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'''Ramakrishna''' (pronounced: {{IPA-bn|''Ramkṛiṣṇo Pôromôhongśo''}} {{Audio|Ramakrishna.ogg|listen}}) (18 February 1836 – 16 August 1886), born '''Gadadhar Chattopadhyay'''<ref name="ninian">Smart, Ninian ''The World’s Religions'' (1998) p.409, Cambridge</ref> ({{IPA-bn|''Gôdadhor Chôṭṭopaddhae''}}), was a famous mystic of 19th-century India.<ref name="Feuerstein">
'''Ramakrishna''' ({{lang-bn|}} রামকৃষ্ণ পরমহংস {{Audio|Ramakrishna.ogg|''Ramkṛiṣṇo Pôromôhongśo}}) (18 February 1836 – 16 August 1886), born '''Gadadhar Chattopadhyay'''<ref name="ninian">Smart, Ninian ''The World’s Religions'' (1998) p.409, Cambridge</ref> ({{lang-bn|গদাধর চট্টোপাধ্যায়}} ''Gôdadhor Chôṭṭopaddhae''), was a famous mystic of 19th-century India.<ref name="Feuerstein">
{{Cite book
{{Cite book
| last = Georg
| last = Georg

Revision as of 19:15, 11 July 2012

For other uses, see Ramakrishna (disambiguation).
Ramakrishna
Ramakrishna at Dakshineswar
Personal
Born
Gadadhar Chattopadhyay

(1836-02-18)18 February 1836
Kamarpukur, West Bengal, India
Died16 August 1886(1886-08-16) (aged 50)
Garden House in Cossipore
NationalityIndian
HonorsParamahansa
** Ramakrishna's birthday is observed on Phalgun Shukla Dwitiya as per Hindu lunar calendar.
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Ramakrishna ([] Error: {{Lang-xx}}: no text (help) রামকৃষ্ণ পরমহংস Ramkṛiṣṇo Pôromôhongśoⓘ) (18 February 1836 – 16 August 1886), born Gadadhar Chattopadhyay[2] (Bengali: গদাধর চট্টোপাধ্যায় Gôdadhor Chôṭṭopaddhae), was a famous mystic of 19th-century India.[3] His religious school of thought led to the formation of the Ramakrishna Mission by his chief disciple Swami Vivekananda[4][5][6][7] – both were influential figures in the Bengali Renaissance[8] as well as the Hindu renaissance during the 19th and 20th centuries.[9][10][11] Many of his disciples and devotees believe he was an Avatar or incarnation of God.[12] He is also referred to as "Paramahamsa" by his devotees, as such he is popularly known as Ramkrishna Paramhamsa.

Ramakrishna was born in a poor Brahmin Vaishnava family in rural Bengal. He became a priest of the Dakshineswar Kali Temple, dedicated to the goddess Kali, which had the influence of the main strands of Bengali bhakti tradition.[2] The most widely known amongst his first spiritual teachers was an ascetic woman skilled in Tantra and Vaishnava bhakti.[13] Later an Advaita Vedantin ascetic taught him non-dual meditation, and according to Ramakrishna, he experienced nirvikalpa samadhi under his guidance. Ramakrishna also experimented with other religions, notably Islam and Christianity, and said that they all lead to the same God.[2] Though he quit conventional education, he attracted the attention of the middle class, upper middle class and numerous Bengali intellectuals.[citation needed]

Biography

Birth and childhood

Ramakrishna was born on 18 February 1836, in the village of Kamarpukur, in the Hooghly district of West Bengal, into a very poor but pious, orthodox brahmin family.[14] Located far from the railroad, Kamarpukur was untouched by the glamour of the city and contained rice fields, tall palms, royal banyans, a few lakes, and two cremation grounds.[15] His parents were Kshudiram Chattopâdhyâya and Chandramani Devî. According to his followers, Ramakrishna's parents experienced supernatural incidents, visions before his birth. His father Khudiram had a dream in Gaya in which Lord Gadadhara (a form of Vishnu), said that he would be born as his son. Chandramani Devi is said to have had a vision of light entering her womb from Shiva's temple.[16][17]

The small house at Kamarpukur where Ramakrishna lived (centre). The family shrine is on the left, birthplace temple on the right

Ramakrishna attended a village school with some regularity for 12 years,[18] he later rejected the traditional schooling saying that he was not interested in a "bread-winning education".[19][20][21] Kamarpukur, being a transit-point in well-established pilgrimage routes to Puri, brought him into contact with renunciates and holy men.[22] He became well-versed in the Puranas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Bhagavata Purana, hearing them from wandering monks and the Kathaks—a class of men in ancient India who preached and sang the Purāṇas.[20][23] He could read and write in Bengali.[20] While the official biographies write that the name Ramakrishna was given by Mathura Biswas—chief patron at Dakshineswar Kali Temple, it has also been suggested that this name was given by his own parents.[24]

Ramakrishna describes his first spiritual ecstasy at the age of six: while walking along the paddy fields, a flock of white cranes flying against a backdrop of dark thunder clouds caught his vision. He reportedly became so absorbed by this scene that he lost outward consciousness and experienced indescribable joy in that state.[25][26] Ramakrishna reportedly had experiences of similar nature a few other times in his childhood—while worshipping the goddess Vishalakshi, and portraying god Shiva in a drama during Shivaratri festival. From his tenth or eleventh year on, the trances became common, and by the final years of his life, Ramakrishna's samādhi periods occurred almost daily.[26][27]

Ramakrishna's father died in 1843, after which time family responsibilities fell on his elder brother Ramkumar. This loss drew him closer to his mother, and he spent his time in household activities and daily worship of the household deities and became more involved in contemplative activities such as reading the sacred epics.[28] When Ramakrishna was in his teens, the family's financial position worsened. Ramkumar started a Sanskrit school in Calcutta and also served as a priest. Ramakrishna moved to Calcutta in 1852 with Ramkumar to assist in the priestly work.[14][20][29]

Priest at Dakshineswar Kali Temple

Dakshineswar Kāli Temple, where Ramakrishna spent a major portion of his adult life.
Bhavatārini Kali, the deity that Ramakrishna worshipped.

In 1855 Ramkumar was appointed as the priest of Dakshineswar Kali Temple, built by Rani Rashmoni—a rich woman of Calcutta who belonged to the kaivarta community.[30] Ramakrishna, along with his nephew Hriday, became assistants to Ramkumar, with Ramakrishna given the task of decorating the deity. When Ramkumar died in 1856, Ramakrishna took his place as the priest of the Kali temple.[31]

After Ramkumar's death Ramakrishna became more contemplative. He began to look upon the image of the goddess Kali as his mother and the mother of the universe. Ramakrishna reportedly had a vision of the goddess Kali as the universal Mother,[14] which he described as "... houses, doors, temples and everything else vanished altogether; as if there was nothing anywhere! And what I saw was an infinite shoreless sea of light; a sea that was consciousness. However far and in whatever direction I looked, I saw shining waves, one after another, coming towards me."[32]

Marriage

Sarada Devi (1853–1920), wife and spiritual counterpart of Ramakrishna

Rumors spread to Kamarpukur that Ramakrishna had become unstable as a result of his spiritual exercises at Dakshineswar. Ramakrishna's mother and his elder brother Rameswar decided to get Ramakrishna married, thinking that marriage would be a good steadying influence upon him—by forcing him to accept responsibility and to keep his attention on normal affairs rather than his spiritual practices and visions.[33] Ramakrishna reportedly mentioned that they could find the bride at the house of Ramchandra Mukherjee in Jayrambati, three miles to the north-west of Kamarpukur. The five-year-old bride, Saradamani Mukhopadhyaya (later known as Sarada Devi) was found and the marriage was duly solemnised in 1859.[34] Ramakrishna was 23 at this point, but the age difference was typical for 19th century rural Bengal.[35] They later spent three months together in Kamarpukur. Sarada Devi was fourteen while Ramakrishna was thirty-two. Ramakrishna became a very influential figure in Sarada’s life, and she became a strong follower of his teachings. After the marriage, Sarada stayed at Jayrambati and joined Ramakrishna in Dakshineswar at the age of 18.[36]

By the time his bride joined him, Ramakrishna had already embraced the monastic life of a sannyasi; as a result, the marriage was never consummated.[33][37] As a priest Ramakrishna performed the ritual ceremony—the Shodashi Puja–where Sarada Devi was made to sit in the seat of goddess Kali, and worshiped as the Divine mother.[38] Ramakrishna regarded Sarada as the Divine Mother in person, addressing her as the Holy Mother, and it was by this name that she was known to Ramakrishna's disciples. Sarada Devi outlived Ramakrishna by 34 years and played an important role in the nascent religious movement.[37][39]

Religious practices and teachers

After his marriage Ramakrishna returned to Calcutta and resumed the charges of the temple again, and continued his sadhana. According to his official biographers, he continued his sadhana under teachers of Tantra, Vedanta and Vaishnava.

Bhairavi Brahmani and Tantra

See also: Ramakrishna's views on Tantra Sadhana

In 1861, Ramakrishna accepted Bhairavi Brahmani, an orange-robed, middle-aged female ascetic, as a teacher. She carried with her the Raghuvir Shila, a stone icon representing Ram and all Vaishnava deities.[13] She was thoroughly conversant with the texts of Gaudiya Vaishnavism and practiced Tantra.[13] According to the Bhairavi, Ramakrishna was experiencing phenomena that accompany mahabhava—the supreme attitude of loving devotion towards the divine[40]–and quoting from the bhakti shastras, she said that other religious figures like Radha and Chaitanya had similar experiences.[41]

The Bhairavi initiated Ramakrishna into Tantra. Tantrism focuses on the worship of shakti and the object of Tantric training is to transcend the barriers between the holy and unholy as a means of achieving liberation and to see all aspects of the natural world as manifestations of the divine shakti.[33][42] Under her guidance, Ramakrishna went through sixty four major tantric sadhanas which were completed in 1863.[40] He began with mantra rituals such as japa and purascarana and many other rituals designed to purify the mind and establish self-control. He later proceeded towards tantric sadhanas, which generally include a set of heterodox practices called vamachara (left-hand path), which utilize as a means of liberation, activities like eating of parched grain, fish and meat along with drinking of wine and sexual intercourse.[40] According to Ramakrishna and his biographers, Ramakrishna did not directly participate in the last two of those activities, all that he needed was a suggestion of them to produce the desired result.[40] Ramakrishna acknowledged the left-hand tantric path, though it had "undesirable features", as one of the "valid roads to God-realization", he consistently cautioned his devotees and disciples against associating with it.[43][44] The Bhairavi also taught Ramakrishna the kumari-puja, a form of ritual in which the Virgin Goddess is worshiped symbolically in the form of a young girl.[34] Under the tutelage of the Bhairavi, Ramakrishna also learnt Kundalini Yoga.[40] The Bhairavi, with the yogic techniques and the tantra played an important part in the initial spiritual development of Ramakrishna.[2][45][46]

Vaishnava Bhakti

The Vaishnava Bhakti traditions speak of five different moods,[47] referred to as bhāvas—different attitudes that a devotee can take up to express his love for God. They are: śānta, the “peaceful attitude”; dāsya, the attitude of a servant; sakhya, the attitude of a friend; vātsalya, the attitude of a mother toward her child; and madhura, the attitude of a woman towards her lover.[48][49]

At some point in the period between his vision of Kali and his marriage, Ramakrishna practiced dāsya bhāva, during which he worshiped Rama with the attitude of Hanuman, the monkey-god, who is considered to be the ideal devotee and servant of Rama. According to Ramakrishna, towards the end of this sadhana, he had a vision of Sita, the consort of Rama, merging into his body.[48][50]

In 1864, Ramakrishna practiced vātsalya bhāva under a Vaishnava guru Jatadhari.[51] During this period, he worshipped a metal image of Ramlālā (Rama as a child) in the attitude of a mother. According to Ramakrishna, he could feel the presence of child Rama as a living God in the metal image.[52][53]

Ramakrishna later engaged in the practice of madhura bhāva— the attitude of the Gopis and Radha towards Krishna.[48] During the practise of this bhava, Ramakrishna dressed himself in women's attire for several days and regarded himself as one of the Gopis of Vrindavan. According to Sri Ramakrishna, madhura bhava is practised to root out the idea of sex, which is seen as an impediment in spiritual life.[54] According to Ramakrishna, towards the end of this sadhana, he attained savikalpa samadhi—vision and union with Krishna.[55]

Ramakrishna visited Nadia, the home of Chaitanya and Nityananda, the 15th-century founders of Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava bhakti. According to Ramakrishna, he had an intense vision of two young boys merging into his body.[55] Earlier, after his vision of Kali, he is said to have cultivated the Santa bhava—the child attitude — towards Kali.[48]

Totapuri and Vedanta

The Panchavati and the hut where Ramakrishna performed his advaitic sadhana. The mud hut has been replaced by a brick one.

In 1865, Ramakrishna was initiated into sannyasa by Tota Puri, an itinerant monk who trained Ramakrishna in Advaita Vedanta, the Hindu philosophy which emphasizes non-dualism.[56][57]

Totapuri first guided Ramakrishna through the rites of sannyasa—renunciation of all ties to the world. Then he instructed him in the teaching of advaita—that "Brahman alone is real, and the world is illusory; I have no separate existence; I am that Brahman alone."[58] Under the guidance of Totapuri, Ramakrishna reportedly experienced nirvikalpa samadhi, which is considered to be the highest state in spiritual realisation.[59]

Totapuri stayed with Ramakrishna for nearly eleven months and instructed him further in the teachings of advaita. Ramakrishna said that this period of nirvikalpa samadhi came to an end when he received a command from the Mother Kali to "remain in Bhavamukha; for the enlightenment of the people". Bhavamukha being a state of existence intermediate between samādhi and normal consciousness.[60]

Islam and Christianity

In 1866, Govinda Roy, a Hindu guru who practiced Sufism, initiated Ramakrishna into Islam. Ramakrishna said that he "devoutly repeated the name of Allah, wore a cloth like the Arab Moslems, said their prayer five times daily, and felt disinclined even to see images of the Hindu gods and goddesses, much less worship them—for the Hindu way of thinking had disappeared altogether from my mind."[61] According to Ramakrishna, after three days of practice he had a vision of a "radiant personage with grave countenance and white beard resembling the Prophet and merging with his body".[62]

At the end of 1873 he started the practice of Christianity, when his devotee Shambu Charan Mallik read the Bible to him. Ramakrishna said that for several days he was filled with Christian thoughts and no longer thought of going to the Kali temple. Ramakrishna describes of a vision in which the picture of Madonna and Child Jesus became alive and had a vision in which Jesus merged with his body. In his own room amongst other divine pictures was one of Christ, and he burnt incense before it morning and evening. There was also a picture showing Jesus Christ saving St Peter from drowning in the water.[55][63]

Arrival of followers

Ramakrishna in bhava samadhi at the house of Keshab Chandra Sen. He is seen supported by his nephew Hriday and surrounded by brahmo devotees.

In 1875, Ramakrishna met the influential Brahmo Samaj leader Keshab Chandra Sen.[64][65] Keshab had accepted Christianity, and had separated from the Adi Brahmo Samaj. Formerly, Keshab had rejected idolatry, but under the influence of Ramakrishna he accepted Hindu polytheism and established the "New Dispensation" (Nava Vidhan) religious movement, based on Ramakrishna's principles—"Worship of God as Mother", "All religions as true" and "Assimilation of Hindu polytheism into Brahmoism".[66] Keshab also publicized Ramakrishna's teachings in the journals of New Dispensation over a period of several years,[67] which was instrumental in bringing Ramakrishna to the attention of a wider audience, especially the Bhadralok (English-educated classes of Bengal) and the Europeans residing in India.[68][69]

Following Keshab, other Brahmos such as Vijaykrishna Goswami started to admire Ramakrishna, propagate his ideals and reorient their socio-religious outlook. Many prominent people of Calcutta—Pratap Chandra Mazumdar, Shivanath Shastri and Trailokyanath Sanyal—began visiting him during this time (1871–1885). Mozoomdar wrote the first English biography of Ramakrishna, entitled The Hindu Saint in the Theistic Quarterly Review (1879), which played a vital role in introducing Ramakrishna to Westerners like the German indologist Max Müller.[67] Newspapers reported that Ramakrishna was spreading "Love" and "Devotion" among the educated classes of Calcutta and that he had succeeded in reforming the character of some youths whose morals had been corrupt.[67]

Ramakrishna also had interactions with Debendranath Tagore, the father of Rabindranath Tagore, and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, a renowned social worker. He had also met Swami Dayananda.[64] Ramakrishna is considered as one of the main contributors to the Bengali Renaissance.[8][9] However, some Brahmos like Upadhyay Brahmabandhab disapproved of his avatarahood and ascetic renunciation and considered Ramakrishna's samadhi as a nervous malady.[64][70]

Among the Europeans who were influenced by Ramakrishna was Principal Dr. W.W. Hastie of the Scottish Church College, Calcutta.[71] In the course of explaining the word trance in the poem The Excursion by William Wordsworth, Hastie told his students that if they wanted to know its "real meaning", they should go to "Ramakrishna of Dakshineswar." This prompted some of his students, including Narendranath Dutta (later Swami Vivekananda), to visit Ramakrishna.[67]

Devotees and disciples

Main articles: Disciples of Ramakrishna and Swami Vivekananda
Some Monastic Disciples (L to R): Trigunatitananda, Shivananda, Vivekananda, Turiyananda, Brahmananda. Below Saradananda.
Mahendranath Gupta, a householder devotee and the author of Sri-Sri-Ramakrisna-kathamrta.

Most of Ramakrishna's prominent disciples came between 1879–1885, and were influenced by his style of preaching and instruction.[39]

His chief disciples consisted of:[53]

As his name spread, an ever-shifting crowd of all classes and castes visited Ramakrishna. According to Kathamrita it included, childless widows, young school-boys, aged pensioners, Hindu scholars and religious figures, men betrayed by lovers, people with suicidal tendencies, small-time businessmen, and people "dreading the grind of samsaric life".[74] Ramakrishna's primary biographers, describe him as talkative. According to the biographers, for hours Ramakrishna would reminisce about his own eventful spiritual life, tell tales, explain Vedantic doctrines with extremely mundane illustrations, raise questions and answer them himself, crack jokes, sing songs, and mimic the ways of all types of worldly people, keeping the visitors were enthralled.[75][76] In preparation for monastic life, Ramakrishna ordered his monastic disciples to beg their food from door to door without distinction of caste. He gave them the saffron robe, the sign of the Sanyasi, and initiated them with Mantra Deeksha.[76]

Last days

The disciples and devotees at Ramakrishna's funeral

In the beginning of 1885 Ramakrishna suffered from clergyman's throat, which gradually developed into throat cancer. He was moved to Shyampukur near Calcutta, where some of the best physicians of the time, including Dr. Mahendralal Sarkar, were engaged. When his condition aggravated he was relocated to a large garden house at Cossipore on December 11, 1885.[77]

During his last days, he was looked after by his monastic disciples and Sarada Devi. Ramakrishna was advised by the doctors to keep the strictest silence, but ignoring their advice, he incessantly conversed with visitors.[68] According to traditional accounts, before his death, Ramakrishna transferred his spiritual powers to Vivekananda[77] and reassured Vivekananda of his avataric status.[77][78] Ramakrishna asked Vivekananda to look after the welfare of the disciples, saying, "keep my boys together"[79] and asked him to "teach them".[79] Ramakrishna also asked other monastic disciples to look upon Vivekananda as their leader.[77] Ramakrishna's condition gradually worsened and he expired in the early morning hours of August 16, 1886 at the Cossipore garden house. According to his disciples, this was mahasamadhi.[77] After the death of their master, the monastic disciples led by Vivekananda formed a fellowship at a half-ruined house at Baranagar near the river Ganges, with the financial assistance of the householder disciples. This became the first Math or monastery of the disciples who constituted the first Ramakrishna Order.[39]

Biographical sources

Main article: Books on Ramakrishna

The principal source for Ramakrishna's teaching is Mahendranath Gupta's Sri Sri Ramakrishna Kathamrita and is regarded as a Bengali classic.[80][81] Kripal calls it "the central text of the tradition". The text was published in five volumes from 1902 to 1932. Based on Gupta's diary notes, each of the five volumes purports to document Ramakrishna's life from 1882–1886.[82]

The most popular translation of the Kathamrita is The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna by Swami Nikhilananda. Nikhilananda's translation rearranged the scenes in the five volumes of the Kathamrita into a linear sequence.[83] Malcolm Mclean[84] and Jeffrey Kripal argue that the translation is unreliable.[83] Philosopher Lex Hixon writes that the Gospel is "spiritually authentic" and "powerful rendering of the Kathamrita"[85]

Teachings

Main article: Teachings of Ramakrishna

Ramakrishna's teachings were imparted in rustic Bengali, using stories and parables.[2] These teachings made a powerful impact on Calcutta's intellectuals, despite the fact that his preachings were far removed from issues of modernism or national independence.[86] His spiritual movement indirectly aided nationalism, as it rejected caste distinctions and religious prejudices.[86]

In the Calcutta scene of the mid to late nineteenth century, Ramakrishna was opinionated on the subject of Chakri. Chakri can be described as a type of low-paying servitude done by educated men—typically government or commerce-related clerical positions. On a basic level, Ramakrishna saw this system as a corrupt form of European social organization that forced educated men to be servants not only to their bosses at the office but also to their wives at home. What Ramakrishna saw as the primary detriment of Chakri, however, was that it forced workers into a rigid, impersonal clock-based time structure. He saw the imposition of strict adherence to each second on the watch as a roadblock to spirituality. Despite this, however, Ramakrishna demonstrated that Bhakti could be practiced as an inner retreat to experience solace in the face of Western-style discipline and often discrimination in the workplace.[87]

Ramakrishna emphasised God-realisation as the supreme goal of all living beings.[1] Ramakrishna taught that kamini-kanchana is an obstacle to God-realization. Kamini-kanchan literally translates to "woman and gold." Partha Chatterjee wrote that figure of a woman stands for concepts or entities that have "little do do with women in actuality" and "the figure of woman-and-gold signified the enemy with: that part of one's own self which was susceptible to the temptations of ever-unreliable worldly success."[88] Carl T. Jackson interprets kamini-kanchana to refer to the idea of sex and the idea of money as delusions which prevent people from realizing God.[89] Jeffrey Kripal translates the phrase as "lover-and-gold" and associates it with Ramakrishna's alleged disgust for women as lovers.[90] Kripal's translation is disputed by Swami Tyagananda, who argues this to be a "linguistic misconstruction."[91] Ramakrishna also cautioned his women disciples against purusa-kanchana ("man and gold") and Tyagananda writes that Ramakrishna used Kamini-Kanchana as "cautionary words" instructing his disciples to conquer the "lust inside the mind."[92]

Ramakrishna looked upon the world as Maya and he explained that avidya maya represents dark forces of creation (e.g. sensual desire, evil passions, greed, lust and cruelty), which keep people on lower planes of consciousness. These forces are responsible for human entrapment in the cycle of birth and death, and they must be fought and vanquished. Vidya maya, on the other hand, represents higher forces of creation (e.g. spiritual virtues, enlightening qualities, kindness, purity, love, and devotion), which elevate human beings to the higher planes of consciousness.[93]

Ramakrishna practised several religions, including Islam and Christianity, and taught that in spite of the differences, all religions are valid and true and they lead to the same ultimate goal—God.[94] Ramakrishna's taught that jatra jiv tatra Shiv (wherever there is a living being, there is Shiva). His teaching, "Jive daya noy, Shiv gyane jiv seba" (not kindness to living beings, but serving the living being as Shiva Himself) is considered as the inspiration for the philanthropic work carried out by his chief disciple Vivekananda.[95]

Ramakrishna used rustic colloquial Bengali in his conversations. According to contemporary reports, Ramakrishna's linguistic style was unique, even to those who spoke Bengali. It contained obscure local words and idioms from village Bengali, interspersed with philosophical Sanskrit terms and references to the Vedas, Puranas, Tantras. For that reason, according to philosopher Lex Hixon, his speeches cannot be literally translated into English or any other language.[96] Scholar Amiya P. Sen argued that certain terms that Ramakrishna may have used only in a metaphysical sense are being improperly invested with new, contemporaneous meanings.[97]

Ramakrishna was skilled with words and had an extraordinary style of preaching and instructing, which may have helped convey his ideas to even the most skeptical temple visitors.[39] His speeches reportedly revealed a sense of joy and fun, but he was not at a loss when debating with intellectual philosophers.[98] Philosopher Arindam Chakrabarti contrasted Ramakrishna's talkativeness with Buddha's legendary reticence, and compared his teaching style to that of Socrates.[99]

Ramakrishna's explicitly sexual language shocked 19th-century Westerners, even scholars Max Müller who were otherwise his admirers. Müller wrote that his language was at times "abominably filthy". He admitted however that such direct speech was natural to contemporary Hindus, "where certain classes of men walk stark naked", and should not be considered intentional filthiness or obscenity. Citing examples of classical poems like Bhartrihari, the Bible, Homer, and Shakespeare, Müller felt that few of the sayings would have to be bowdlerized.[100] [100]

Reception and legacy

Main articles: Ramakrishna's impact and Ramakrishna Mission
The marble statue of Ramakrishna at Belur Math, the headquarters of the Ramakrishna Mission

Several organizations have been established in the name of Ramakrishna.[101] The Ramakrishna Math and Mission is one of the main organizations founded by Swami Vivekananda in 1897. The Mission conducts extensive work in health care, disaster relief, rural management, tribal welfare, elementary and higher education. The movement is considered as one of the revitalization movements of India.[11][101] Other organizations include the Ramakrishna Vedanta Society founded by Swami Abhedananda in 1923, the Ramakrishna Sarada Math founded by a rebel group in 1929,the Ramakrishna Vivekananda Mission formed by Swami Nityananda in 1976, and the Sri Sarada Math and Ramakrishna Sarada Mission founded in 1959 as a sister organization by the Ramakrishna Math and Mission.[101] Ramakrishna is considered as an important figure in Bengali Renaissance of 19th-20th Century.[8][9] Max Müller, Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Sri Aurobindo, and Leo Tolstoy have acknowledged Ramakrishna's contribution to humanity. Ramakrishna's influence is also seen in the works of artists such as Franz Dvorak (1862–1927) and Philip Glass.

On Swami Vivekananda's guru, Ramakrishna, Rabindranath Tagore wrote a poem: "To the Ramakrishna Paramahamsa Ramakrishna Deva".[102]

Diverse courses of worship from varied springs of fulfillment have mingled in your meditation.

The manifold revelation of the joy of the Infinite has given form to a shrine of unity in your life

where from far and near arrive salutations to which I join my own.

Tagore was the chief guest on the occasion of birth centenary celebration of Ramakrishna by the Ramakrishna Mission and paid rich tribute to Ramakrishna. During the 1937 Parliament of Religions, which was held at the Ramakrishna Mission in Calcutta, Tagore acknowledged Ramakrishna, whose birth centenary was being celebrated, as a great saint because “the largeness of his spirit could comprehend seemingly antagonistic modes of sadhana, and because the simplicity of his soul shames for all time the pomp and pedantry of pontiffs and pundits.”[103]

Views and studies

Main article: Views on Ramakrishna
Photograph of Ramakrishna, taken on 10 December 1881 at the studio of "The Bengal Photographers" in Radhabazar, Calcutta (Kolkata).

Religious school of thought

Several scholars have tried to associate Ramakrishna with a particular religious school of thought—Bhakti, Tantra and Vedanta.

In his influential[104] 1896 essay "A real mahatma: Sri Ramakrishna Paramahansa Dev" and his 1899 book Râmakrishna: His Life and Sayings, the German philologist and Orientalist Max Müller portrayed Ramakrishna as "a wonderful mixture of God and man" and as "...a Bhakta, a worshipper or lover of the deity, much more than a Gñânin or a knower."[105][106]

In London and New York in 1896, Swami Vivekananda delivered his famous address on Ramakrishna entitled "My Master." He said of his master: "this great intellect never learnt even to write his own name, but the most brilliant graduates of our university found in him an intellectual giant."[107] Vivekananda criticized his followers for "brazenly" projecting Ramakrishna as an avatara and miracle-worker.[108][109] Narasingha Sil has argued that Vivekananda revised and mythologized Ramakrishna's image after Ramakrishna's death.[110] In a 1997 book review of a book by Jeffrey Kripal, Malcolm McLean of Otago University supported Kripal's view and argued that the Movement presents "a particular kind of explanation of Ramakrishna, that he was some kind of neo-Vedantist who taught that all religions are the same".[111] Carl Olson argued that in his presentation of his master, Vivekananda had hid much of Ramakrishna’s embarrassing sexual oddities from the public, because he feared that Ramakrishna would be misunderstood.[112] Tyagananda and Vrajaprana argue that Oslon makes his "astonishing claim" based on Kripal's speculations in Kali's Child, which are unsupported by any of the source texts.[113] Amiya Sen writes that that Vivekananda's "social service gospel" stemmed from direct inspiration from Ramakrishna and rests substantially on the "liminal quality" of the Master's message.[114]

Indologist Heinrich Zimmer was the first Western scholar to interpret Ramakrishna's worship of the Divine Mother as containing specifically Tantric elements.[115][116] Neeval also argued that tantra played a main role in Ramakrishna's spiritual development.[115]

Philosopher Lex Hixon writes Ramakrishna was an Advaita Vedantin.[117] Postcolonial literary theorist Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak wrote that Ramakrishna was a "Bengali bhakta visionary" and that as a bhakta, "he turned chiefly towards Kali."[118] Amiya Prosad Sen writes that "it is really difficult to separate the Tantrik Ramakrishna from the Vedantic", since Vedanta and Tantra "may appear to be differ in some respects", but they also "share some important postulates between them".[119]

Psychoanalysis and sexuality

The dialogue on psychoanalysis and Ramakrishna began in 1927 when Sigmund Freud's friend Romain Rolland wrote to him that he should consider spiritual experiences, or "the oceanic feeling," in his psychological works.[120][121] Romain Rolland described the mystical states achieved by Ramakrishna and other mystics as an "'oceanic' sentiment", one which Rolland had also experienced.[122] Rolland believed that the universal human religious emotion resembled this "oceanic sense."[123] In his 1929 book La vie de Ramakrishna, Rolland distinguished between the feelings of unity and eternity which Ramakrishna experienced in his mystical states and Ramakrishna's interpretation of those feelings as the goddess Kali.[124]

In 1995, Jeffrey J. Kripal argued in Kali's Child that the Ramakrishna Movement had manipulated Ramakrishna's biographical documents, that the Movement had published them in incomplete and bowdlerized editions (claiming among other things, hiding Ramakrishna's homoerotic tendencies), and that the Movement had suppressed Ram Chandra Datta's Srisriramakrsna Paramahamsadever Jivanavrttanta.[125] These views were disputed by Swami Atmajnanananda, who wrote that Jivanavrttanta had been reprinted nine times in Bengali as of 1995.[126]

Christopher Isherwood who wrote the book Ramakrishna and his Disciples (1965) said in a late interview, "Ramakrishna was completely simple and guileless. He told people whatever came into his mind, like a child. If he had ever been troubled by homosexual desires, if that had ever been a problem he'd have told everybody about them.(...) His thoughts transcended physical love-making. He saw even the mating of two dogs on the street as an expression of the eternal male-female principle in the universe. I think that is always a sign of great spiritual enlightenment."[127][128] In addition, Isherwood wrote in his autobiographical book, My Guru and his Disciple, "I couldn't honestly claim him as a homosexual, even a sublimated one, much as I would have liked to be able to do so"[129]

In 1998, Kripal wrote that he had "overplayed" the suppression of Jivanavrttanta and "the Ramakrishna Order reprinted Datta's text the very same summer Kali's Child appeared, rendering my original claims of a conscious concealment untenable."[130] The charges of censorship are disputed by Tyagananda.[131]

Goldman,[132] Narasingha Sil,[133] Jeffrey Kripal,[134] and Sudhir Kakar,[135] analyze Ramakrishna's mysticism and religious practices using psychoanalysis,[136] arguing that his mystical visions, refusal to comply with ritual copulation in Tantra, Madhura Bhava, and criticism of Kamini-Kanchana (women and gold) reflect homosexuality. Jeffrey Kripal's controversial[137] Kali's Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna (1995) argued that Ramakrishna rejected Advaita Vedanta in favor of Shakti Tantra.[138] In this psychoanalytic study of Ramakrishna's life, Kripal argued that Ramakrishna’s mystical experiences were symptoms of repressed homoeroticism.[139] Other scholars and psychoanalysts including Romain Rolland,[76] Alan Roland,[120][140] Kelly Aan Raab,[141] Somnath Bhattacharyya,[142] J.S. Hawley[143] and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak[144] argue that psychoanalysis is unreliable and Ramakrishna's religious practices were in line with Bengali tradition.[141] The application of psychoanalysis has further been disputed by Tyagananda and Vrajaprana as being unreliable in understanding Tantra and interpreting cross-cultural contexts in Interpreting Ramakrishna: Kali's Child Revisited (2010).[145]

In his 1991 book The Analyst and the Mystic, Indian psychoanalyst Sudhir Kakar saw in Ramakrishna's visions a spontaneous capacity for creative experiencing.[146] Kakar also argued that culturally relative concepts of eroticism and gender have contributed to the Western difficulty in comprehending Ramakrishna.[147] Kakar saw Ramakrishna's seemingly bizarre acts as part of a bhakti path to God.[146]

Postcolonial studies

Postcolonial studies try to locate Ramakrishna in the historical background of Calcutta during the mid-19th Century.

In 1999, postcolonial historian Sumit Sarkar argued that he found in the Kathamrita traces of a binary opposition between unlearned oral wisdom and learned literate knowledge. He argues that all of our information about Ramakrishna, a rustic near-illiterate Brahmin, comes from urban bhadralok devotees, "...whose texts simultaneously illuminate and transform."[148]

Other postcolonial studies have been done by Partha Chaterjee, Amiya P. Sen.[149]

Notes

  1. ^ a b "The Art of God-Realisation". Times of India. Retrieved 2008-10-09.[dead link] [dead link]
  2. ^ a b c d e Smart, Ninian The World’s Religions (1998) p.409, Cambridge
  3. ^ Georg, Feuerstein (2002). The Yoga Tradition. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 600. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  4. ^ Clarke, Peter Bernard (2006). New Religions in Global Perspective. Routledge. p. 209. The first Hindu to teach in the West and founder of the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897, Swami Vivekananda,[...] is also credited with raising Hinduism to the status of a world religion.
  5. ^ Jeffrey Brodd (2003). World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery. Saint Mary's Press. p. 275. In 1897 Swami Vivekananda returned to India, where he founded the Ramakrishna Mission, and influential Hindu organization devoted to education, social welfare, and publication of religious texts. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ Smith, Bardwell L. (1976). Hinduism: New Essays in the History of Religions. Brill Archive. p. 93.
  7. ^ Jackson, p. 35.
  8. ^ a b c Miller, Timothy (1995). America's Alternative Religions. SUNY Press. pp. 174–175. ISBN 978-0-7914-2397-4. ...Bengalis played a leading role in the wider Hindu renaissance, producing what can be termed the Bengali "Neo-Vedantic renaissance" {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  9. ^ a b c Pelinka, Anton (2003). Democracy Indian Style. Transaction Publishers. pp. 40–41. ISBN 978-0-7658-0186-9. The Bengali Renaissance had numerous facets including the spiritual (Hindu) renaissance, represented by the names of Sri Ramakrishna and Swami Vivekananda, the combination of spiritual, intellectual, and political aspects... {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  10. ^ Bhattacharyya, Haridas (1978). "Part IV: Sri Ramakrishna and Spiritual Renaissance". The Cultural Heritage of India. University of Michigan: Ramakrishna Mission, Institute of Culture. p. 650.
  11. ^ a b Cyrus R. Pangborn. "The Ramakrishna Math and Mission". Hinduism: New Essays in the History of Religions. p. 98.
  12. ^ Jackson 1994, p. 78
  13. ^ a b c Sen 2001, p.101
  14. ^ a b c Heehs 2002, p. 430
  15. ^ "Introduction". The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna. 1942. p. 3.
  16. ^ Chatterjee 1993, pp. 46–47
  17. ^ Harding 1998, pp. 243–244
  18. ^ Jackson 1994, p.17
  19. ^ Hindu Revivalism in Bengal, 1872–1905: Some Essays in Interpretation. Oxford University Press. 1993. p. 307.
  20. ^ a b c d Jackson 1994, p.17.
  21. ^ Harding 1998, p. 248
  22. ^ Sen 2001, p.92
  23. ^ Müller, Max (1898). "Râmakrishna's Life". Râmakrishna his Life and Sayings. p. 33. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  24. ^ Sen, Amiya (2010). "The Early life of Gadhadhar". Ramakrishna Paramahamsa: The Sadhaka of Dakshineswar. Penguin Viking. pp. 40–41.
  25. ^ Zaleski, Philip (2006). "The Ecstatic". Prayer: A History. Mariner Books. pp. 162–163.
  26. ^ a b Bhawuk, Dharm P.S. (2003). "Culture's influence on creativity: the case of Indian spirituality". International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 27 (1). Elsevier: 8. doi:10.1016/S0147-1767(02)00059-7. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  27. ^ Neevel, Transformation of Sri Ramakrishna, p.70
  28. ^ Neevel, Transformation of Sri Ramakrishna, p.68
  29. ^ Harding 1998, p. 250
  30. ^ Sen 2006 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSen2006 (help), p. 176
  31. ^ Harding 1998, p. 251
  32. ^ Isherwood, Christopher (1965). Ramakrishna and his Disciples. p. 65.
  33. ^ a b c Jackson 1994, p.18
  34. ^ a b Sil, Divine Dowager, p. 42
  35. ^ Jackson 1994, p. 18 "Such child marriages were still widespread in nineteenth-century India, despite vehement condemnations by both English authorities and Hind reformers. Analogous to the Western betrothal, child marriage committed the partners to one another, with the actual of living together and assuming family responsibilities delayed until puberty."
  36. ^ Spivak 2007, "Moving Devi", pp.207–208
  37. ^ a b Spivak 2007, p. 207
  38. ^ Rolland, Romain (1929). "The Return to Man". The Life of Ramakrishna. p. 59.
  39. ^ a b c d Leo Schneiderman (Spring, 1969). "Ramakrishna: Personality and Social Factors in the Growth of a Religious Movement". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 8 (1). London: Blackwell Publishing: 60–71. doi:10.2307/1385254. JSTOR 1385254. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  40. ^ a b c d e Neevel, pp. 74–77
  41. ^ Jestice, Phyllis G. (2004). Holy People of the World: A Cross-cultural Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 723.
  42. ^ Jean Varenne (1977). Yoga and the Hindu Tradition. University of Chicago Press. p. 151. we know that certain Tantric practices, condemned as shockingly immoral, are aimed solely at enabling the adept to make use of the energy required for their realization in order to destroy desire within himself root and branch {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  43. ^ Sen 2001, p. 99
  44. ^ Hixon 2002, p. xliii
  45. ^ Richards, Glyn (1985). A Source-book of modern Hinduism. Routledge. p. 63. [Ramakrishna] received instructions in yogic techniques which enabled him to control his spiritual energy.
  46. ^ Neevel, Transformation of Sri Ramakrishna, p.70, "Ramakrishna's practice of tantra played an important role in Ramakrishna's transformation from the uncontrollable and self-destructive madman of the early years into the saintly and relatively self-controlled—if eccentric and ecstatic—teacher of the later years."
  47. ^ Spivak 2007, p.197
  48. ^ a b c d Neevel, Walter G (1976). "The Transformation of Ramakrishna". Hinduism: New Essays in the History of Religions. pp. 72–83. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  49. ^ Allport, Gordon W. (1999). "Its meaning for the West". Hindu Psychology. Routledge. p. 180.
  50. ^ Isherwood, pp. 70–73
  51. ^ Sen 2001, p. 138
  52. ^ Isherwood, p. 197–198.
  53. ^ a b Nikhilananda, Swami. "Introduction". The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  54. ^ Sharma, Arvind (1977). "Ramakrishna Paramahamsa: A Study in a Mystic's Attitudes towards Women". In Rita M. Gross (ed.). Beyond Androcentrism. Scholars Press ( American Academy of Religion ). pp. 118–119, p.122, p.124.
  55. ^ a b c Parama Roy, Indian Traffic: Identities in Question in Colonial and Post-Colonial India Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998 [page needed]
  56. ^ Jackson 1994, p.19
  57. ^ Harding 1998, p. 263
  58. ^ The Great Master, p. 255.
  59. ^ Roland, Romain The Life of Ramakrishna (1984), Advaita Ashram
  60. ^ Isherwood, Christopher. "Tota Puri". Ramakrishna and his Disciples. p. 123.
  61. ^ Isherwood, Christopher. Ramakrishna and his Disciples. p. 124.
  62. ^ Rolland, Romain (1929). "The Return to Man". The Life of Ramakrishna. pp. 49–62.
  63. ^ Ramakrishna Mission Singapore (2007). "Lay Disciples of Ramakrishna". Nirvana. Ramakrishna Mission, Singapore. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  64. ^ a b c Rolland, Romain (1929). "Ramakrishna and the Great Shepherds of India". The Life of Ramakrishna. pp. 110–130.
  65. ^ Farquhar, John Nicol (1915). Modern Religious Movements in India. Macmillan Co. p. 194. About 1875, Keshab Chandra Sen made his acquaintance and became very interested in him (Ramakrishna).
  66. ^ Y. Masih (2000). A Comparative Study of Religions. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 198–199.
  67. ^ a b c d Mukherjee, Dr. Jayasree (2004). "Sri Ramakrishna's Impact on Contemporary Indian Society". Prabuddha Bharatha. Retrieved 2008-09-04. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  68. ^ a b Müller, Max (1898). "Râmakrishna's Life". Râmakrishna his Life and Sayings. pp. 56–57. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  69. ^ Debarry, William Theodore (1988). Sources of Indian Tradition: From the Beginning to 1800. Stephen N. Hay. Columbia University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-231-06415-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  70. ^ Mukherjee, Dr. Jayasree (2004). "Sri Ramakrishna's Impact on Contemporary Indian Society". Prabuddha Bharata. Retrieved 2008-09-22. Another contemporary scholar described Ramakrishna as "an illiterate priest, crude, raw, unmodern and the commonest of the common. ... He respected women, in the only way open to Indians, by calling them 'mother', and avoiding them.... He would allow non-Brahmins to be initiated. ... Yet, and this is the tragedy of the situation, with all the help of the dynamic personality of Swami Vivekananda, Paramahamsa Deb's influence has not succeeded in shaking our social foundations. A number of people have been inspired, no doubt, but the masses have not trembled in their sleep." {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  71. ^ Joseph, Jaiboy (2002-06-23). "Master visionary". The Hindu. Retrieved 2008-10-09.[dead link]
  72. ^ Chetanananda, Swami (1989). They Lived with God. St. Louis: Vedanta Society of St. Louis. p. 163.
  73. ^ Beckerlegge (2006), Swami Vivekananda's Legacy of Service, p.27
  74. ^ Sen 2006, p. 172 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSen2006 (help)
  75. ^ Chakrabarti, Arindam (1994). "The dark mother flying kites : Sri ramakrishna's metaphysic of morals". Sophia. 33 (3). Springer Netherlands: 14–29. doi:10.1007/BF02800488. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  76. ^ a b c Rolland, Romain (1929). "The Master and his Children". The Life of Ramakrishna. pp. 143–168.
  77. ^ a b c d e Rolland, Romain (1929). "The River Re-Enters the Sea". The Life of Ramakrishna. pp. 201–214.
  78. ^ Sen 2006, p. 168 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSen2006 (help)
  79. ^ a b Williams, George M. (1989). ""Swami Vivekananda: Archetypal Hero or Doubting Saint?"". In Robert D. Baird (ed.). Religion in Modern India. p. 325.
  80. ^ Malcolm Maclean, A Translation of the sri-sri-ramakrisna-kathamrita with explanatory notes and critical introduction. University of Otago. Dunedin, New Zealand. September, 1983. p vi
  81. ^ Sen 2001, p. 32
  82. ^ Kripal 1998, p.3
  83. ^ a b Kripal 1998, p. 4
  84. ^ Malcolm Maclean, A Translation of the sri-sri-ramakrisna-kathamrita with explanatory notes and critical introduction. University of Otago. Dunedin, New Zealand. September, 1983. p i–iv
  85. ^ Hixon 2002, p. xiv
  86. ^ a b Menon, Parvathi (November 1, 1996). "A History of Modern India: Revivalist Movements and Early Nationalism". India Abroad. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)[dead link]
  87. ^ Sumit Sarkar, “ ‘Kaliyuga’, ‘Chakri’ and ‘Bhakti’: Ramakrishna and His Times,” Economic and Political Weekly 27, 29 (Jul 18, 1992): 1548–1550.
  88. ^ Chaterjee 1993, pp. 68–69
  89. ^ Carl T. Jackson (1994), pp. 20–21.
  90. ^ Kali's Child p 281; 277–287 passim
  91. ^ Tyagananda & Vrajaprana 2010, p. 243
  92. ^ Tyagananda & Vrajaprana 2010, pp. 256–257
  93. ^ Neevel, p. 82.
  94. ^ Cohen, Martin (2008). "Spiritual Improvisations: Ramakrishna, Aurobindo, and the Freedom of Tradition". Religion and the Arts. 12 (1–3). BRILL: 277–293. doi:10.1163/156852908X271079. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  95. ^ Y. Masih (2000). A Comparative Study of Religions. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 207.
  96. ^ Hixon, Lex (1997). "Introduction". Great Swan. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. xi. ISBN 978-0-943914-80-0.
  97. ^ Sen, Amiya P. (2006). "Sri Ramakrishna, the Kathamrita and the Calcutta middle classes: an old problematic revisited". Postcolonial Studies. 9 (2): 165–177. doi:10.1080/13688790600657835. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  98. ^ Isherwood, Christopher (1945). Vedanta for the Western World: A Symposium on Vedanta. Vedanta Press. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-87481-000-4.
  99. ^ Arindam Chakrabarti, "The Dark Mother Flying Kites: Sri Ramakrishna's Metaphysic of Morals" Sophia, 33 (3), 1994
  100. ^ a b Max Müller (1898), Râmakrishna his Life and Sayings. Preface and chapter Râmakrishna's Language. Reviewed by A. W. Stratton (1899) , The American Journal of Theology, volume 3 issue 4, pages 761–762.
  101. ^ a b c Beckerlegge,Swami Vivekananda's Legacy of Service pp.1–3
  102. ^ Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center of New York. (1996). Sri Ramakrishna Tributes.
  103. ^ Katheleen M O'Connell. Utsav-Celebration: Tagore’s Approach to Cultivating the Human Spirit and the Study of Religion.
  104. ^ John Rosselli, "Sri Ramakrishna and the educated elite of late nineteenth century" Contributions to Indian Sociology 1978; 12; 195 [1]
  105. ^ Friedrich Max Müller, Râmakrishna: His Life and Sayings, pp.93–94, Longmans, Green, 1898
  106. ^ Neevel, Transformation of Sri Ramakrishna, p.85
  107. ^ Sil 1993, p. 56
  108. ^ Sen 2006, p. 173 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSen2006 (help)
  109. ^ John Wolffe (2004). "The Hindu Renaissance and notions of Universal Religion". Religion in History. Manchester University Press. p. 153.
  110. ^ Narasingha P. Sil "Vivekānanda's Rāmakṛṣṇa: An Untold Story of Mythmaking and Propaganda" Numen, Vol. 40, No. 1, (Jan., 1993), pp. 38–62 BRILL http://www.jstor.org/stable/3270397
  111. ^ McLean, Malcolm, "Kali's Child: The Mystical and Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna."[dead link] The Journal of the American Oriental Society Tuesday, July 1, 1997
  112. ^ "Vivekananda and Ramakrisha Face to Face: An Essay on the Alterity of a Saint" Carl Olson International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1 (Apr., 1998), pp. 43-66 Springer
  113. ^ Tyagananda & Vrajaprana 2010, p. 172
  114. ^ Sen 2006, p. 165 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSen2006 (help)
  115. ^ a b Carl T. Jackson (1994), p.154
  116. ^ Neeval and Hatcher, "Ramakrishna" in Encyclopedia of Religion, 2005 p 7613
  117. ^ Hixon 2002, p. xv. "My study of Sanskrit and my doctoral dissertation at Columbia University on the Advaita Vedanta of Gaudapada, has enabled me to appreciate more deeply the Master's universal Vedantic approach."
  118. ^ Spivak 2007, p. 197
  119. ^ Sen 2001, p. 22
  120. ^ a b Roland, Alan (2004). "Ramakrishna: Mystical, Erotic, or Both?". Journal of Religion and Health. 37: 31–36. doi:10.1023/A:1022956932676. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  121. ^ "Oceanic Feeling" by Henri Vermorel and Madeleline Vermoral in International Dictionary of Psychoanalysis [2]
  122. ^ The Enigma of the Oceanic Feeling: Revisioning the Psychoanalytic Theory of Mysticism By William Barclay Parsons, Oxford University Press US, 1999 ISBN 0-19-511508-2, p 37
  123. ^ page 12 Primitive Passions: Men, Women, and the Quest for Ecstasy By Marianna Torgovnick University of Chicago Press, 1998
  124. ^ Parsons 1999, 14
  125. ^ Kripal(1995) Kali's Child 1 edition[page needed]
  126. ^ name="atma" Atmajnanananda, Swami (1997). "Scandals, cover-ups, and other imagined occurrences in the life of Ramakrishna: An examination of Jeffrey Kripal's Kali's child". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 1 (2). Netherlands: Springer: pp.401–420. doi:10.1007/s11407-997-0007-8. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  127. ^ "Christopher Isherwood: An Interview" Carolyn G. Heilbrun and Christopher Isherwood Twentieth Century Literature, Vol. 22, No. 3, Christopher Isherwood Issue (Oct., 1976), pp. 253–263 Published by: Hofstra University
  128. ^ Christopher Isherwood, James J. Berg, Chris Freeman (2001). Conversations with Christopher Isherwood. Univ. Press of Mississippi. p. 142. ISBN 978-1-57806-408-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  129. ^ My Guru and His Disciple, page 249
  130. ^ Kripal(1998) Kali's Child 2 edition [page needed]
  131. ^ Tyagananda, S.; Vrajaprana, P. (2010), pp 23–45
  132. ^ "Transsexualism, Gender, and Anxiety in Traditional India" Robert P. Goldman Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 113, No. 3 (Jul. - Sep., 1993), pp. 374-401 American Oriental Society
  133. ^ Ramakrishna Revisited (1998)[page needed]
  134. ^ Kali's Child (1998) [page needed]
  135. ^ The Analyst and the Mystic (1991) [page needed]
  136. ^ Jonte-Pace, Diane Elizabeth (2003). "Freud as interpreter of religious texts and practices". Teaching Freud. Oxford University Press US. p. 94.
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  138. ^ Parsons 1999, 135–136
  139. ^ Parsons, William B., "Psychology" in Encyclopedia of Religion, 2005 p. 7479
  140. ^ Roland, Alan. (2007) The Uses (and Misuses) Of Psychoanalysis in South Asian Studies: Mysticism and Child Development. Invading the Sacred: An Analysis of Hinduism Studies in America. Delhi, India: Rupa & Co. ISBN 978-81-291-1182-1
  141. ^ a b Kelley Ann Raab (Summer, 1995). "Is There Anything Transcendent about Transcendence? A Philosophical and Psychological Study of Sri Ramakrishna". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 63 (2). London: Oxford University Press: 321–341. JSTOR 1465404. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  142. ^ Invading the Sacred, p.152-168
  143. ^ Hawley, John Stratton (2004). "The Damage of Separation: Krishna's Loves and Kali's Child". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 72 (2): 369–393. doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfh034. PMID 20681099. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  144. ^ Spivak (2007), "Moving Devi", Other Asias, pp.195–197
  145. ^ See:p.127 and "Interpretation in Cross-Cultural Contexts". In Tyagananda & Vrajaprana 2010
  146. ^ a b Parsons, 1999 p 133
  147. ^ Kakar, Sudhir, The Analyst and the Mystic, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), p.34
  148. ^ Sumit Sarkar, "Post-modernism and the Writing of History" Studies in History 1999; 15; 293
  149. ^ Sen 2001

References

Further reading

Further information: Books on Ramakrishna
  • Ananyananda, Swami (1981). Ramakrishna: a biography in pictures. Advaita Ashrama, Calcutta. ISBN 978-81-85843-97-1.
  • Chetanananda, Swami (1990). Ramakrishna As We Saw Him. St. Louis: Vedanta Society of St Louis. ISBN 978-0-916356-64-4.
  • Hourihan, Paul (2002). Ramakrishna & Christ, the Supermystics: New Interpretations. Vedantic Shores Press. ISBN 1-931816-00-X.
  • Olson, Carl (1990). The Mysterious Play of Kālī: An Interpretive Study of Rāmakrishna. American Academy of Religion (Scholars Press). ISBN 1-55540-339-5.
  • Prosser, Lee. (2001) Isherwood, Bowles, Vedanta, Wicca, and Me. Writers Club: Lincoln, Nebraska. ISBN 0-595-20284-5
  • Satyananda, Saraswati. Ramakrishna: The Nectar of Eternal Bliss. Devi Mandir Publications. ISBN 1-877795-66-6.
  • Torwesten, Hans (1999). Ramakrishna and Christ, or, The paradox of the incarnation. The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. ISBN 978-81-85843-97-1.

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