of Mahākāla as "Time beyond time" see: Kramrisch, p. 476.
- ^ For the name Kāla translated as "time; death", see: Kramrisch, p. 474.
- ^ The name Kāla appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(The Supreme Lord of) Time". See: Sharma 1996, p. 280.
- ^ For भैरव as one of the eight forms of Shiva, and translation of the adjectival form as "terrible" or "frightful" see: Apte, p. 727, left column.
- ^ For Bhairava form as associated with terror see: Kramrisch, p. 471.
- ^ Sharma 1996, p. 306
- ^ Kramrisch, p. 481.
- ^ For adoption of the name Śaṇkara by Shankaracarya see: Kramrisch, p. 481.
- ^ For dating Shankaracarya as 788-820 CE see: Flood (1996), p. 92.
- ^ For translation of Śambhu as "Causing Happiness" see: Kramrisch, p. 481.
- ^ For speculation on the possible etymology of this name, see: Chakravarti, pp. 28 (note 7), and p. 177.
- ^ For the contrast beteween ascetic and householder depictions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 150-151.
- ^ For Shiva's representation as a yogin, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.
- ^ For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga, see, Chakravarti, pp. 23, 32, 150.
- ^ For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.
- ^ For Umāpati, Umākānta and Umādhava as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: Sharma 1996, p. 278.
- ^ For Umā as the oldest name, and variants including Pārvatī, see: Chakravarti, p. 40.
- ^ For Pārvatī identified as the wife of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 479.
- ^ For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: Gupta, Preface.
- ^ For description of the nataraja form see: Jansen, pp. 110-111.
- ^ For interpretation of the naṭarāja form see: Zimmer, pp. 151-157.
- ^ For names Nartaka (Sanskrit नर्तक) and Nityanarta (Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) as names of Shiva, see: Sharma 1996, p. 289.
- ^ For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.
- ^ For popularity of the nṛtyamūrti and prevalence in South India, see: Chakravarti, p. 63.
- ^ For iconographic description of the Dakṣiṇāmūrti form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 47.
- ^ For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: Kramrisch, p. 472.
- ^ For characterization of Dakṣiṇāmūrti as a mostly south Indian form, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.
- ^ For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as Dakṣiṇāmūrti, see: Chakravarti, p. 155.
- ^ Goldberg, p. 1.
- ^ Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.
- ^ For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p. 46.
- ^ For the Tripurāntaka form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), pp. 34, 49.
- ^ Michaels, p. 216.
- ^ Flood (1996), p. 29.
- ^ Tattwananda, pp. 49-52.
- ^ For five as a sacred number, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
- ^ For the five syllable mantra see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
- ^ For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: Kramrisch, pp. 182-189.
- ^ For distinct iconography, see Kramrisch, p. 185.
- ^ For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
- ^ For the epithets pañcamukha and pañcavaktra, both of which mean "five faces", as epithets of Śiva, see: Apte, p. 578, middle column.
- ^ For variation in attributions among texts, see: Kramrisch, p. 187.
- ^ Kramrisch, p. 184.
- ^ Quotation from Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31 is from: Kramrisch, p. 182.
- ^ For relatively minor position in Vedic times, and rise in progress by 1000-700 BCE see: Zimmer (1946), p. 125, note 2.
- ^ For the rise in popularity of Shiva and Vishnu, and the role of Puranas in promoting sectarian positions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 110-111.
- ^ For Visnu becoming Shiva in Vaishnava myths, see: Zimmer (1946), p. 125.
- ^ For Vishnu Purana dating of 4th c. CE and role of Vishnu as supreme deity, see: Flood (1996), p. 111.
- ^ For identification of Shiva as a manifestation of Vishnu see: Bhagavata Purana 4.30.23, 5.17.22-23, 10.14.19.
- ^ For predominant role of Shiva in some myths, see: Zimmer (1946), p. 128.
- ^ For the lingodbhava myth, and Vishnu and Brahmā as emanations of Shiva, see: Zimmer (1946), pp. 128-129.
- ^ For translation of the epithet शिपिविष्ट (IAST: śipiviṣṭa) as "salutation to him of the form of Vishṇu" included in the fifth anuvāka, and comment that this epithet "links Śiva with Vishṇu" see: Sivaramamurti, pp. 21, 64.
- ^ For Śarabha as an "animal symplegma" form of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 481.
- ^ For incarnation in composite form as man, bird, and beast to chastise Narasimha, see: Chakravarti, p. 49.
- ^ Chakravarti, pp. 54-55.
- ^ For Harirudra citation to Mbh. III.39.76f see: Hopkins (1969), p. 221.
- ^ For the story of Rāvaṇa and the Mahābaleśvara linga see: Chakravarti, p. 168.
- ^ Padma Purana 6.236.7-11
- ^ Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5
- ^ Sharma 1996, p. viii-ix
- ^ This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda, who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly clairify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using. See Chidbhavananda, p.5.
- ^ Sharma 1996, p. viii-xxviii
- ^ For an overview of the Śatarudriya see: Kramrisch, pp. 71-74.
- ^ For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and commentary see: Sivaramamurti (1976).
References
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/88/Shivalinga.png/220px-Shivalinga.png)
- Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965), The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary (Fourth revised and enlarged ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 81-208-0567-4
- Arya, Ravi Prakash & K. L. Joshi. Ṛgveda Saṃhitā: Sanskrit Text, English Translation. Parimal Publications, Delhi, 2001, ISBN 81-7110-138-7 (Set of four volumes). Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45; 2003 reprint: 81-7020-070-9.
- Chakravarti, Mahadev (1994), The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through The Ages (Second Revised ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0053-2
- Chidbhavananda, Swami (1997). Siva Sahasranama Stotram: With Navavali, Introduction, and English Rendering. Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam. ISBN 81-208-0567-4.
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(help) (Third edition). The version provided by Chidbhavananda is from chapter 17 of the Anuśāsana Parva of the Mahābharata. - Courtright, Paul B. (1985). Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN ISBN 0-19-505742-2.
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(help) - Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.
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(help) - Flood, Gavin (Editor) (2003). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-4051-3251-5.
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(help) - Goldberg, Ellen (2002). The Lord Who is Half Woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-5326-X.
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(help) - Griffith, T. H. (1973), The Hymns of the Ṛgveda (New Revised ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0046-X
- Gupta, Shakti M. (1988). Karttikeya: The Son of Shiva. Bombay: Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-7039-186-5.
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(help) - Hopkins, E. Washburn (1969). Epic Mythology. New York: Biblo and Tannen.
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(help) Originally published in 1915. - Jansen, Eva Rudy (1993). The Book of Hindu Imagery. Havelte, Holland: Binkey Kok Publications BV. ISBN 90-74597-07-6.
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(help) - Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0.
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(help) - Kramrisch, Stella (1981). The Presence of Śiva. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01930-4.
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(help) - Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1996). A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. ISBN 81-215-0715-4.
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(help) - Mate, M. S. (1988). Temples and Legends of Maharashtra. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
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(help) - Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08953-1.
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(help) - Sarup, Lakshman (1920–1927). The Nighaṇṭu and The Nirukta.
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: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help)CS1 maint: date format (link) Reprint: Motilal Banarsidass, 2002, ISBN 81-208-1381-2. - Sharma, Ram Karan (1988), Elements of Poetry in the Mahābhārata (Second ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0544-5
- Sharma, Ram Karan (1996), Śivasahasranāmāṣṭakam: Eight Collections of Hymns Containing One Thousand and Eight Names of Śiva, Delhi: Nag Publishers, ISBN 81-7081-350-6 This work compares eight versions of the Śivasahasranāmāstotra with comparative analysis and Śivasahasranāmākoṣa (A Dictionary of Names). The text of the eight versions is given in Sanskrit.
- Sivaramamurti, C. (1976). Śatarudrīya: Vibhūti of Śiva's Iconography. Delhi: Abhinav Publications.
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(help) - Stutley, Margaret (1985). The Illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Iconography.
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(help) First Indian Edition: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2003, ISBN 81-215-1087-2. - Tattwananda, Swami (1984). Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship. Calcutta: Firma KLM Private Ltd.
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(help) First revised edition. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1946). Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01778-6.
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(help) First Princeton-Bollingen printing, 1972. - Hanuman Chalisa. Chennai, India: Sri Ramakrishna Math. 1985. ISBN 81-7120-086-9.
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(help)