Jump to content

Wrocław

Edit links
Coordinates: 51°07′N 17°02′E / 51.117°N 17.033°E / 51.117; 17.033
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 86.164.96.47 (talk) at 13:27, 7 October 2012 (→See also). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

"Breslau" redirects here. For other uses, see Breslau (disambiguation).
Wrocław
Top to bottom, left to right: Ostrów Tumski by night, Renoma mall, Rotunda of Racławice Panorama, Centennial Hall, City Hall, Monopol Hotel, Wrocław's dwarfs, Main Station
Top to bottom, left to right: Ostrów Tumski by night, Renoma mall, Rotunda of Racławice Panorama, Centennial Hall, City Hall, Monopol Hotel, Wrocław's dwarfs, Main Station
Flag of Wrocław
Flag
Coat of arms of Wrocław
Coat of arms
Motto: 
Wrocław – Miasto spotkań / Wrocław – the meeting place
CountryPoland
VoivodeshipLower Silesian
Countycity county
Established10th century
City rights1242
Government
 • MayorRafał Dutkiewicz
Area
 • Total292.92 km2 (113.10 sq mi)
Elevation
105−155 m (−400 ft)
Population
 (2011)
 • Total630 131[1]
Time zoneUTC+1 (CET)
 • Summer (DST)UTC+2 (CEST)
Postal code
50-041 to 54-612
Area code+48 71
Car platesDW
Websitewww.wroclaw.pl

Wrocław (/[invalid input: 'icon']ˈvrɒtswəf/; Polish pronunciation: [ˈvrɔt​͡swaf] ⓘ; German: Breslau [ˈbʁɛslaʊ̯] ⓘ; Czech: Vratislav; Latin: Vratislavia / Wratislavia), situated on the River Oder (Polish: Odra) in Lower Silesia, is the largest city in western Poland.

Wrocław is the historical capital of Silesia, and today is the capital of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship. At various times it has been part of the Kingdom of Poland, Bohemia, the Austrian Empire, Prussia, and Germany; it has been part of Poland since 1945, as a result of border changes after World War II. According to official figures for 2010, its population is 632,996, making it the fourth largest city in Poland.

Wrocław was the host of EuroBasket 1963, FIBA EuroBasket 2009, and UEFA Euro 2012; it will host the 2014 FIVB Men's Volleyball World Championship and, In 2017, the World Games, a competition in 37 non-olympic sport disciplines. The city has been selected as a European Capital of Culture for 2016.

Etymology

The city's name was first recorded as "Wrotizlava" in the chronicle of Thietmar of Merseburg, which mentions it as a seat of a newly installed bishopric in the context of the Congress of Gniezno. The first municipal seal stated Sigillum civitatis Wratislavie. A simplified name is given, in 1175, as Wrezlaw, Prezla or Breslaw. The Czech spelling was used in Latin documents as Wratislavia or Vratislavia. At that time, Prezla was used in Middle High German, which became Preßlau. In the middle of the 14th century the Early New High German (and later New High German) form of the name, Breslau, began to replace its earlier versions.

The city is traditionally believed to be named after Wrocisław or Vratislav, often believed to be Duke Vratislaus I of Bohemia. It is also possible that the city was named after the tribal duke of the Silesians or after an early ruler of the city called Vratislav.

The city's name in various languages is:


The city's name in other languages is available here.

History

Main article: History of Wrocław

The city of Wrocław originated as a Bohemian stronghold at the intersection of two trade routes, the Via Regia and the Amber Road. The name of the city was first recorded in the 10th century as Vratislavia, possibly derived from the name of a Bohemian duke Vratislav I. Its initial extent was limited to Ostrów Tumski (Cathedral Island, German: Dominsel).

Middle Ages

During Wrocław's early history, its control changed hands between Bohemia (until 992, then 1038–1054), the Kingdom of Poland (992–1038 and 1054–1202), and, after the fragmentation of the Kingdom of Poland, the Piast-ruled duchy of Silesia. One of the most important events in those times was the foundation of the Diocese of Wrocław by the Polish Duke (from 1025 king) Bolesław the Brave in 1000. Along with the Bishoprics of Kraków and Kołobrzeg, Wrocław was placed under the Archbishopric of Gniezno in Greater Poland, founded by Otto III in 1000. In the years 1034-1038 was a pagan reaction.[4]

The city became a commercial centre and expanded to Wyspa Piaskowa (Sand Island, German: Sandinsel), and then to the left bank of the River Oder. Around 1000, the town had about 1,000 inhabitants.[5] By 1139, a settlement belonging to Governor Piotr Włostowic (a.k.a. Piotr Włast Dunin) was built, and another was founded on the left bank of the River Oder, near the present seat of the University. While the city was Polish, there were also communities of Bohemians, Jews, Walloons[4] and Germans.[6]

In the first half of the 13th century Wrocław became the political centre of the divided Polish kingdom.[7]

The city was devastated in 1241 during the Mongol invasion of Europe. While the city was burned to force the Mongols to withdraw quickly, most of the population probably survived.[8]

Church of St. Giles, built 1241-42

After the Mongol invasion the town was partly populated by German settlers[9] (see: Ostsiedlung) who, in the following centuries, would gradually become its dominant ethnic group; the city, however, retained its multi-ethnic character, a reflection of its position as an important trading city on the Via Regia and the Amber Road.[10]

With the influx of settlers the town expanded and adopted German town law. The city council used Latin and German, and "Breslau", the Germanized name of the city, appeared for the first time in written records..[9] The enlarged town covered around 60 hectares, and the new main market square, which was surrounded by timber frame houses, became the new centre of the town. The original foundation, Ostrów Tumski, became the religious center. Wrocław adopted Magdeburg rights in 1262 and, at the end of the 13th century joined the Hanseatic League. The Polish Piast dynasty[11] remained in control of the region, but the right of the city council to govern independently increased.

In 1335, Breslau, together with almost all of Silesia, was incorporated into the Kingdom of Bohemia, then a part of the Holy Roman Empire. Between 1342 and 1344, two fires destroyed large parts of the city.

Renaissance, Reformation and Counter-Reformation

Breslau in the 17th century
City Towers in 1736

The Protestant Reformation reached Breslau in 1518 and the city became Protestant. However, from 1526 Silesia was ruled by the Catholic House of Habsburg. In 1618, Breslau supported the Bohemian Revolt out of fear of losing the right to freedom of religious expression. During the ensuing Thirty Years' War, the city was occupied by Saxon and Swedish troops, and lost 18,000 of 40,000 citizens to plague.

The Austrian emperor brought in the Counter-Reformation by encouraging Catholic orders to settle in Breslau, starting in 1610 with the Minorites, followed by Jesuits, Capucins, Franciscans and finally Ursulines in 1687. These orders erected buildings which shaped the city's appearance until 1945. At the end of the Thirty Years' War, however, Breslau was one of only a few Silesian cities to stay Protestant.

The precise recordkeeping of births and deaths by the city of Breslau led to the use of their data for analysis of mortality, first by John Graunt, and then later by Edmond Halley. Halley's tables and analysis, published in 1693, are considered to be the first true actuarial tables, and thus the foundation of modern actuarial science.

During the Counter-Reformation, the intellectual life of the city – shaped by Protestantism and Humanism — flourished, even as the Protestant bourgeoisie lost its role to the Catholic orders as the patron of the arts. Breslau became the centre of German Baroque literature and was home to the First and Second Silesian school of poets.

The Kingdom of Prussia annexed Breslau and most of Silesia during the War of the Austrian Succession in the 1740s. After the Seven Years' War, Habsburg empress Maria Theresa ceded the territory in 1763.

Napoleonic Wars

Entry of Prince Jérôme to Breslau, January 7, 1807

During the Napoleonic Wars, Breslau was occupied by an army of the Confederation of the Rhine. The fortifications of the city were leveled and monasteries and cloisters were secularised. The Protestant Viadrina University of Frankfurt (Oder) was relocated to Breslau in 1811, and united with the local Jesuit University to create the new Silesian Frederick-William University (Schlesische Friedrich-Wilhelm-Universität, now University of Wrocław). The city became the centre of the German Liberation movement against Napoleon, and the gathering place for volunteers from all over Germany, with the Iron Cross military decoration founded by Frederick William III of Prussia in early March 1813. The city was the centre of Prussian mobilisation for the campaign which ended at Leipzig.

Before and after World War I

Market Square 1890-1900
Wrocław Town Hall 1900

Napoleonic redevelopments increased prosperity in Silesia and Breslau. The levelled fortifications opened space for the city to grow beyond its old limits. Breslau became an important railway hub and industrial centre, notably of linen and cotton manufacture and metal industry. The reconstructed university served as a major centre of sciences, while the secularisation of life laid the base for a rich museum landscape. Johannes Brahms wrote his Academic Festival Overture to thank the university for an honorary doctorate awarded in 1881.

In 1821 (Arch)Diocese of Breslau was disentangled from the Polish ecclesiastical province (archbishopric) in Gniezno and made Breslau an exempt bishopric.

The Unification of Germany in 1871 turned Breslau into the sixth-largest city in the German Empire. Its population more than tripled to over half a million between 1860 and 1910. The 1900 census listed 422,709 residents. Important landmarks were inaugurated in 1910, the Kaiserbrücke (Kaiser bridge) and the Technische Hochschule (TH), which now houses the Wrocław University of Technology. In 1913, the newly-built Centennial Hall housed the "Ausstellung zur Jahrhundertfeier der Freiheitskriege", an exhibition commemorating the 100th anniversary of the historical German Wars of Liberation against Napoleon and the first award of the Iron Cross.

Following World War I, Breslau became the capital of the newly created Prussian Province of Lower Silesia in 1919.

The city boundaries were expanded between 1925 and 1930 to include an area of 175 km2 (68 sq mi) with a population of 600.000. In 1929, the Werkbund opened WuWa (German: Wohnungs- und Werkraumausstellung) in Breslau-Scheitnig, an international showcase of modern architecture by architects of the Silesian branch of the Werkbund. In June 1930, Breslau hosted the Deutsche Kampfspiele, a sporting event for German athletes after Germany was excluded from the Olympic Games after World War I.

Rise of Nazis and their policy towards minorities

The 1900 census listed 5,363 people (just over 1% of the population) as Polish speakers, and another 3,103 (0.7% of the population) as speaking both German and Polish.[12] The population was 58% Protestant, 37% Catholic (including at least 2% Polish[13]) and 5% Jewish (totaling 20,536 in the 1905 census).[12] The Jewish community of Breslau was among the most important in Germany, producing several distinguished artists and scientists.[14]

After the First World War the Polish community began holding masses in Polish in the Church of Saint Ann, and, as of 1921, at St. Martin's; a Polish consulate was opened on the Main Square, and a Polish School was founded by Helena Adamczewska.[15]

In August 1920, during the Polish Silesian Uprising in Upper Silesia, the Polish Consulate and School were destroyed, while the Polish Library was burned down by a mob. The number of Poles as a percentage of the total population fell to just 0.5% after the reconstitution of Poland in 1918, when many returned home.[13] Antisemitic riots occurred in 1923.[16]

Known as a stronghold of left wing liberalism during the German Empire,[17] Breslau eventually became one of the strongest support bases of the Nazis, who in the 1932 elections received 44% of the city's vote, their third-highest total in all Germany.[18]

After Hitler's takeover of the German government in 1933, political enemies of the Nazis were persecuted, and their institutions closed or destroyed; the Gestapo began actions against Polish and Jewish students (see: Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau), Communists, Social Democrats, and trade unionists. Arrests were made for speaking Polish in public, and in 1938 the Nazi-controlled police destroyed the Polish cultural centre.[19][20] Many of the city's 10,000 Jews, as well as many others seen as 'undesirable' by the Third Reich, were sent to concentration camps; those Jews who remained were killed during the Holocaust.[19] A network of concentration camps and forced labour camps was established around Breslau, to serve industrial concerns, including FAMO, Junkers and Krupp. Tens of thousands were imprisoned there.[21]

The number of Jews remaining in Breslau fell from 23,240 in 1925 to 10,659 in 1933.[22] Later, the Jewish population virtually ceased to exist.

The last big event organised by the Nazi Sports Body, called Deutsches Turn-und-Sportfest (Gym and Sports Festivities), took place in Breslau from 26 to 31 July 1938. The Sportsfest was held to commemorate the 125th anniversary of the German Wars of Liberation against Napoleon's invasion.[23]

World War II and afterwards

Delegation of German officers walking for negotiations before capitulation of Festung Breslau, 6 May 1945

For most of World War II, the fighting did not affect Breslau. In 1941 the remnants of the pre-war Polish minority in the city, as well as Polish slave labourers, organised a resistance group called Olimp. As the war continued, refugees from bombed-out German cities, and later refugees from farther east, swelled the population to nearly one million.[24] including 51,000 forced labourers in 1944, and 9,876 Allied PoWs. At the end of 1944 an additional 30,000-60,000 Poles were moved into the city after Nazis crushed the Warsaw Uprising[25] In February 1945 the Soviet Red Army approached the city. Gauleiter Karl Hanke declared the city a Festung (fortress) to be held at all costs. Hanke finally lifted a ban on the evacuation of women and children when it was almost too late. During his poorly organised evacuation in January 1945, 18,000 people froze to death in icy snowstorms and −20 °C (−4 °F) weather. By the end of the Siege of Breslau, half the city had been destroyed. An estimated 40,000 civilians lay dead in the ruins of homes and factories. After a siege of nearly three months, Hanke surrendered on 6 May 1945, days before the end of the war.[26] In August the Soviets placed the city under the control of German anti-fascists.[27]

Along with almost all of Lower Silesia, however, the city became part of Poland under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. The Polish name of Wrocław was declared official. There had been discussion among the Western Allies to place the southern Polish-German boundary on the Glatzer Neisse, which meant post-war Germany would have been allowed to retain approximately half of Silesia, including Breslau. However, the Soviets insisted the border be drawn at the Lusatian Neisse farther west.

In August 1945 the city had a German population of 189,500, and a Polish population of 17,000; that was soon to change.[27] Almost all of the German inhabitants fled or were forcibly expelled between 1945 and 1949 and were settled in Allied Occupation Zones in Germany. A small German minority remains in the city,[28] although the city's last German school was closed in 1963. The Polish population was dramatically increased by the resettlement of Poles during postwar population transfers (75%) as well as during the forced deportations from Polish lands annexed by the Soviet Union in the east region, many of whom came from Lviv (Lwów).

Wrocław is now a unique European city of mixed heritage, with architecture influenced by Bohemian, Austrian and Prussian traditions, such as Silesian Gothic and its Baroque style of court builders of Habsburg Austria (Fischer von Erlach). Wrocław has a number of notable buildings by German modernist architects including the famous Centennial Hall (Hala Stulecia or Jahrhunderthalle) (1911–1913) designed by Max Berg.

Wrocław - flood 1997

In July 1997, the city was heavily affected by a flood of the River Oder, the worst flooding in post-war Poland, Germany and the Czech Republic. About one-third of the area of the city was flooded.[29] An earlier equally devastating flood of the river took place in 1903.[30] A small part of the city was also flooded during the flood in 2010.

Climate

Wrocław is one of the warmest cities in Poland. Lying in the Lower-Silesian region, the mean annual temperature is 9.8 °C (50 °F). The coldest month is January (average temperature −0.5 °C), with snow being common in winter, and the warmest is July (average temperature 19.9 °C). The highest temperature in Wrocław was recorded on 31 July 1994 (+39.0 °C), and the lowest was recorded on 8 January 1985 (−30.0 °C).

Climate data for Wrocław
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 19.7
(67.5) 		20.1
(68.2) 		25.4
(77.7) 		32.0
(89.6) 		33.9
(93.0) 		38.0
(100.4) 		39.0
(102.2) 		37.7
(99.9) 		34.9
(94.8) 		28.1
(82.6) 		20.9
(69.6) 		17.7
(63.9) 		39.0
(102.2)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 3.0
(37.4) 		4.3
(39.7) 		9.0
(48.2) 		14.5
(58.1) 		20.0
(68.0) 		22.8
(73.0) 		24.6
(76.3) 		24.3
(75.7) 		19.9
(67.8) 		14.4
(57.9) 		7.7
(45.9) 		3.9
(39.0) 		14.0
(57.2)
Daily mean °C (°F) −0.5
(31.1) 		0.4
(32.7) 		4.2
(39.6) 		9.9
(49.8) 		14.9
(58.8) 		18.2
(64.8) 		19.9
(67.8) 		19.5
(67.1) 		15.2
(59.4) 		10.0
(50.0) 		4.7
(40.5) 		0.9
(33.6) 		9.8
(49.6)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −3.7
(25.3) 		−2.8
(27.0) 		0.2
(32.4) 		5.2
(41.4) 		10.0
(50.0) 		14.4
(57.9) 		15.3
(59.5) 		15.2
(59.4) 		11.2
(52.2) 		5.9
(42.6) 		2.3
(36.1) 		−2
(28) 		5.9
(42.6)
Record low °C (°F) −30
(−22) 		−29.4
(−20.9) 		−22.1
(−7.8) 		−6.3
(20.7) 		−3.1
(26.4) 		1.1
(34.0) 		4.7
(40.5) 		2.9
(37.2) 		−2
(28) 		−6
(21) 		−15.4
(4.3) 		−22.7
(−8.9) 		−30
(−22)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 34
(1.3) 		32
(1.3) 		39
(1.5) 		38
(1.5) 		54
(2.1) 		69
(2.7) 		75
(3.0) 		65
(2.6) 		43
(1.7) 		38
(1.5) 		41
(1.6) 		38
(1.5) 		566
(22.3)
Average precipitation days 14 12 12 10 13 12 14 13 11 13 15 12 151
Average relative humidity (%) 81 84 76 69 66 70 71 71 75 78 83 85 76
Mean monthly sunshine hours 59 68 117 169 221 225 223 217 151 118 54 44 1,670
Source: [31]

Administration

The city's current municipal offices are situated on the New Market Place

Wrocław is the capital city of Lower Silesian Voivodeship, a province (voivodeship) created in 1999. It was previously the seat of Wrocław Voivodeship. The city is a separate urban gmina and city county (powiat). It is also the seat of Wrocław County, which adjoins but does not include the city.

Wrocław was previously subdivided into five boroughs (dzielnicas):

However, the city is now divided into 48 osiedles (districts).

Wrocław is currently governed by the city's mayor and a municipal legislature known as the city council. The city council is made up of 39 councillors and is directly elected by the city's inhabitants. The remit of the council and president extends to all areas of municipal policy and development planning, up to and including development of local infrastructure, transport and planning permission. However, it is not able to draw taxation directly from its citizens, and instead receives its budget from the Polish national government whose seat is in Warsaw. The city's current mayor is Rafał Dutkiewicz, who has served in this position since 2002.

Landmarks

Centennial Hall in Wrocław
UNESCO World Heritage Site
The Hall
CriteriaCultural: i, ii, iv
Reference1165
Inscription2006 (30th Session)
Wrocław Town Hall
Wrocław Fountain

Shopping malls

Education

University of Wrocław
Wrocław University of Technology - Faculty of Architecture

Wrocław is the third largest educational centre of Poland, with 135,000 students in 30 colleges which employ some 7,400 staff.[32]

List of ten public colleges and universities:

Economy

Wrocław's major industries were traditionally the manufacture of railroad cars and electronics. In recent years the City Council has run an active policy to attract foreign investors from the high-tech sector. This resulted among others in the location of LG Electronics production cluster in Kobierzyce near Wrocław. After 1989, Wrocław became a significant financial centre and houses the headquarters of several nationwide financial institutions such as Bank Zachodni WBK, Lukas Bank, Getin Bank, and Europejski Fundusz Leasingowy. As of the end of 2008, Wrocław enjoyed a very low unemployment level of just 3.2% compared with the national level of 8.7%.[37] In 2008, per capita gross domestic product in Wrocław came to 27755$ (in Poland 17625$).

Transport

Wrocław Main Station

Wrocław is skirted on the south by the A4 motorway, which allows for a quick connection with Upper Silesia, Kraków and further east to the Ukraine, and Dresden and Berlin to the west. The A8 motorway (Wrocław ring road) around the west and north of the city connects the A4 motorway with the S8 express road that leads to Oleśnica, Łódź, Warsaw and Białystok.

The city is served by: Wrocław International Airport; a river port; the main rail station Wrocław Główny; and, adjacent to the mail railway station, a central bus station with services offered by Przedsiębiorstwo Komunikacji Samochodowej.

Public transport in Wrocław includes bus lines and 22 tram lines operated by Miejskie Przedsiębiorstwo Komunikacyjne (MPK, the Municipal Transport Company).[38]

There are private taxicab firms that operate in the city.

Wrocław has a network of bike paths and bike rentals, seasonal self (so-called Wrocław Bike City, pl: Wrocławski Rower Miejski).

Religion

Wrocław Cathedral in the oldest district of Ostrów Tumski

Like all of Poland, Wrocław's population is predominantly Roman Catholic; the city is the seat of an Archdiocese. However, post-war resettlements from Poland's ethnically and religiously more diverse former eastern territories (known in Polish as Kresy) and the eastern parts of post-1945 Poland (see Operation Vistula) account for a comparatively large portion of Greek Catholics and Orthodox Christians of mostly Ukrainian and Lemko descent. Wrocław is also unique for its "Dzielnica Czterech Świątyń" (Borough of Four Temples) — a part of Stare Miasto (Old Town) where a Synagogue, a Lutheran Church, a Roman Catholic church and an Eastern Orthodox church stand near each other. Other Protestant churches are also existent in Wroclaw and include: Baptist, Pentecostal, Methodist, Adventist and Free Christians.

Professional sports

The Municipal Stadium

The Wrocław area has many popular professional sports teams. The most popular sport today is football, thanks to Śląsk Wrocław - Polish Champion in 1977 and 2012.

In the second place is basketball, thanks to Śląsk Wrocław - the award-winning men's basketball team (17 times Polish Champion).

Matches of EuroBasket 1963 and EuroBasket 2009 to in Wrocław.

Matches of EuroBasket 1999 Women, 2009 Women's European Volleyball Championship and 2016 European Men's Handball Championship to in Wrocław.

Three first-round matches of UEFA Euro 2012's Group A were held at Wrocław at the Municipal Stadium; coincidentally, the Czech Republic played in all three games held there.

Wrocław will host the World Games 2017.

Every year a marathon Wroclaw Marathon takes place in Wroclaw.

Men's sports

  • Śląsk Wrocław — (previous names:BASCO Śląsk Wrocław, ASCO Śląsk Wrocław, Bergson Śląsk Wrocław, Era Śląsk Wrocław, Deichmann Śląsk Wrocław, Idea Śląsk Wrocław, Zepter Idea Śląsk Wrocław, Zepter Śląsk Wrocław, Śląsk ESKA Wrocław, Śląsk Wrocław, CWKS Wrocław) men's basketball team, 17 times Polish Champion, 6 times runner-up, 14 times third place; 12 times Polish Cup winner. Now in Polish 2nd league (the league after PLK and Polish 1st League)

Women's sports

Major corporations

Crédit Agricole Poland and European Leasing Fund

International relations

See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Poland

Twin towns and sister cities

Wrocław is twinned with:[44]

Partnerships

Famous people

See also: Category:People from Wrocław
See also: List of people from Wrocław
See also: List of people from Breslau

See also

References

Bibliography

English language

  • Davies, Norman (2002). Microcosm: Portrait of a Central European City. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-06243-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Till van Rahden, Jews and Other Germans: Civil Society, Religious Diversity, and Urban Politics in Breslau, 1860–1925, Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2008

Polish language

  • Harasimowicz, Jan (2001). Encyklopedia Wrocławia. Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie. ISBN 83-7384-561-5. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Kulak, Teresa (2006). Wrocław. Przewodnik historyczny (A to Polska właśnie). Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie. ISBN 83-7384-472-4.

German language

  • Scheuermann, Gerhard (1994). Das Breslau-Lexikon (2 vols.). Dülmen: Laumann Verlagsgesellschaft. ISBN 978-3-89960-132-9.
  • van Rahden, Till (2000). Juden und andere Breslauer: Die Beziehungen zwischen Juden, Protestanten und Katholiken in einer deutschen Großstadt von 1860 bis 1925. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-35732-X. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Thum, Gregor (2002). Die fremde Stadt: Breslau 1945. Berlin: Siedler. ISBN 3-88680-795-9. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Weczerka, Hugo (2003). Handbuch der historischen Stätten: Schlesien. Stuttgart: Alfred Kröner Verlag. ISBN 3-520-31602-1. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

Notes

  1. ^ Ludność. Stan i struktura w przekroju terytorialnym. Stan w dniu 31 III 2011.
  2. ^ Johann Georg Theodor (1861). Orbis latinus oder Verzeichniss der lateinischen Benennungen der bekanntesten Städte etc., Meere, Seen, Berge und Flüsse in allen Theilen der Erde nebst einem deutsch-lateinischen Register derselben. Dresden: G. Schönfeld's Buchhandlung (C. A.Werner). Retrieved 10 January 2010.
  3. ^ Wratislavia sive Budorgis celebris Elysiorum metropolis
  4. ^ a b Norman Davies "Mikrokosmos" pages 110–115
  5. ^ Weczerka, p. 39
  6. ^ Weczerka, p. 41
  7. ^ Template:Pl icon Benedykt Zientara (1997). Henryk Brodaty i jego czasy. Warsaw: Trio. pp. 317–320. ISBN 83-85660-46-1. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |chapterurl= (help)
  8. ^ Norman Davies "Mikrokosmos" page 114
  9. ^ a b Thum, p. 316
  10. ^ Norman Davies "Mikrokosmos" page 110
  11. ^ Piotr Górecki, "A local society in transition: the Henryków book and related documents", PIMS, 2007, pgs. 27 and 62, Google Books
  12. ^ a b Cf. Meyers Großes Konversationslexikon: 20 vols., 6th ed., Leipzig and Vienna: Bibliographisches Institut, 1903-1908, vol. 3: Bismarck-Archipel bis Chemnitz (1903), article: Breslau (Stadt), pp. 394-399, here p. 396. No ISBN
  13. ^ a b Harasimowicz, p. 466f
  14. ^ see Till van Rahden: Jews and Other Germans: Civil Society, Religious Diversity, and Urban Politics in Breslau, 1860–1925, ISBN 978-0-299-22694-7
  15. ^ Microcosm, page 361
  16. ^ Davies, Moorhouse, p. 396; van Rahden, Juden, p. 323–6
  17. ^ van Rahden, T (2008) Jews and other Germans: civil society, religious diversity, and urban politics in Breslau, 1860-1925, University of Wisconsin Press P234
  18. ^ Norman Davies, Mikrokosmos, page 369
  19. ^ a b Davies, Moorhouse, p. 395
  20. ^ Kulak, p. 252
  21. ^ "see article "Concentration Camps in and around Breslau 1940-1945"". Roger Moorhouse. Retrieved 28 August 2010.
  22. ^ "Territorial organisation of Breslau (German)". Verwaltungsgeschichte.de. Retrieved 8 March 2012.
  23. ^ "Breslau bonczek sportfest". Sportfest1938.prv.pl. Retrieved 28 August 2010.
  24. ^ www.wroclaw.pl (27 July 2010). "History of Wrocław". Wroclaw.pl. Retrieved 28 August 2010.
  25. ^ Norman Davies, Mikrokosmos, page 232
  26. ^ a b Mazower, M(2008) Hitler's Empire: How the Nazis Ruled Europe, Penguin Press P544
  27. ^ "NTKS Wrocław". Ntkswroclaw.vdg.pl. Retrieved 28 August 2010.
  28. ^ "Główny Urząd Statystyczny".
  29. ^ Fitch Rating Report on Wrocław dated July 2008, p.3
  30. ^ "Ranking Szkół Wyższych tygodnika WPROST". Szkoly.wprost.pl. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
  31. ^ "Ranking Szkół Wyższych tygodnika WPROST". Szkoly.wprost.pl. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
  32. ^ "Ranking Szkół Wyższych tygodnika WPROST". Szkoly.wprost.pl. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
  33. ^ "Ranking Szkół Wyższych tygodnika WPROST". Szkoly.wprost.pl. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
  34. ^ Fitch Rating Report for Wrocław dated September 2008, p.3
  35. ^ "Home page" (in Polish). Miejskie Przedsiębiorstwo Komunikacyjne. Retrieved 28 August 2010.
  36. ^ thecrew.pl
  37. ^ [1] devilswroclaw.pl
  38. ^ "Credit Suisse opens Centre of Excellence in Wrocław". 5 March 2007. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
  39. ^ "IBM Opens Service Delivery Center in Wrocław". 13 September 2010. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
  40. ^ "Microsoft opens software development centre in Wrocław". 30 September 2010. Retrieved 13 October 2010.
  41. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Wrocław Official Website – Partnership Cities of Wrocław" (in English, German, and French and Polish). Retrieved 23 October 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  42. ^ "Dresden – Partner Cities". 2008 Landeshauptstadt Dresden. Retrieved 29 December 2008. [dead link]
  43. ^ "Ramat Gan Sister Cities". Retrieved 1 November 2008. [dead link]

51°07′N 17°02′E / 51.117°N 17.033°E / 51.117; 17.033

Template:Link GA

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wrocław&oldid=516473113"