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===Neuroscience===
===Neuroscience===
{{further|Sexual addiction#Biomolecular mechanisms}}

Current experimental models of addiction to natural rewards and drug reward demonstrate common alterations in [[gene expression]] in the [[mesocorticolimbic projection]].<ref name="Natural and drug addictions" /><ref name="Nestler" /> [[ΔFosB]] is the most significant [[gene transcription]] factor involved in addiction, since its [[viral vector|viral]] or genetic over expression in the [[nucleus accumbens]] is [[necessary and sufficient]] for most of the neural adaptations and plasticity that occur;<ref name="Nestler" /> it has been implicated in addictions to [[alcoholism|alcohol]], [[cannabinoid]]s, [[cocaine]], [[nicotine]], [[opioids]], [[phenylcyclidine]], and [[substituted amphetamines]].<ref name="Natural and drug addictions" /><ref name="Nestler">{{cite journal |author=Nestler EJ |title=Transcriptional mechanisms of drug addiction |journal=Clin. Psychopharmacol. Neurosci. |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=136–143 |date=December 2012 |pmid=23430970 |pmc=3569166 |doi=10.9758/cpn.2012.10.3.136 |quote=ΔFosB has been linked directly to several addiction-related behaviors&nbsp;... Importantly, genetic or viral overexpression of ΔJunD, a dominant negative mutant of JunD which antagonizes ΔFosB- and other AP-1-mediated transcriptional activity, in the NAc or OFC blocks these key effects of drug exposure14,22–24. This indicates that ΔFosB is both necessary and sufficient for many of the changes wrought in the brain by chronic drug exposure. ΔFosB is also induced in D1-type NAc MSNs by chronic consumption of several natural rewards, including sucrose, high fat food, sex, wheel running, where it promotes that consumption14,26–30. This implicates ΔFosB in the regulation of natural rewards under normal conditions and perhaps during pathological addictive-like states. }}</ref><ref name="Alcoholism ΔFosB">{{cite web | title=Alcoholism – Homo sapiens (human) | url=http://www.genome.jp/kegg-bin/show_pathway?hsa05034+2354 | work=KEGG Pathway | accessdate=10 April 2014 | author=Kanehisa Laboratories | date=2 August 2013}}</ref> [[ΔJunD]] is the transcription factor which directly opposes ΔFosB.<ref name="Nestler" /> Increases in nucleus accumbens ΔJunD expression can reduce or, with a large increase, even block most of the neural alterations seen in chronic drug abuse (i.e., the alterations mediated by ΔFosB).<ref name="Nestler" />

ΔFosB also plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards, such as palatable food, sex, and exercise.<ref name="Nestler" /><ref name="ΔFosB reward">{{cite journal | author = Blum K, Werner T, Carnes S, Carnes P, Bowirrat A, Giordano J, Oscar-Berman M, Gold M | title = Sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll: hypothesizing common mesolimbic activation as a function of reward gene polymorphisms | journal = J. Psychoactive Drugs | volume = 44 | issue = 1 | pages = 38–55 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22641964 | pmc = 4040958 | doi = 10.1080/02791072.2012.662112| quote = It has been found that deltaFosB gene in the NAc is critical for reinforcing effects of sexual reward. Pitchers and colleagues (2010) reported that sexual experience was shown to cause DeltaFosB accumulation in several limbic brain regions including the NAc, medial pre-frontal cortex, VTA, caudate, and putamen, but not the medial preoptic nucleus. Next, the induction of c-Fos, a downstream (repressed) target of DeltaFosB, was measured in sexually experienced and naive animals. The number of mating-induced c-Fos-IR cells was significantly decreased in sexually experienced animals compared to sexually naive controls. Finally, DeltaFosB levels and its activity in the NAc were manipulated using viral-mediated gene transfer to study its potential role in mediating sexual experience and experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. Animals with DeltaFosB overexpression displayed enhanced facilitation of sexual performance with sexual experience relative to controls. In contrast, the expression of DeltaJunD, a dominant-negative binding partner of DeltaFosB, attenuated sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance, and stunted long-term maintenance of facilitation compared to DeltaFosB overexpressing group. Together, these findings support a critical role for DeltaFosB expression in the NAc in the reinforcing effects of sexual behavior and sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance.&nbsp;... both drug addiction and sexual addiction represent pathological forms of neuroplasticity along with the emergence of aberrant behaviors involving a cascade of neurochemical changes mainly in the brain's rewarding circuitry. }}</ref> Natural rewards, like drugs of abuse, induce ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens, and chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological addictive state.<ref name="Natural and drug addictions">{{cite journal | author = Olsen CM | title = Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions | journal = Neuropharmacology | volume = 61 | issue = 7 | pages = 1109–1122 |date=December 2011 | pmid = 21459101 | pmc = 3139704 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.010 | quote = Cross-sensitization is also bidirectional, as a history of amphetamine administration facilitates sexual behavior and enhances the associated increase in NAc DA&nbsp;... As described for food reward, sexual experience can also lead to activation of plasticity-related signaling cascades. The transcription factor delta FosB is increased in the NAc, PFC, dorsal striatum, and VTA following repeated sexual behavior (Wallace et al., 2008; Pitchers et al., 2010b). This natural increase in delta FosB or viral overexpression of delta FosB within the NAc modulates sexual performance, and NAc blockade of delta FosB attenuates this behavior (Hedges et al, 2009; Pitchers et al., 2010b). Further, viral overexpression of delta FosB enhances the conditioned place preference for an environment paired with sexual experience (Hedges et al., 2009).&nbsp;... In some people, there is a transition from “normal” to compulsive engagement in natural rewards (such as food or sex), a condition that some have termed behavioral or non-drug addictions (Holden, 2001; Grant et al., 2006a).&nbsp;... In humans, the role of dopamine signaling in incentive-sensitization processes has recently been highlighted by the observation of a dopamine dysregulation syndrome in some patients taking dopaminergic drugs. This syndrome is characterized by a medication-induced increase in (or compulsive) engagement in non-drug rewards such as gambling, shopping, or sex (Evans et al, 2006; Aiken, 2007; Lader, 2008)."<br />}}<!--The following link is outside the template to make it hyperlinked while appearing to be part of the quote.-->[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3139704/table/T1/?report=objectonly Table 1]"</ref><ref name="ΔFosB reward" /> Thus, ΔFosB is also the key transcription factor involved in addictions to natural rewards as well,<ref name="Natural and drug addictions" /><ref name="Amph and sex addiction" /> and sex addictions in particular, since ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens is critical for the reinforcing effects of sexual reward.<ref name="ΔFosB reward"/> Research on the interaction between natural and drug rewards suggests that psychostimulants and sexual reward possess cross-sensitization effects and act on common biomolecular mechanisms of addiction-related neuroplasticity which are mediated through ΔFosB.<ref name="Natural and drug addictions" /><ref name="Amph and sex addiction"><!--Supplemental primary source-->{{cite journal | author = Pitchers KK, Vialou V, Nestler EJ, Laviolette SR, Lehman MN, Coolen LM | title = Natural and drug rewards act on common neural plasticity mechanisms with ΔFosB as a key mediator | journal = J. Neurosci. | volume = 33 | issue = 8 | pages = 3434–3442 |date=February 2013 | pmid = 23426671 | pmc = 3865508 | doi = 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4881-12.2013 | quote = Drugs of abuse induce neuroplasticity in the natural reward pathway, specifically the nucleus accumbens (NAc), thereby causing development and expression of addictive behavior.&nbsp;... Together, these findings demonstrate that drugs of abuse and natural reward behaviors act on common molecular and cellular mechanisms of plasticity that control vulnerability to drug addiction, and that this increased vulnerability is mediated by ΔFosB and its downstream transcriptional targets.&nbsp;... Sexual behavior is highly rewarding (Tenk et al., 2009), and sexual experience causes sensitized drug-related behaviors, including cross-sensitization to amphetamine (Amph)-induced locomotor activity (Bradley and Meisel, 2001; Pitchers et al., 2010a) and enhanced Amph reward (Pitchers et al., 2010a). Moreover, sexual experience induces neural plasticity in the NAc similar to that induced by psychostimulant exposure, including increased dendritic spine density (Meisel and Mullins, 2006; Pitchers et al., 2010a), altered glutamate receptor trafficking, and decreased synaptic strength in prefrontal cortex-responding NAc shell neurons (Pitchers et al., 2012). Finally, periods of abstinence from sexual experience were found to be critical for enhanced Amph reward, NAc spinogenesis (Pitchers et al., 2010a), and glutamate receptor trafficking (Pitchers et al., 2012). These findings suggest that natural and drug reward experiences share common mechanisms of neural plasticity}}</ref>
ΔFosB also plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards, such as palatable food, sex, and exercise.<ref name="Nestler" /><ref name="ΔFosB reward">{{cite journal | author = Blum K, Werner T, Carnes S, Carnes P, Bowirrat A, Giordano J, Oscar-Berman M, Gold M | title = Sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll: hypothesizing common mesolimbic activation as a function of reward gene polymorphisms | journal = J. Psychoactive Drugs | volume = 44 | issue = 1 | pages = 38–55 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22641964 | pmc = 4040958 | doi = 10.1080/02791072.2012.662112| quote = It has been found that deltaFosB gene in the NAc is critical for reinforcing effects of sexual reward. Pitchers and colleagues (2010) reported that sexual experience was shown to cause DeltaFosB accumulation in several limbic brain regions including the NAc, medial pre-frontal cortex, VTA, caudate, and putamen, but not the medial preoptic nucleus. Next, the induction of c-Fos, a downstream (repressed) target of DeltaFosB, was measured in sexually experienced and naive animals. The number of mating-induced c-Fos-IR cells was significantly decreased in sexually experienced animals compared to sexually naive controls. Finally, DeltaFosB levels and its activity in the NAc were manipulated using viral-mediated gene transfer to study its potential role in mediating sexual experience and experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. Animals with DeltaFosB overexpression displayed enhanced facilitation of sexual performance with sexual experience relative to controls. In contrast, the expression of DeltaJunD, a dominant-negative binding partner of DeltaFosB, attenuated sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance, and stunted long-term maintenance of facilitation compared to DeltaFosB overexpressing group. Together, these findings support a critical role for DeltaFosB expression in the NAc in the reinforcing effects of sexual behavior and sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance.&nbsp;... both drug addiction and sexual addiction represent pathological forms of neuroplasticity along with the emergence of aberrant behaviors involving a cascade of neurochemical changes mainly in the brain's rewarding circuitry. }}</ref> Natural rewards, like drugs of abuse, induce ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens, and chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological addictive state.<ref name="Natural and drug addictions">{{cite journal | author = Olsen CM | title = Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions | journal = Neuropharmacology | volume = 61 | issue = 7 | pages = 1109–1122 |date=December 2011 | pmid = 21459101 | pmc = 3139704 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.010 | quote = Cross-sensitization is also bidirectional, as a history of amphetamine administration facilitates sexual behavior and enhances the associated increase in NAc DA&nbsp;... As described for food reward, sexual experience can also lead to activation of plasticity-related signaling cascades. The transcription factor delta FosB is increased in the NAc, PFC, dorsal striatum, and VTA following repeated sexual behavior (Wallace et al., 2008; Pitchers et al., 2010b). This natural increase in delta FosB or viral overexpression of delta FosB within the NAc modulates sexual performance, and NAc blockade of delta FosB attenuates this behavior (Hedges et al, 2009; Pitchers et al., 2010b). Further, viral overexpression of delta FosB enhances the conditioned place preference for an environment paired with sexual experience (Hedges et al., 2009).&nbsp;... In some people, there is a transition from “normal” to compulsive engagement in natural rewards (such as food or sex), a condition that some have termed behavioral or non-drug addictions (Holden, 2001; Grant et al., 2006a).&nbsp;... In humans, the role of dopamine signaling in incentive-sensitization processes has recently been highlighted by the observation of a dopamine dysregulation syndrome in some patients taking dopaminergic drugs. This syndrome is characterized by a medication-induced increase in (or compulsive) engagement in non-drug rewards such as gambling, shopping, or sex (Evans et al, 2006; Aiken, 2007; Lader, 2008)."<br />}}<!--The following link is outside the template to make it hyperlinked while appearing to be part of the quote.-->[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3139704/table/T1/?report=objectonly Table 1]"</ref><ref name="ΔFosB reward" /> Thus, ΔFosB is also the key transcription factor involved in addictions to natural rewards as well,<ref name="Natural and drug addictions" /><ref name="Amph and sex addiction" /> and sex addictions in particular, since ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens is critical for the reinforcing effects of sexual reward.<ref name="ΔFosB reward"/> Research on the interaction between natural and drug rewards suggests that psychostimulants and sexual reward possess cross-sensitization effects and act on common biomolecular mechanisms of addiction-related neuroplasticity which are mediated through ΔFosB.<ref name="Natural and drug addictions" /><ref name="Amph and sex addiction"><!--Supplemental primary source-->{{cite journal | author = Pitchers KK, Vialou V, Nestler EJ, Laviolette SR, Lehman MN, Coolen LM | title = Natural and drug rewards act on common neural plasticity mechanisms with ΔFosB as a key mediator | journal = J. Neurosci. | volume = 33 | issue = 8 | pages = 3434–3442 |date=February 2013 | pmid = 23426671 | pmc = 3865508 | doi = 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4881-12.2013 | quote = Drugs of abuse induce neuroplasticity in the natural reward pathway, specifically the nucleus accumbens (NAc), thereby causing development and expression of addictive behavior.&nbsp;... Together, these findings demonstrate that drugs of abuse and natural reward behaviors act on common molecular and cellular mechanisms of plasticity that control vulnerability to drug addiction, and that this increased vulnerability is mediated by ΔFosB and its downstream transcriptional targets.&nbsp;... Sexual behavior is highly rewarding (Tenk et al., 2009), and sexual experience causes sensitized drug-related behaviors, including cross-sensitization to amphetamine (Amph)-induced locomotor activity (Bradley and Meisel, 2001; Pitchers et al., 2010a) and enhanced Amph reward (Pitchers et al., 2010a). Moreover, sexual experience induces neural plasticity in the NAc similar to that induced by psychostimulant exposure, including increased dendritic spine density (Meisel and Mullins, 2006; Pitchers et al., 2010a), altered glutamate receptor trafficking, and decreased synaptic strength in prefrontal cortex-responding NAc shell neurons (Pitchers et al., 2012). Finally, periods of abstinence from sexual experience were found to be critical for enhanced Amph reward, NAc spinogenesis (Pitchers et al., 2010a), and glutamate receptor trafficking (Pitchers et al., 2012). These findings suggest that natural and drug reward experiences share common mechanisms of neural plasticity}}</ref>


Revision as of 04:12, 15 June 2015

Pornography addiction is a conceptual model assessing behavioral addiction characterized by compulsive, repeated use of pornographic material until it causes serious negative consequences to one's physical, mental, social, or financial well-being.[1][2] Addiction to Internet pornography is also a form of cybersex addiction.[3]

Problematic Internet pornography viewing is viewing of Internet pornography that is problematic for an individual due to personal or social reasons, including excessive time spent viewing pornography instead of interacting with others. Individuals may report depression, social isolation, career loss, decreased productivity, or financial consequences as a result of their excessive Internet pornography viewing impeding on their social life.[4]

Symptoms and diagnosis

See also: Effects of pornography

Accepted diagnostic criteria do not exist for pornography addiction or problematic pornography viewing.[4] The only diagnostic criteria for a behavioral addiction in the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders are for pathological gambling, and they are similar to those for substance abuse and dependence, such as preoccupation with the behavior, diminished ability to control the behavior, tolerance, withdrawal, and adverse psychosocial consequences. Diagnostic criteria have been proposed for other behavioral addictions, and these are usually also based on established diagnoses for substance abuse and dependence.[5]

A proposed diagnosis for hypersexual disorder includes pornography as a sub-type of this disorder. It included such criteria as time consumed by sexual activity interfering with obligations, repetitive engagement in sexual activity in response to stress, repeated failed attempts to reduce these behaviors, and distress or impairment of life functioning.[6] A study on problematic Internet pornography viewing used the criteria of viewing Internet pornography more than three times a week during some weeks, and viewing causing difficulty in general life functioning.[4]

Religion effect

A 2014 released study identified a connection between a subjects religious beliefs and their self perception of pornography addiction.[7][8][9] The study's lead author is Case Western Reserve University psychology doctoral student Joshua Grubbs; the study is titled "Transgression as Addiction: Religiosity and Moral Disapproval as Predictors of Perceived Addiction to Pornography" and was published in the journal Archives of Sexual Behaviour.[8] One of the findings of the study is that the results strongly indicate a predilection in religious people to believe they are addicted to pornography regardless of how much they watch or whether it negatively impacts their lives.[9][10]

Neuroscience

Further information: Sexual addiction § Biomolecular mechanisms

ΔFosB also plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards, such as palatable food, sex, and exercise.[11][12] Natural rewards, like drugs of abuse, induce ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens, and chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological addictive state.[13][12] Thus, ΔFosB is also the key transcription factor involved in addictions to natural rewards as well,[13][14] and sex addictions in particular, since ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens is critical for the reinforcing effects of sexual reward.[12] Research on the interaction between natural and drug rewards suggests that psychostimulants and sexual reward possess cross-sensitization effects and act on common biomolecular mechanisms of addiction-related neuroplasticity which are mediated through ΔFosB.[13][14]

Diagnostic status

The current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) includes a new section for behavioral addictions, but includes only one disorder: pathological gambling,[15] while only one other behavioral addiction, Internet gaming disorder, belongs to the conditions proposed for further study in DSM-5.[15] Psychiatrists cited a lack of research support for refusing to include other behavioral disorders at this time.[15]

Porn addiction is not currently a diagnosis in DSM-5.[16][17][18] "Viewing online pornography" is mentioned verbatim inside DSM-5,[15] but it is not considered a mental disorder either.[16][17][18]

When the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) was being drafted, experts considered a proposed diagnostic addiction called hypersexual disorder, which also included a pornography subtype. But in the end, reviewers determined that there wasn't enough evidence to include hypersexual disorder or its subtypes in the 2013 edition.[16]

— Kirsten Weir, Is pornography addictive?

While pornography is mentioned inside DSM-5 when discussing several paraphilias, it is not yet included as an independent diagnosis.[19] DSM-5 does not consider pornography to be a mental health problem.[19]

In 2011, the American Society of Addiction Medicine published a definition of addiction that for the first time stated that addiction includes pathological pursuit of all kinds of external rewards and not just substance dependence.[20] This definition does not explicitly include porn addiction. Instead ASAM uses the phrase, "sexual behavior addiction".

The status of pornography addiction as an addictive disorder, rather than simply a compulsivity, has been hotly contested, particularly by a small group of researchers.[21][unreliable medical source?] However, their work has been challenged in the peer-reviewed literature.[22][unreliable medical source?]

However, Dr. Richard Krueger, DSM-5 work-group member (Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders) and associate clinical professor of psychiatry at Columbia University’s College of Physicians and Surgeons, has said that he "has little doubt porn addiction is real and will eventually garner enough attention to be recognized as a mental illness" by the DSM.[23][unreliable medical source?] Krueger also stated "most people would do it and it won’t become a problem" and recognized that there is yet no academic evidence for considering it a mental disorder.[23][unreliable medical source?]

Treatment

Cognitive-behavioral therapy has been suggested as a possible effective treatment for pornography addiction based on its success with Internet addicts, though no clinical trials have been performed to assess effectiveness among pornography addicts as of 2012.[24] Acceptance and commitment therapy has also been shown to be a potentially effective treatment for problematic Internet pornography viewing.[4]

Online pornography

See also: Internet addiction disorder § Internet addiction and pornography

Some clinicians and support organizations recommend voluntary use of Internet content-control software, Internet monitoring, or both, to manage online pornography use.[25][26][27]

Sex researcher Alvin Cooper and colleagues suggested several reasons for using filters as a therapeutic measure, including curbing accessibility that facilitates problematic behavior and encouraging clients to develop coping and relapse prevention strategies.[25] Cognitive therapist Mary Anne Layden suggested that filters may be useful in maintaining environmental control.[27] Internet behavior researcher David Delmonico stated that, despite their limitations, filters may serve as a "frontline of protection."[26]

NoFap

The NoFap movement is an online community founded in 2011.[28] It serves as a support group for those who wish to avoid the use of pornography and/or masturbation.[29][30]

Epidemiology

Most studies of prevalence use a convenience sample. One study of a convenience sample of 9,265 people found that 1% of Internet users are clearly addicted to cybersex and 17% of users meet criteria for problematic sexual compulsivity, meaning they score above one standard deviation of the mean on the Kalichman Sexual Compulsivity Scale.[31] A survey of 84 college-age males found that 20–60% of a sample of college-age males who use pornography found it to be problematic.[32] Research on Internet addiction disorder indicates rates may range from 1.5 to 8.2% in Europeans and Americans.[33] Internet pornography users are included in Internet users, and Internet pornography has been shown to be the Internet activity most likely to lead to compulsive disorders.[34]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Stein, Dan J.; Hollander, Eric; Rothbaum, Barbara Olasov (31 August 2009). Textbook of Anxiety Disorders. American Psychiatric Pub. pp. 359–. ISBN 978-1-58562-254-2. Retrieved 24 April 2010.
  2. ^ Parashar A, Varma A (April 2007). "Behavior and substance addictions: is the world ready for a new category in the DSM-V?". CNS Spectr. 12 (4): 257, author reply 258–9. PMID 17503551.
  3. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1556/JBA.2.2013.002, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1556/JBA.2.2013.002 instead.
  4. ^ a b c d Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1016/j.beth.2009.06.002, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1016/j.beth.2009.06.002 instead.
  5. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.3109/00952990.2010.491884, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.3109/00952990.2010.491884 instead.
  6. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1007/s10508-009-9574-7, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1007/s10508-009-9574-7 instead.
  7. ^ Grubbs, Joshua (12 February 2014). "Transgression as Addiction: Religiosity and Moral Disapproval as Predictors of Perceived Addiction to Pornography". Archives of Sexual Behavior. Retrieved 1 May 2014.
  8. ^ a b Staff. "Christians fear porn addiction A psychology study found that people who regard themselves as very religious may regard themselves as addicts – even if they watch internet porn only once". Health24.com. Retrieved 4 April 2014.
  9. ^ Abel, Jennifer. "Researchers: pornography addiction isn't real Though self-identified porn addicts are probably sincere". Consumer Affairs. Retrieved 1 May 2014.
  10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Nestler was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  11. ^ a b c Blum K, Werner T, Carnes S, Carnes P, Bowirrat A, Giordano J, Oscar-Berman M, Gold M (2012). "Sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll: hypothesizing common mesolimbic activation as a function of reward gene polymorphisms". J. Psychoactive Drugs. 44 (1): 38–55. doi:10.1080/02791072.2012.662112. PMC 4040958. PMID 22641964. It has been found that deltaFosB gene in the NAc is critical for reinforcing effects of sexual reward. Pitchers and colleagues (2010) reported that sexual experience was shown to cause DeltaFosB accumulation in several limbic brain regions including the NAc, medial pre-frontal cortex, VTA, caudate, and putamen, but not the medial preoptic nucleus. Next, the induction of c-Fos, a downstream (repressed) target of DeltaFosB, was measured in sexually experienced and naive animals. The number of mating-induced c-Fos-IR cells was significantly decreased in sexually experienced animals compared to sexually naive controls. Finally, DeltaFosB levels and its activity in the NAc were manipulated using viral-mediated gene transfer to study its potential role in mediating sexual experience and experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. Animals with DeltaFosB overexpression displayed enhanced facilitation of sexual performance with sexual experience relative to controls. In contrast, the expression of DeltaJunD, a dominant-negative binding partner of DeltaFosB, attenuated sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance, and stunted long-term maintenance of facilitation compared to DeltaFosB overexpressing group. Together, these findings support a critical role for DeltaFosB expression in the NAc in the reinforcing effects of sexual behavior and sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. ... both drug addiction and sexual addiction represent pathological forms of neuroplasticity along with the emergence of aberrant behaviors involving a cascade of neurochemical changes mainly in the brain's rewarding circuitry.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ a b c Olsen CM (December 2011). "Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions". Neuropharmacology. 61 (7): 1109–1122. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.010. PMC 3139704. PMID 21459101. Cross-sensitization is also bidirectional, as a history of amphetamine administration facilitates sexual behavior and enhances the associated increase in NAc DA ... As described for food reward, sexual experience can also lead to activation of plasticity-related signaling cascades. The transcription factor delta FosB is increased in the NAc, PFC, dorsal striatum, and VTA following repeated sexual behavior (Wallace et al., 2008; Pitchers et al., 2010b). This natural increase in delta FosB or viral overexpression of delta FosB within the NAc modulates sexual performance, and NAc blockade of delta FosB attenuates this behavior (Hedges et al, 2009; Pitchers et al., 2010b). Further, viral overexpression of delta FosB enhances the conditioned place preference for an environment paired with sexual experience (Hedges et al., 2009). ... In some people, there is a transition from "normal" to compulsive engagement in natural rewards (such as food or sex), a condition that some have termed behavioral or non-drug addictions (Holden, 2001; Grant et al., 2006a). ... In humans, the role of dopamine signaling in incentive-sensitization processes has recently been highlighted by the observation of a dopamine dysregulation syndrome in some patients taking dopaminergic drugs. This syndrome is characterized by a medication-induced increase in (or compulsive) engagement in non-drug rewards such as gambling, shopping, or sex (Evans et al, 2006; Aiken, 2007; Lader, 2008)."
    Table 1"
  13. ^ a b Pitchers KK, Vialou V, Nestler EJ, Laviolette SR, Lehman MN, Coolen LM (February 2013). "Natural and drug rewards act on common neural plasticity mechanisms with ΔFosB as a key mediator". J. Neurosci. 33 (8): 3434–3442. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4881-12.2013. PMC 3865508. PMID 23426671. Drugs of abuse induce neuroplasticity in the natural reward pathway, specifically the nucleus accumbens (NAc), thereby causing development and expression of addictive behavior. ... Together, these findings demonstrate that drugs of abuse and natural reward behaviors act on common molecular and cellular mechanisms of plasticity that control vulnerability to drug addiction, and that this increased vulnerability is mediated by ΔFosB and its downstream transcriptional targets. ... Sexual behavior is highly rewarding (Tenk et al., 2009), and sexual experience causes sensitized drug-related behaviors, including cross-sensitization to amphetamine (Amph)-induced locomotor activity (Bradley and Meisel, 2001; Pitchers et al., 2010a) and enhanced Amph reward (Pitchers et al., 2010a). Moreover, sexual experience induces neural plasticity in the NAc similar to that induced by psychostimulant exposure, including increased dendritic spine density (Meisel and Mullins, 2006; Pitchers et al., 2010a), altered glutamate receptor trafficking, and decreased synaptic strength in prefrontal cortex-responding NAc shell neurons (Pitchers et al., 2012). Finally, periods of abstinence from sexual experience were found to be critical for enhanced Amph reward, NAc spinogenesis (Pitchers et al., 2010a), and glutamate receptor trafficking (Pitchers et al., 2012). These findings suggest that natural and drug reward experiences share common mechanisms of neural plasticity{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ a b c d American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 481, 797–798. ISBN 978-0-89042-555-8. In addition to the substance-related disorders, this chapter also includes gambling disorder, reflecting evidence that gambling behaviors activate reward systems similar to those activated by drugs of abuse and produce some behavioral symptoms that appear comparable to those produced by the substance use disorders. Other excessive behavioral patterns, such as Internet gaming, have also been described, but the research on these and other behavioral syndromes is less clear. Thus, groups of repetitive behaviors, which some term behavioral addictions, with such subcategories as "sex addiction," "exercise addiction," or "shopping addiction," are not included because at this time there is insufficient peer-reviewed evidence to establish the diagnostic criteria and course descriptions needed to identify these behaviors as mental disorders. ... Excessive use of the Internet not involving playing of online games (e.g., excessive use of social media, such as Facebook; viewing pornography online) is not considered analogous to Internet gaming disorder, and future research on other excessive uses of the Internet would need to follow similar guidelines as suggested herein. Excessive gambling online may qualify for a separate diagnosis of gambling disorder.
  15. ^ a b c Weir, Kirsten (April 2014). "Is pornography addictive?". Monitor on Psychology. 45 (4). Washington, D.C.: 46. ISSN 1529-4978. OCLC 612512821. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |author-name-separator=, |layurl=, |deadurl=, |laydate=, |subscription=, |nopp=, |trans_title=, |laysource=, |author-separator=, |lastauthoramp=, |separator=, |registration=, |doi_brokendate=, and |chapterurl= (help)
  16. ^ a b Hall, Paula (2014). "Chapter Ten. The pleasure, the power, and the perils of Internet pornography". In Hudson Allez, Glyn (ed.). Sexual Diversity and Sexual Offending: Research, Assessment, and Clinical Treatment in Psychosexual Therapy. Karnac Books. p. 161. ISBN 9781781813683. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |author-name-separator=, |doi_brokendate=, |deadurl=, |laydate=, |subscription=, |nopp=, |trans_title=, |trans_chapter=, |laysource=, |laysummary=, |author-separator=, |lastauthoramp=, |registration=, and |separator= (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ a b Since it is none of two behavioral addictions mentioned above.
  18. ^ a b All mentions of pornography inside DSM-5: p. 694 pornography mentioned in sexual masochism disorder; p. 696 pornography mentioned in sexual sadism disorder; p. 698, 699 pornography mentioned in pedophile disorder; p. 797 pornography disqualified as a possible internet use disorder, in the context of internet gaming disorder, which does not amount to a recognized disorder, but to a condition for further study.
  19. ^ American Society of Addiction Medicine. (2011). DEFINITION OF ADDICTION: FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS. http://www.asam.org/pdf/Advocacy/20110816_DefofAddiction-FAQs.pdf
  20. ^ Steele, V., Prause, N., Staley, C., & Fong, G. W. (2013). "Sexual Desire, not Hypersexuality, is Related to Neurophysiological Responses Elicited by Sexual Images". Socioaffective Neuroscience of Psychology. 3. doi:10.3402/snp.v3i0.20770.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ http://www.socioaffectiveneuroscipsychol.net/index.php/snp/article/view/23833/32589 "‘High desire’, or ‘merely’ an addiction? A response to Steele et al."
  22. ^ a b Tamsin McMahon Will quitting porn improve your life? A growing ‘NoFap’ movement of young men are saying no to porn and masturbation Maclean's, January 20, 2014. Quote: "But the kind of definitive research that could explain what happens to the brain while watching porn simply hasn’t been done, says Dr. Richard Krueger..."
  23. ^ Laier, Christian. Cybersex addiction: Craving and cognitive processes. Diss. Universität Duisburg-Essen, Fakultät für Ingenieurwissenschaften» Ingenieurwissenschaften-Campus Duisburg» Abteilung Informatik und Angewandte Kognitionswissenschaft, 2012.
  24. ^ a b Cooper, Alvin; Putnam, Dana E.; Planchon, Lynn A.; Boies, Sylvain C. (1999). "Online sexual compulsivity: Getting tangled in the net". Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity. 6 (2): 79. doi:10.1080/10720169908400182.
  25. ^ a b Delmonico, David L. (1997). "Cybersex: High tech sex addiction". Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity. 4 (2): 159. doi:10.1080/10720169708400139.
  26. ^ a b Layden, Mary Anne, Ph.D. (September 2005). "Cyber Sex Addiction" (PDF). Advances in Cognitive Therapy: 1–2, 4–5.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ^ "NoFap » About". NoFap LLC. Retrieved 22 May 2015. NoFap was originally founded by Alexander Rhodes on June 20, 2011 as a forum on the social media platform 'Reddit' and has since grown to become much more.
  28. ^ Cowell, Tom (17 September 2013). "No fapping, please, it's making us ill". The Telegraph. London, England: Telegraph Media Group. Retrieved 22 May 2015.
  29. ^ McMahon, Tamsin (20 January 2014). "Will quitting porn improve your life?: A growing 'NoFap' movement of young men are saying no to porn and masturbation". Maclean's. Toronto, Canada: Rogers Media. Retrieved 22 May 2015.
  30. ^ Cooper, A., Delmonico, D. L., & Burg, R. (2000). Cybersex user, abusers, and compulsives. Sexual Addiction and Compulsivity, 7, 5–29.
  31. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1080/10720160903300788, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1080/10720160903300788 instead.
  32. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.3109/00952990.2010.491880, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.3109/00952990.2010.491880 instead.
  33. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 16497122, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=16497122 instead.

Further reading

  • Stafford, Duncan E (2010). Turned On: Intimacy in a Pornized Society (ISBN 978-0-9564987-1-7). Witting Press, Cambridge
  • Cooper, Al (2002). Sex and the Internet: A Guidebook for Clinicians (ISBN 1-58391-355-6) Routledge
  • Patrick Carnes (1991). Don't Call It Love: Recovery from Sexual Addiction (ISBN 978-0-553-35138-5) Bantam
  • P. Williamson, S. Kisser (1989). Answers In the Heart: Daily Meditations for Men and Women Recovering from Sex Addiction (ISBN 978-0-89486-568-8) Hazelden
  • Patrick Carnes (2007). In the Shadows of the Net: Breaking Free of Compulsive Online Sexual Behavior (ISBN 978-1-59285-478-3) Hazelden
  • Patrick Carnes (2001). Out of the Shadows: Understanding Sexual Addiction (ISBN 978-1-56838-621-8) Hazelden
  • Sex Addicts Anonymous (ISBN 0-9768313-1-7)

External links

Pornography addiction at Curlie

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