Ibn al-Haytham: Difference between revisions
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'''{{transl|ar|ALA|Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham}}''' ( |
'''{{transl|ar|ALA|Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham}}''' ( [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: أبو علي، الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم, [[Latinisation (literature)|Latinized]]: '''Alhacen''' or (deprecated)<ref>Lindberg, 1996.</ref> '''Alhazen''') (965 in [[Basra]] – c. 1040 in [[Cairo]]) was a [[Muslim]]<ref>http://www.amualumni.8m.com/Scientist3.htm <br>http://www.islamic-study.org/optics.htm</ref> [[scientist]], [[polymath]], [[mathematician]], [[astronomer]] and [[philosopher]], described in various sources as [[Arab]].<ref>{{Harv|Child|Shuter|Taylor|1992|p=70}} <br> {{Harv|Dessel|Nehrich|Voran|1973|p=164}}{{citation not found}} <br> {{Harv|Samuelson|Crookes|p=497}} <br> Understanding History by John Child, Paul Shuter, David Taylor - Page 70.</ref><ref name="samuelson1">Science and Human Destiny by Norman F. Dessel, Richard B. Nehrich, Glenn I. Voran - Page 164.<br> The Journal of Science, and Annals of Astronomy, Biology, Geology by James Samuelson, William Crookes - Page 497.</ref><ref>{{Harv|Smith|1992}} <br> {{Harv|Grant|2008}} <br> {{Harv|Vernet|2008}} <br> {{citation|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-IbnalHay.html|contribution=Ibn al-Haytham|title=[[Columbia Encyclopedia]]|edition=Sixth|year=2007|accessdate=2008-01-23|isbn=0-7876-5075-7|author=Paul Lagasse|publisher=Columbia}}</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/738111/Ibn-al-Haytham] <br> {{Harv|Dessel|Nehrich|Voran|1973|p=164}} <br> {{Harv|Samuelson|Crookes|p=497}}</ref><ref name="samuelson1"/><ref>[http://www.ibnalhaytham.net/custom.em?pid=571860 Review of ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist''], [[Kirkus Reviews]], December 1, 2006: {{quote|a devout, brilliant polymath}} {{Harv|Hamarneh|1972}}: {{quote|A great man and a universal genius, long neglected even by his own people.}} {{Harv|Bettany|1995}}: {{quote|Ibn ai-Haytham provides us with the historical personage of a versatile universal genius.}}</ref> He made significant contributions to the principles of [[optics]], as well as to [[physics]], [[astronomy]], [[mathematics]], [[ophthalmology]], [[philosophy]], [[visual perception]], and to the [[scientific method]]. He also wrote insightful commentaries on works by [[Aristotle]], [[Ptolemy]], and the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] mathematician [[Euclid]].<ref>"''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kZcCtT1ZeaEC&pg=PA142&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false The rainbow bridge: rainbows in art, myth, and science]''". Raymond L. Lee, Alistair B. Fraser (2001). [[Penn State Press]]. p.142. ISBN 0-271-01977-8</ref> |
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He is frequently referred to as '''Ibn al-Haytham''', and sometimes as '''al-Basri''' (Arabic: البصري), after his birthplace in the city of Basra.<ref name=MacTutor/> He was also nicknamed ''Ptolemaeus Secundus'' ("Ptolemy the Second")<ref name="Corbin149">{{Harv|Corbin|1993|p=149}}</ref> or simply "The Physicist"<ref>{{Harv|Lindberg|1967|p=331}}</ref> in medieval Europe. |
He is frequently referred to as '''Ibn al-Haytham''', and sometimes as '''al-Basri''' (Arabic: البصري), after his birthplace in the city of Basra.<ref name=MacTutor/> He was also nicknamed ''Ptolemaeus Secundus'' ("Ptolemy the Second")<ref name="Corbin149">{{Harv|Corbin|1993|p=149}}</ref> or simply "The Physicist"<ref>{{Harv|Lindberg|1967|p=331}}</ref> in medieval Europe. |
Revision as of 23:02, 15 December 2012
Alhazen | |
---|---|
Born | CE[1] (354 AH)[2] | July 1, 965
Died | March 6, 1040[1] (430 AH)[3] | (aged 74)
Known for | Book of Optics, Doubts Concerning Ptolemy, scientific method, experimental science, visual perception |
Scientific career | |
Fields | Physicist and Mathematician |
Template:Contains Arabic text Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham ( Arabic: أبو علي، الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم, Latinized: Alhacen or (deprecated)[5] Alhazen) (965 in Basra – c. 1040 in Cairo) was a Muslim[6] scientist, polymath, mathematician, astronomer and philosopher, described in various sources as Arab.[7][8][9][10][8][11] He made significant contributions to the principles of optics, as well as to physics, astronomy, mathematics, ophthalmology, philosophy, visual perception, and to the scientific method. He also wrote insightful commentaries on works by Aristotle, Ptolemy, and the Greek mathematician Euclid.[12]
He is frequently referred to as Ibn al-Haytham, and sometimes as al-Basri (Arabic: البصري), after his birthplace in the city of Basra.[13] He was also nicknamed Ptolemaeus Secundus ("Ptolemy the Second")[14] or simply "The Physicist"[15] in medieval Europe.
Born circa 965, in Basra, present-day Iraq, he lived mainly in Cairo, Egypt, dying there at age 74.[14] According to one version of his biography, overconfident about practical application of his mathematical knowledge, he assumed that he could regulate the floods of the Nile.[16] After being ordered by Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, the sixth ruler of the Fatimid caliphate, to carry out this operation, he quickly perceived the impossibility of what he was attempting to do, and retired from engineering. Fearing for his life, he feigned madness[1][17] and was placed under house arrest, during and after which he devoted himself to his scientific work until his death.[14] He is known as the "Father of modern optics and Scientific methodology"[18][19] and could be regarded as the first theoretical physicist.[19]
Overview
Biography
Alhazen was born in Basra, in the Iraq province of the Buyid Empire.[1] He probably died in Cairo, Egypt. During the Islamic Golden Age, Basra was a "key beginning of learning",[20] and he was educated there and in Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, and the focus of the "high point of Islamic civilization".[20] During his time in Buyid Iran, he worked as a civil servant and read many theological and scientific books.[13][21]
One account of his career has him called to Egypt by Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, ruler of the Fatimid Caliphate, to regulate the flooding of the Nile, a task requiring an early attempt at building a dam at the present site of the Aswan Dam.[22] After his field work made him aware of the impracticality of this scheme,[14] and fearing the caliph's anger, he feigned madness. He was kept under house arrest from 1011 until al-Hakim's death in 1021.[23] During this time, he wrote his influential Book of Optics. After his house arrest ended, he wrote scores of other treatises on physics, astronomy and mathematics. He later traveled to Islamic Spain. During this period, he had ample time for his scientific pursuits, which included optics, mathematics, physics, medicine, and practical experiments.
Some biographers have claimed that Alhazen fled to Syria, ventured into Baghdad later in his life, or was in Basra when he pretended to be insane. In any case, he was in Egypt by 1038.[13] During his time in Cairo, he became associated with Al-Azhar University, as well the city's "House of Wisdom",[24] known as Dar al-`Ilm (House of Knowledge), which was a library "first in importance" to Baghdad's House of Wisdom.[13]
Among his students were Sorkhab (Sohrab), a Persian student who was one of the greatest people of Iran's Semnan and was his student for over 3 years, and Abu al-Wafa Mubashir ibn Fatek, an Egyptian scientist who learned mathematics from Alhazan.[21]
Legacy
Alhazen made significant improvements in optics, physical science, and the scientific method. Alhazen's work on optics is credited with contributing a new emphasis on experiment.
The Latin translation of his main work, Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics),[25] exerted a great influence on Western science: for example, on the work of Roger Bacon, who cites him by name,[26] and on Johannes Kepler. His research in catoptrics (the study of optical systems using mirrors) centred on spherical and parabolic mirrors and spherical aberration. He made the observation that the ratio between the angle of incidence and refraction does not remain constant, and investigated the magnifying power of a lens. His work on catoptrics also contains the problem known as "Alhazen's problem".[27] Meanwhile in the Islamic world, Alhazen's work influenced Averroes' writings on optics,[28] and his legacy was further advanced through the 'reforming' of his Optics by Persian scientist Kamal al-Din al-Farisi (d. ca. 1320) in the latter's Kitab Tanqih al-Manazir (The Revision of [Ibn al-Haytham's] Optics).[29] The correct explanations of the rainbow phenomenon given by al-Fārisī and Theodoric of Freiberg in the 14th century depended on Alhazen's Book of Optics.[30] The work of Alhazen and al-Fārisī was also further advanced in the Ottoman Empire by polymath Taqi al-Din in his Book of the Light of the Pupil of Vision and the Light of the Truth of the Sights (1574).[31] He wrote as many as 200 books, although only 55 have survived, and many of those have not yet been translated from Arabic. Even some of his treatises on optics survived only through Latin translation. During the Middle Ages his books on cosmology were translated into Latin, Hebrew and other languages. The crater Alhazen on the Moon is named in his honour,[32] as was the asteroid 59239 Alhazen.[33] In honour of Alhazen, the Aga Khan University (Pakistan) named its Ophthalmology endowed chair as "The Ibn-e-Haitham Associate Professor and Chief of Ophthalmology".[34] Alhazen (by the name Ibn al-Haytham) is featured on the obverse of the Iraqi 10,000 dinars banknote issued in 2003,[35] and on 10 dinar notes from 1982. A research facility that UN weapons inspectors suspected of conducting chemical and biological weapons research in Saddam Hussein's Iraq was also named after him.[35][36]
Book of Optics
Alhazen's most famous work is his seven volume Arabic treatise on optics, Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics), written from 1011 to 1021.
Optics was translated into Latin by an unknown scholar at the end of the 12th century or the beginning of the 13th century.[37] It was printed by Friedrich Risner in 1572, with the title Opticae thesaurus: Alhazeni Arabis libri septem, nuncprimum editi; Eiusdem liber De Crepusculis et nubium ascensionibus.[38] Risner is also the author of the name variant "Alhazen"; before Risner he was known in the west as Alhacen, which is the correct transcription of the Arabic name.[39] This work enjoyed a great reputation during the Middle Ages. Works by Alhazen on geometric subjects were discovered in the Bibliothèque nationale in Paris in 1834 by E. A. Sedillot. Other manuscripts are preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford and in the library of Leiden.
Theory of Vision
Two major theories on vision prevailed in classical antiquity. The first theory, the emission theory, was supported by such thinkers as Euclid and Ptolemy, who believed that sight worked by the eye emitting rays of light. The second theory, the intromission theory supported by Aristotle and his followers, had physical forms entering the eye from an object. Alhazen argued that the process of vision occurs neither by rays emitted from the eye, nor through physical forms entering it. He reasoned that a ray could not proceed from the eyes and reach the distant stars the instant after we open our eyes. He also appealed to common observations such as the eye being dazzled or even injured if we look at a very bright light. He instead developed a highly successful theory which explained the process of vision as rays of light proceeding to the eye from each point on an object, which he proved through the use of experimentation.[40] His unification of geometrical optics with philosophical physics forms the basis of modern physical optics.[41]
Alhazen proved that rays of light travel in straight lines, and carried out various experiments with lenses, mirrors, refraction, and reflection.[27] He was also the first to reduce reflected and refracted light rays into vertical and horizontal components, which was a fundamental development in geometric optics.[42] He proposed a causal model for the refraction of light that could have been extended to yield a result similar to Snell's law of sines, however Alhazen did not develop his model sufficiently to attain that result.[43]
Alhazen also gave the first clear description[44] and early analysis[45] of the camera obscura and pinhole camera. While Aristotle, Theon of Alexandria, Al-Kindi (Alkindus) and Chinese philosopher Mozi had earlier described the effects of a single light passing through a pinhole, none of them suggested that what is being projected onto the screen is an image of everything on the other side of the aperture. Alhazen was the first to demonstrate this with his lamp experiment where several different light sources are arranged across a large area. He was thus the first to successfully project an entire image from outdoors onto a screen indoors with the camera obscura.
Alhazen discussed the topics of medicine, ophthalmology, anatomy and physiology, which included commentaries on Galenic works. He studied the process of sight,[46] the structure of the eye, image formation in the eye, and the visual system. He also described what became known as Hering's law of equal innervation, vertical horopters, and binocular disparity,[47] and improved on the theories of binocular vision, motion perception and horopters previously discussed by Aristotle, Euclid and Ptolemy.[48][49]
His most original anatomical contribution was his description of the functional anatomy of the eye as an optical system,[50] or optical instrument. His experiments with the camera obscura provided sufficient empirical grounds for him to develop his theory of corresponding point projection of light from the surface of an object to form an image on a screen. It was his comparison between the eye and the camera obscura which brought about his synthesis of anatomy and optics, which forms the basis of physiological optics. As he conceptualized the essential principles of pinhole projection from his experiments with the pinhole camera, he considered image inversion to also occur in the eye,[51] and viewed the pupil as being similar to an aperture.[52] Regarding the process of image formation, he incorrectly agreed with Avicenna that the lens was the receptive organ of sight, but correctly hinted at the retina being involved in the process.[48]
Scientific method
An aspect associated with Alhazen's optical research is related to systemic and methodological reliance on experimentation (i'tibar) and controlled testing in his scientific inquiries. Moreover, his experimental directives rested on combining classical physics ('ilm tabi'i) with mathematics (ta'alim; geometry in particular). This mathematical-physical approach to experimental science supported most of his propositions in Kitab al-Manazir (The Optics; De aspectibus or Perspectivae) and grounded his theories of vision, light and colour, as well as his research in catoptrics and dioptrics (the study of the refraction of light).[29] Bradley Steffens in his book Ibn Al-Haytham: First Scientist has argued that Alhazen's approach to testing and experimentation made an important contribution to the scientific method.
Alhazen's problem
His work on catoptrics in Book V of the Book of Optics contains a discussion of what is now known as Alhazen's problem, first formulated by Ptolemy in 150 AD. It comprises drawing lines from two points in the plane of a circle meeting at a point on the circumference and making equal angles with the normal at that point. This is equivalent to finding the point on the edge of a circular billiard table at which a cue ball at a given point must be aimed in order to carom off the edge of the table and hit another ball at a second given point. Thus, its main application in optics is to solve the problem, "Given a light source and a spherical mirror, find the point on the mirror where the light will be reflected to the eye of an observer." This leads to an equation of the fourth degree.[13][53] This eventually led Alhazen to derive a formula for the sum of fourth powers, where previously only the formulas for the sums of squares and cubes had been stated. His method can be readily generalized to find the formula for the sum of any integral powers, although he did not himself do this (perhaps because he only needed the fourth power to calculate the volume of the paraboloid he was interested in). He used his result on sums of integral powers to perform what would now be called an integration, where the formulas for the sums of integral squares and fourth powers allowed him to calculate the the volume of a paraboloid.[54] Alhazen eventually solved the problem using conic sections and a geometric proof. His solution was extremely long and complicated and may not have been understood by mathematicians reading him in Latin translation. Later mathematicians used Descartes' analytical methods to analyse the problem,[55] with a new solution being found in 1997 by the Oxford mathematician Peter M. Neumann.[56] Recently, Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories (MERL) researchers Amit Agrawal, Yuichi Taguchi and Srikumar Ramalingam solved the extension of Alhazen's problem to general rotationally symmetric quadric mirrors including hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptical mirrors.[57] They showed that the mirror reflection point can be computed by solving an eighth degree equation in the most general case. If the camera (eye) is placed on the axis of the mirror, the degree of the equation reduces to six.[58] Alhazen's problem can also be extended to multiple refractions from a spherical ball. Given a light source and a spherical ball of certain refractive index, the closest point on the spherical ball where the light is refracted to the eye of the observer can be obtained by solving a tenth degree equation.[58]
Other contributions
The Book of Optics describes several early experimental observations that Alhazen made in mechanics and how he used his results to explain certain optical phenomena using mechanical analogies. He conducted experiments with projectiles, and a description of his conclusions is: "it was only the impact of perpendicular projectiles on surfaces which was forceful enough to enable them to penetrate whereas the oblique ones were deflected. For example, to explain refraction from a rare to a dense medium, he used the mechanical analogy of an iron ball thrown at a thin slate covering a wide hole in a metal sheet. A perpendicular throw would break the slate and pass through, whereas an oblique one with equal force and from an equal distance would not."[59] He also used this result to explain how intense, direct light hurts the eye, using a mechanical analogy: "Alhazen associated 'strong' lights with perpendicular rays and 'weak' lights with oblique ones. The obvious answer to the problem of multiple rays and the eye was in the choice of the perpendicular ray since there could only be one such ray from each point on the surface of the object which could penetrate the eye."[59]
Sudanese psychologist Omar Khaleefa has argued that Alhazen should be considered be the "founder of experimental psychology", for his pioneering work on the psychology of visual perception and optical illusions.[60] Khaleefa has also argued that Alhazen should also be considered the "founder of psychophysics", a subdiscipline and precursor to modern psychology.[60] Although Alhazen made many subjective reports regarding vision, there is no evidence that he used quantitative psychophysical techniques and the claim has been rebuffed.[61]
Alhazen offered an explanation of the Moon illusion, an illusion that played an important role in the scientific tradition of medieval Europe.[62] Many authors repeated explanations that attempted to solve the problem of the Moon appearing larger near the horizon than it does when higher up in the sky, a debate that is still unresolved. Alhazen argued against Ptolemy's refraction theory, and defined the problem in terms of perceived, rather than real, enlargement. He said that judging the distance of an object depends on there being an uninterrupted sequence of intervening bodies between the object and the observer. When the Moon is high in the sky there are no intervening objects, so the Moon appears close. The perceived size of an object of constant angular size varies with its perceived distance. Therefore, the Moon appears closer and smaller high in the sky, and further and larger on the horizon. Through works by Roger Bacon, John Pecham and Witelo based on Alhazen's explanation, the Moon illusion gradually came to be accepted as a psychological phenomenon, with the refraction theory being rejected in the 17th century.[63] Although Alhazen is often credited with the perceived distance explanation, he was not the first author to offer it. Cleomedes (c. 2nd century) gave this account (in addition to refraction), and he credited it to Posidonius (c. 135-50 BC)[64] Ptolemy may also have offered this explanation in his Optics, but the text is obscure.[65] Alhazen's writings were more widely available in the middle ages than those of these earlier authors, and that probably explains why Alhazen received the credit.
Other works on physics
Optical treatises
Besides the Book of Optics, Alhazen wrote several other treatises on the same subject, including his Risala fi l-Daw’ (Treatise on Light). He investigated the properties of luminance, the rainbow, eclipses, twilight, and moonlight. Experiments with mirrors and magnifying lenses provided the foundation for his theories on catoptrics.[66]
In his treatise, Mizan al-Hikmah (Balance of Wisdom), Alhazen discussed the density of the atmosphere and related it to altitude. He also studied atmospheric refraction.[27]
Astrophysics
In astrophysics and the celestial mechanics field of physics, Alhazen, in his Epitome of Astronomy, argued that Ptolemaic models needed to be understood in terms of physical objects rather than abstract hypotheses; in other words that it should be possible to create physical models where (for example) none of the celestial bodies would collide with each other. The suggestion of mechanical models for the Earth centred Ptolemaic model "greatly contributed to the eventual triumph of the Ptolemaic system among the Christians of the West". Alhazen's determination to root astronomy in the realm of physical objects was important however, because it meant astronomical hypotheses "were accountable to the laws of physics", and could be criticised and improved upon in those terms.[67]
In Mizan al-Hikmah (Balance of Wisdom) Alhazen discussed the theories of attraction between masses.[27] He also wrote Maqala fi daw al-qamar (On the Light of the Moon). According to Matthias Schramm, Alhazen:
was the first to make a systematic use of the method of varying the experimental conditions in a constant and uniform manner, in an experiment showing that the intensity of the light-spot formed by the projection of the moonlight through two small apertures onto a screen diminishes constantly as one of the apertures is gradually blocked up.[68]
Mechanics
In his work Alhazen discussed theories on the motion of a body.[66] In his Treatise on Place, Alhazen disagreed with Aristotle's view that nature abhors a void, and he used geometry in an attempt to demonstrate that place (al-makan) is the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body.[69]
Astronomical works
On the Configuration of the World
In his On the Configuration of the World Alhazen presented a detailed description of the physical structure of the earth:
The earth as a whole is a round sphere whose center is the center of the world. It is stationary in its [the world's] middle, fixed in it and not moving in any direction nor moving with any of the varieties of motion, but always at rest.[70]
The book is a non-technical explanation of Ptolemy's Almagest, which was eventually translated into Hebrew and Latin in the 13th and 14th centuries and subsequently had an influence on astronomers such as Georg von Peuerbach[1] during the European Middle Ages and Renaissance.[71][72]
Doubts Concerning Ptolemy
In his Al-Shukūk ‛alā Batlamyūs, variously translated as Doubts Concerning Ptolemy or Aporias against Ptolemy, published at some time between 1025 and 1028, Alhazen criticized Ptolemy's Almagest, Planetary Hypotheses, and Optics, pointing out various contradictions he found in these works, particularly in astronomy. Ptolemy's Almagest concerned mathematical theories regarding the motion of the planets, whereas the Hypotheses concerned what Ptolemy thought was the actual configuration of the planets. Ptolemy himself acknowledged that his theories and configurations did not always agree with each other, arguing that this was not a problem provided it did not result in noticeable error, but Alhazen was particularly scathing in his criticism of the inherent contradictions in Ptolemy's works.[73] He considered that some of the mathematical devices Ptolemy introduced into astronomy, especially the equant, failed to satisfy the physical requirement of uniform circular motion, and noted the absurdity of relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathematical points, lines and circles:[74]
Ptolemy assumed an arrangement (hay'a) that cannot exist, and the fact that this arrangement produces in his imagination the motions that belong to the planets does not free him from the error he committed in his assumed arrangement, for the existing motions of the planets cannot be the result of an arrangement that is impossible to exist... [F]or a man to imagine a circle in the heavens, and to imagine the planet moving in it does not bring about the planet's motion.[75][76]
Having pointed out the problems, Alhazen appears to have intended to resolve the contradictions he pointed out in Ptolemy in a later work. Alhazen's belief was that there was a "true configuration" of the planets which Ptolemy had failed to grasp; his intention was to complete and repair Ptolemy's system, not to replace it completely.[77]
In the Doubts Concerning Ptolemy Alhazen set out his views on the difficulty of attaining scientific knowledge and the need to question existing authorities and theories:
Truth is sought for itself [but] the truths, [he warns] are immersed in uncertainties [and the scientific authorities (such as Ptolemy, whom he greatly respected) are] not immune from error...[16]
He held that the criticism of existing theories—which dominated this book—holds a special place in the growth of scientific knowledge:
Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency.[16]
Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets
Alhazen's The Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets was written c. 1038. Only one damaged manuscript has been found, with only the introduction and the first section, on the theory of planetary motion, surviving. (There was also a second section on astronomical calculation, and a third section, on astronomical instruments.) Following on from his Doubts on Ptolemy, Alhazen described a new, geometry based planetary model, describing the motions of the planets in terms of spherical geometry, infinitesimal geometry and trigonometry. He kept a geocentric universe and assumed that celestial motions are uniformly circular, which required the inclusion of epicycles to explain observed motion, but he managed to eliminate Ptolemy's equant. In general, his model made no attempt to provide a causal explanation of the motions, but concentrated on providing a complete, geometric description which could be used to explain observed motions, without the contradictions inherent in Ptolomey's model. [78]
Other astronomical works
Alhazen wrote a total of twenty-five astronomical works, some concerning technical issues such as Exact Determination of the Meridian, a second group concerning accurate astronomical observation, a third group concerning various astronomical problems and questions such as the location of the Milky Way; Alhazen argued for a distant location, based on the fact that it does not move in relation to the fixed stars.[79] The fourth group consists of ten works on astronomical theory, including the Doubts and Model of the Motions discussed above.[80]
In 1858, Muhammad Wali ibn Muhammad Ja'far, in his Shigarf-nama, claimed that Alhazen wrote a treatise Maratib al-sama in which he conceived of a planetary model similar to the Tychonic system where the planets orbit the Sun which in turn orbits the Earth. However, the "verification of this claim seems to be impossible", since the treatise is not listed among the known bibliography of Alhazen.[81]
Mathematical works
In mathematics, Alhazen built on the mathematical works of Euclid and Thabit ibn Qurra and worked on "the beginnings of the link between algebra and geometry."[82]
Geometry
In geometry, Alhazen developed analytical geometry and the link between algebra and geometry.[82] He developed a formula for adding the first 100 natural numbers, using a geometric proof to prove the formula.[83]
Alhazen explored the Euclidean parallel postulate, the fifth postulate in Euclid's Elements, using a proof by contradiction, [84] and in effect introducing the concept of motion into geometry.[85] He formulated the Lambert quadrilateral, which Boris Abramovich Rozenfeld names the "Ibn al-Haytham–Lambert quadrilateral",[86] and his attempted proof also shows similarities to Playfair's axiom.[55] His theorems on quadrilaterals, including the Lambert quadrilateral, were the first theorems on elliptical geometry and hyperbolic geometry. These theorems, along with his alternative postulates, such as Playfair's axiom, can be seen as marking the beginning of non-Euclidean geometry. His work had a considerable influence on its development among the later Persian geometers Omar Khayyám and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, and the European geometers Witelo, Gersonides, and Alfonso.[87]
In elementary geometry, Alhazen attempted to solve the problem of squaring the circle using the area of lunes (crescent shapes), but later gave up on the impossible task.[13] The two lunes formed from a right triangle by erecting a semicircle on each of the triangle's sides, inward for the hypotenuse and outward for the other two sides, are known as the lunes of Alhazen; they have the same total area as the triangle itself.[88]
Number theory
His contributions to number theory includes his work on perfect numbers. In his Analysis and Synthesis, Alhazen may have been the first to state that every even perfect number is of the form 2n−1(2n − 1) where 2n − 1 is prime, but he was not able to prove this result successfully (Euler later proved it in the 18th century).[13]
Alhazen solved problems involving congruences using what is now called Wilson's theorem. In his Opuscula, Alhazen considers the solution of a system of congruences, and gives two general methods of solution. His first method, the canonical method, involved Wilson's theorem, while his second method involved a version of the Chinese remainder theorem.[13]
Other works
Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals
Alhazen also wrote a Treatise on the Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals, although no copies have survived. It appears to have been concerned with the question of whether animals could react to music, for example whether a camel would increase or decrease its pace.
Engineering
In engineering, one account of his career as a civil engineer has him summoned to Egypt by the Fatimid Caliph, Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, to regulate the flooding of the Nile River. He carried out a detailed scientific study of the annual inundation of the Nile River, and he drew plans for building a dam, at the site of the modern-day Aswan Dam. His field work, however, later made him aware of the impracticality of this scheme, and he soon feigned madness so he could avoid punishment from the Caliph.[89]
Philosophy
In his Treatise on Place, Alhazen disagreed with Aristotle's view that nature abhors a void, and he used geometry in an attempt to demonstrate that place (al-makan) is the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body.[69] Abd-el-latif, a supporter of Aristotle's philosophical view of place, later criticized the work in Fi al-Radd ‘ala Ibn al-Haytham fi al-makan (A refutation of Ibn al-Haytham’s place) for its geometrization of place.[69]
Alhazen also discussed space perception and its epistemological implications in his Book of Optics. His experimental proof of the intromission model of vision led to changes in the way the visual perception of space was understood, contrary to the previous emission theory of vision supported by Euclid and Ptolemy. In "tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhacen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things."[90]
Theology
Alhazen was a devout Muslim, though it is uncertain which branch of Islam he followed. He may have been either a follower of the orthodox Ash'ari school of Sunni Islamic theology according to Ziauddin Sardar[91] and Lawrence Bettany[92] (and opposed to the views of the Mu'tazili school),[92] a follower of the Mu'tazili school of Islamic theology according to Peter Edward Hodgson,[93] or a follower of Shia Islam possibly according to A. I. Sabra.[94]
Alhazen wrote a work on Islamic theology, in which he discussed prophethood and developed a system of philosophical criteria to discern its false claimants in his time.[95] He also wrote a treatise entitled Finding the Direction of Qibla by Calculation, in which he discussed finding the Qibla, where Salah prayers are directed towards, mathematically.[96]
He wrote in his Doubts Concerning Ptolemy:
Truth is sought for its own sake ... Finding the truth is difficult, and the road to it is rough. For the truths are plunged in obscurity. ... God, however, has not preserved the scientist from error and has not safeguarded science from shortcomings and faults. If this had been the case, scientists would not have disagreed upon any point of science...[97]
Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency.[16]
In The Winding Motion, Alhazen further wrote:
From the statements made by the noble Shaykh, it is clear that he believes in Ptolemy's words in everything he says, without relying on a demonstration or calling on a proof, but by pure imitation (taqlid); that is how experts in the prophetic tradition have faith in Prophets, may the blessing of God be upon them. But it is not the way that mathematicians have faith in specialists in the demonstrative sciences.[98]
Alhazen described his theology:
I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the effulgence and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge.[99]
Works
According to medieval biographers, Alhazen wrote more than 200 works on a wide range of subjects, of which at least 96 of his scientific works are known. Most of his works are now lost, but more than 50 of them have survived to some extent. Nearly half of his surviving works are on mathematics, 23 of them are on astronomy, and 14 of them are on optics, with a few on other subjects.[100] Not all his surviving works have yet been studied, but some of the ones that have are given below.[96][101]
- Book of Optics
- Analysis and Synthesis
- Balance of Wisdom
- Corrections to the Almagest
- Discourse on Place
- Exact Determination of the Pole
- Exact Determination of the Meridian
- Finding the Direction of Qibla by Calculation
- Horizontal Sundials
- Hour Lines
- Doubts Concerning Ptolemy
- Maqala fi'l-Qarastun
- On Completion of the Conics
- On Seeing the Stars
- On Squaring the Circle
- On the Burning Sphere
- On the Configuration of the World
- On the Form of Eclipse
- On the Light of Stars
- On the Light of the Moon
- On the Milky Way
- On the Nature of Shadows
- On the Rainbow and Halo
- Opuscula
- Resolution of Doubts Concerning the Almagest
- Resolution of Doubts Concerning the Winding Motion
- The Correction of the Operations in Astronomy
- The Different Heights of the Planets
- The Direction of Mecca
- The Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets
- The Model of the Universe
- The Motion of the Moon
- The Ratios of Hourly Arcs to their Heights
- The Winding Motion
- Treatise on Light
- Treatise on Place
- Treatise on the Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals[102]
Notes
- ^ a b c d e (Lorch 2008)
- ^ Charles M. Falco (November 27–29, 2007), Ibn al-Haytham and the Origins of Computerized Image Analysis (PDF), International Conference on Computer Engineering & Systems (ICCES), retrieved 2010-01-30
- ^ Franz Rosenthal (1960–1961), "Al-Mubashshir ibn Fâtik. Prolegomena to an Abortive Edition", Oriens, 13, Brill Publishers: 132–158 [136–7], JSTOR 1580309
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
mathsong.com
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Lindberg, 1996.
- ^ http://www.amualumni.8m.com/Scientist3.htm
http://www.islamic-study.org/optics.htm - ^ (Child, Shuter & Taylor 1992, p. 70)
(Dessel, Nehrich & Voran 1973, p. 164) [citation not found]
(Samuelson & Crookes, p. 497)
Understanding History by John Child, Paul Shuter, David Taylor - Page 70. - ^ a b Science and Human Destiny by Norman F. Dessel, Richard B. Nehrich, Glenn I. Voran - Page 164.
The Journal of Science, and Annals of Astronomy, Biology, Geology by James Samuelson, William Crookes - Page 497. - ^ (Smith 1992)
(Grant 2008)
(Vernet 2008)
Paul Lagasse (2007), "Ibn al-Haytham", [[Columbia Encyclopedia]] (Sixth ed.), Columbia, ISBN 0-7876-5075-7, retrieved 2008-01-23{{citation}}
: URL–wikilink conflict (help) - ^ [1]
(Dessel, Nehrich & Voran 1973, p. 164)
(Samuelson & Crookes, p. 497) - ^ Review of Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Kirkus Reviews, December 1, 2006:
(Hamarneh 1972):a devout, brilliant polymath
(Bettany 1995):A great man and a universal genius, long neglected even by his own people.
Ibn ai-Haytham provides us with the historical personage of a versatile universal genius.
- ^ "The rainbow bridge: rainbows in art, myth, and science". Raymond L. Lee, Alistair B. Fraser (2001). Penn State Press. p.142. ISBN 0-271-01977-8
- ^ a b c d e f g h (O'Connor & Robertson 1999)
- ^ a b c d (Corbin 1993, p. 149)
- ^ (Lindberg 1967, p. 331)
- ^ a b c d (Sabra 2003)
- ^ (Grant 2008)
- ^ Abhandlung über das Licht", J. Baarmann (ed. 1882) Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft Vol 36
- ^ a b http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm
- ^ a b (Whitaker 2004)
- ^ a b Sajjadi, Sadegh, "Alhazen", Great Islamic Encyclopedia, Volume 1, Article No. 1917;
- ^ (Rashed 2002b)
- ^ "the Great Islamic Encyclopedia". Cgie.org.ir. Retrieved 2012-05-27.
- ^ (Van Sertima 1992, p. 382)
- ^ Grant 1974 p.392 notes the Book of Optics has also been denoted as Opticae Thesaurus Alhazen Arabis, as De Aspectibus, and also as Perspectiva
- ^ (Lindberg 1996, p. 11), passim
- ^ a b c d (Dr. Al Deek 2004)
- ^ (Topdemir 2007a, p. 77)
- ^ a b (El-Bizri 2005a)
(El-Bizri 2005b) - ^ (Topdemir 2007a, p. 83)
- ^ (Topdemir 1999) (cf. (Topdemir 2008))
- ^ Chong SM, Lim ACH, Ang PS (2002). Photographic Atlas of the Moon. Appendix 3, pp.129. Link.
- ^ 59239 Alhazen (1999 CR2), NASA, 2006-03-22, retrieved 2008-09-20
- ^ www.aku.edu/res-office/pdfs/AKU_Research_Publications_1995–1998.pdf, www.aku.edu/Admissions/pdfs/AKU_Prospectus_2008.pdf
- ^ a b (Murphy 2003)
- ^ (Burns 1999)
- ^ (Crombie 1971, p. 147, n. 2)
- ^ Alhazen (965–1040): Library of Congress Citations, Malaspina Great Books, retrieved 2008-01-23
- ^ (Smith 2001, p. xxi) harv error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSmith2001 (help)
- ^ (Lindberg 1976, pp. 60–7)
- ^ (Toomer 1964)
- ^ (Heeffer 2003)
- ^ (Sabra 1981, pp. 96–7) (cf. (Mihas 2005, p. 5))
- ^ (Kelley, Milone & Aveni 2005):
"The first clear description of the device appears in the Book of Optics of Alhazen."
- ^ (Wade & Finger 2001):
"The principles of the camera obscura first began to be correctly analysed in the eleventh century, when they were outlined by Ibn al-Haytham."
- ^ (Saad, Azaizeh & Said 2005, p. 476)
- ^ (Howard 1996)
- ^ a b (Wade 1998)
- ^ (Howard & Wade 1996)
- ^ Gul A. Russell, "Emergence of Physiological Optics", p. 691, in (Morelon & Rashed 1996) harv error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMorelonRashed1996 (help)
- ^ Gul A. Russell, "Emergence of Physiological Optics", p. 689, in (Morelon & Rashed 1996) harv error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMorelonRashed1996 (help)
- ^ Gul A. Russell, "Emergence of Physiological Optics", p. 695–8, in (Morelon & Rashed 1996) harv error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMorelonRashed1996 (help)
- ^ (Weisstein)
- ^ (Katz 1995, pp. 165–9 & 173–4)
- ^ a b (Smith 1992)
- ^ (Highfield 1997)
- ^ (Agrawal, Taguchi & Ramalingam 2011)
- ^ a b (Agrawal, Taguchi & Ramalingam 2010)
- ^ a b Gul A. Russell, "Emergence of Physiological Optics", p. 695, in Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. 2, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-12410-7
- ^ a b (Khaleefa 1999)
- ^ (Aaen-Stockdale 2008)
- ^ Ross, H.E. and Plug, C. (2002) The mystery of the moon illusion: Exploring size perception. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- ^ (Hershenson 1989, pp. 9–10)
- ^ Ross, H.E. (2000). "Cleomedes (c. 1st century AD) on the celestial illusion, atmospheric enlargement and size-distance invariance". Perception. 29: 853–861.
- ^ Ross, H.E.; Ross, G.M. (1976). "Did Ptolemy understand the moon illusion?". Perception. 5: 377–385.
- ^ a b (El-Bizri 2006)
- ^ (Duhem 1969, p. 28)
- ^ (Toomer 1964, pp. 463–4)
- ^ a b c (El-Bizri 2007)
- ^ (Langerman 1990), chap. 2, sect. 22, p. 61
- ^ (Langerman 1990, pp. 34–41)
- ^ (Gondhalekar 2001, p. 21)
- ^ (Sabra 1998)
- ^ (Langerman 1990, pp. 8–10)
- ^ (Sabra 1978b, p. 121, n. 13)
- ^ Nicolaus Copernicus, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2005-04-18, retrieved 2008-01-23
- ^ (Sabra 1998)
- ^ (Rashed 2007)
- ^ (Mohamed 2000, pp. 49–50)
- ^ (Rashed 2007, pp. 8–9)
- ^ (Arjomand 1997, pp. 5–24)
- ^ a b (Faruqi 2006, pp. 395–6):
In seventeenth century Europe the problems formulated by Ibn al-Haytham (965–1041) became known as 'Alhazen's problem'. [...] Al-Haytham’s contributions to geometry and number theory went well beyond the Archimedean tradition. Al-Haytham also worked on analytical geometry and the beginnings of the link between algebra and geometry. Subsequently, this work led in pure mathematics to the harmonious fusion of algebra and geometry that was epitomised by Descartes in geometric analysis and by Newton in the calculus. Al-Haytham was a scientist who made major contributions to the fields of mathematics, physics and astronomy during the latter half of the tenth century.
- ^ (Rottman 2000), Chapter 1
- ^ (Eder 2000)
- ^ (Katz 1998, p. 269):
In effect, this method characterized parallel lines as lines always equidisant from one another and also introduced the concept of motion into geometry.
- ^ (Rozenfeld 1988, p. 65)
- ^ (Rozenfeld & Youschkevitch 1996, p. 470):
Three scientists, Ibn al-Haytham, Khayyam and al-Tusi, had made the most considerable contribution to this branch of geometry whose importance came to be completely recognized only in the nineteenth century. In essence their propositions concerning the properties of quadrangles which they considered assuming that some of the angles of these figures were acute of obtuse, embodied the first few theorems of the hyperbolic and the elliptic geometries. Their other proposals showed that various geometric statements were equivalent to the Euclidean postulate V. It is extremely important that these scholars established the mutual connection between this postulate and the sum of the angles of a triangle and a quadrangle. By their works on the theory of parallel lines Arab mathematicians directly influenced the relevant investigations of their European counterparts. The first European attempt to prove the postulate on parallel lines – made by Witelo, the Polish scientists of the thirteenth century, while revising Alhazen's Book of Optics (Kitab al-Manazir) – was undoubtedly prompted by Arabic sources. The proofs put forward in the fourteenth century by the Jewish scholar Gersonides, who lived in southern France, and by the above-mentioned Alfonso from Spain directly border on Ibn Alhazen's demonstration.
- ^ Alsina, Claudi; Nelsen, Roger B. (2010), "9.1 Squarable lunes", Charming Proofs: A Journey into Elegant Mathematics, Dolciani mathematical expositions, vol. 42, Mathematical Association of America, pp. 137–144, ISBN 978-0-88385-348-1
- ^ (Plott 2000), Pt. II, p. 459
- ^ (Smith 2005, pp. 219–40)
- ^ (Sardar 1998)
- ^ a b (Bettany 1995, p. 251)
- ^ (Hodgson 2006, p. 53)
- ^ (Sabra 1978a, p. 54) [need quotation to verify]
- ^ (Plott 2000), Pt. II, p. 464
- ^ a b (Topdemir 2007b)
- ^ S. Pines (1962), Actes X Congrès internationale d'histoire des sciences, Vol I, Ithaca, as referenced in Sambursky, Shmuel (ed.) (1974), Physical Thought from the Presocratics to the Quantum Physicists, Pica Press, p. 139, ISBN 0-87663-712-8
{{citation}}
:|first=
has generic name (help) - ^ (Rashed 2007, p. 11)
- ^ (Plott 2000), Pt. II, p. 465
- ^ (Rashed 2002a, p. 773)
- ^ (Rashed 2007, pp. 8–9)
- ^ (Plott 2000, p. 461)
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- Rosen, Edward (1 January 1985), "The Dissolution of the Solid Celestial Spheres", Journal of the History of Ideas, 46 (1): 13–31, doi:10.2307/2709773, ISSN 0022-5037
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- Saad, Bashar; Azaizeh, Hassan; Said, Omar (October 2005), "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2 (4), Oxford University Press: 475–479, doi:10.1093/ecam/neh133, PMC 1297506, PMID 16322804
- Sabra, A. I. (1971), "The astronomical origin of Ibn al-Haytham's concept of experiment", Actes du XIIe congrès international d’histoire des sciences, 3, Albert Blanchard, Paris: 133–136. Reprinted in Sabra, A. I. (1994), Optics, Astronomy and Logic: Studies in Arabic Science and Philosophy, Collected Studies Series, vol. 444, Variorum, Aldershot, ISBN 0-86078-435-5, OCLC 29847104 30739740
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value (help). - Sabra, A. I. (1978a), "Ibn al-Haytham and the Visual Ray Hypothesis", in Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (ed.), Ismaili Contributions to Islamic Culture, Boston: Shambhala Publications, pp. 178–216, ISBN 0-87773-731-2
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(help) - Smith, A. Mark (2001), Alhacen's theory of visual perception: a critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of the first three books of Alhacen's De aspectibus, the medieval Latin version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitab al-Manazir, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 91–4, 91–5, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society & DIANE Publishing, ISBN 978-0-87169-914-5, OCLC 163278528 163278565 185537919 47168716
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Further reading
Primary literature
- Sabra, A. I., ed. (1983), The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham, Books I-II-III: On Direct Vision. The Arabic text, edited and with Introduction, Arabic-Latin Glossaries and Concordance Tables, Kuwait: National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters
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has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Sabra, A. I., ed. (2002), The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Edition of the Arabic Text of Books IV-V: On Reflection and Images Seen by Reflection. 2 vols, Kuwait: The National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters
{{citation}}
:|first=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Sabra, A. I., trans. (1989), The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Books I-II-III: On Direct Vision. English Translation and Commentary. 2 vols, Studies of the Warburg Institute, vol. 40, London: The Warburg Institute, University of London, ISBN 0-85481-072-2, OCLC 165564751 165564771 180528350 180528355 180528359 21530166 230045836 24910015 59836570
{{citation}}
: Check|oclc=
value (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Smith, A. Mark, ed. and trans. (2001), written at Philadelphia, "Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's De aspectibus, the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāzir, 2 vols.", Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 91 (4–5), Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, ISBN 0-87169-914-1, OCLC 47168716
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Smith, A. Mark, ed. and trans. (2006), "Alhacen on the Principles of Reflection: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of Books 4 and 5 of Alhacen's De Aspectibus, the Medieval Latin version of Ibn-al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāzir, 2 vols", Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 96 (2–3), Philadelphia: American Philosophical Soc., ISBN 0-87169-962-1, OCLC 123464885 185359947 185359957 219328717 219328739 70078653
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value (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Secondary literature
- Graham, Mark. How Islam Created the Modern World. Amana Publications, 2006.
- Omar, Saleh Beshara (June 1975), Ibn al-Haytham and Greek optics: a comparative study in scientific methodology, PhD Dissertation, University of Chicago, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations
- Saliba, George (2007), Islamic Science and the Making of the European Reneissance, MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-19557-7
- Belting, Hans, Afterthoughts on Alhazen’s Visual Theory and Its Presence in the Pictorial Theory of Western Perspective, in: Variantology 4. On Deep Time Relations of Arts, Sciences and Technologies In the Arabic-Islamic World and Beyond, ed. by Siegfried Zielinski and Eckhard Fürlus in cooperation with Daniel Irrgang and Franziska Latell (Cologne: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König, 2010), pp. 19–42. [2]
- Siegfried Zielinski & Franziska Latell, How One Sees, in: Variantology 4. On Deep Time Relations of Arts, Sciences and Technologies In the Arabic-Islamic World and Beyond, ed. by Siegfried Zielinski and Eckhard Fürlus in cooperation with Daniel Irrgang and Franziska Latell (Cologne: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König, 2010), pp. 19–42. [3]
External links
- Langermann, Y. Tzvi (2007). "Ibn al‐Haytham: Abū ʿAlī al‐Ḥasan ibn al‐Ḥasan". In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 556–7. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0.
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(help) (PDF version) - Sabra, A. I. (2008) [1970–80]. "Ibn Al-Haytham, Abū ʿAlī Al-Ḥasan Ibn Al-Ḥasan". Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Encyclopedia.com.
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: External link in
(help)|title=
- Ibn al-Haytham on two Iraqi banknotes
- The Miracle of Light – a UNESCO article on Ibn al-Haytham
- Biography from Malaspina Global Portal
- Short biographies on several "Muslim Heroes and Personalities" including Ibn al-Haytham
- Multimedia artwork based on Alhazen's Problem
- Report by the Telegraph of a modern day solution of Alhazen's problem
- Biography from ioNET via the Wayback Machine
- Biography from the BBC via the Wayback Machine
- Biography from Trinity College (Connecticut)
- Biography from Molecular Expressions
- The First True Scientist from BBC News
- Over the Moon From The UNESCO Courier on the occasion of the International Year of Astronomy 2009
- Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by Alhazen in .jpg and .tiff format.
- Richard Covington, Rediscovering Arabic Science, 2007, Saudi Aramco World
- Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from June 2009
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