Jump to content

User:Ynoss/sandbox

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
< User:Ynoss

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Ynoss (talk | contribs) at 09:49, 22 July 2017 (→List: Update S Pegasi). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Stop icon This is Ynoss's sandbox. Please do not do any <<damage>> to it. You may edit it, but do not vandalize it or you may be blocked from editing! BTW, I am not an admin but later in the future. Thank you—Ynoss THE OFFICIAL ★ ✉ discussion / CONTRIBS 08:18, 16 July 2017 (UTC)

This is a list of largest objects in the universe. Black holes, nebulae, galaxies, superclusters, voids and galaxy filaments are not included, but to give you a perspective of how big things can get, here is a reference point:

Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, the largest known structure, is 6,000,000,000 × 10,000,000,000 light years

KBC Void (larger than the Giant Void), the largest known void, is 2,000,000,000 light years

Caelum Supercluster, the largest known supercluster, is 910,000,000 light years

IC 1101, the largest known galaxy, is 5,500,000 × 6,600,000 light years in diameter.

NGC 604, the largest known nebula, is 1,520 light years in diameter.

S5 0014+81, the most massive black hole known, is 40 billion solar masses which is equal to 1,582 astronomical units.


L1551 IRS 5 is *not* 10,600 solar radii because, its size is not confirmed (Its size is probably 0.212 solar radii), because of his age.

  • As the Earth, due to collisions with asteroids, the Earth's radius has decreased.



  • As the Sun too, due to formation, the Sun's radius has decreased as the Earth.
And the stellar evolutionary theory limit is only 2,000 (or 3,000) solar radii so, L 1551 IRS5's size can be no larger than 3,000 solar radii.

And also Shadron Soul and VY Masses Majoris don't exist.

Not to be confused with List of most massive stars.
Relative sizes of the planets in the Solar System and some of the largest stars:

Below is a list of the largest stars so far discovered, ordered by radius. The unit of measurement used is the radius of the Sun (695,700 km; 432,288 mi).

Caveats

File:UY Scuti zoomed in, Rutherford Observatory, 07 September 2014.jpeg
UY Scuti as seen in visible light.

The exact order of this list is not complete, nor is it perfectly defined:

  • There are sometimes high uncertainties in derived values and sizes;
  • The distances to most of these stars are uncertain to differing degrees and this uncertainty affects the size measurements;
  • All the stars in this list have extended atmospheres, many are embedded in mostly opaque dust shells or disks, and most pulsate, such that their radii are not well defined;
  • There are theoretical reasons for expecting that no stars in the Milky Way are larger than approximately 2,600 times the Sun (roughly 3,715 K and Mbol = −9), based on evolutionary models. The exact limit depends on the metallicity of the star, so for example supergiants in the Magellanic Clouds have slightly different limiting temperature and luminosity. Stars exceeding the limit have been seen to undergo large eruptions and to change their spectral type over just a few months;[1]
  • A survey of the Magellanic Clouds has catalogued most of the red supergiants and 50 of them are larger than the 700 R☉ (490,000,000 km; 3.3 AU; 300,000,000 mi) cutoff point of this table, with the largest at 1,200–1,300.[2]

List

List of the largest stars
Star name Solar radii
(Sun = 1) 		Notes
UY Scuti 1,708 ± 192[3] Margin of error in size determination: ± 192 solar radii. At its smallest, its size would be similar to that of V354 Cephei (see below).
WOH G64 1,540[4]–1,730[5] This would be the largest star in the LMC, but is unusual in position and motion and might still be a foreground halo giant. Margin of possible error: ± 77 solar radii (Levesque 2009).
RW Cephei 1,535[6][7] ( 1,260–1,610 [citation needed]) RW Cep is variable both in brightness (by at least a factor of 3) and spectral type (observed from G8 to M), thus probably also in diameter. Because the spectral type and temperature at maximum luminosity are not known, the quoted size is just an estimate.
Westerlund 1-26 1,530-1,580[8] (–2,544)[9][10] Very uncertain parameters for an unusual star with strong radio emission. The spectrum is variable but apparently the luminosity is not. Clark et al estimated it to be as large as 1,951–2,544 R☉.
V354 Cephei 690[11]-1,520[1]
HR 5171 A 1,490 ± 540[12] HR 5171 A is a highly distorted star in a close binary system, losing mass to the secondary. According to Chesneau et al; it may be the largest star of its type (yellow hypergiant), but may be of early K-type class or of early M-type. In another opinion (such as Chesneau, Meilland and Chapellier) say that the star has a radius around 1,315 ± 260 R☉.[13]
KY Cygni 1,420–2,850 [1] The upper estimate is due to an unusual K band measurement and thought to be an artefact of a reddening correction error. The lower estimate is consistent with other stars in the same survey and with theoretical models.
VY Canis Majoris 1,420 Humphreys et al originally estimated the radius of VY CMa to be at 2,252 solar radii; a size so large that places it outside the bounds of stellar evolutionary theory. The quoted size is based on an improved measurement by Wittowski et al. Another study by Massey, Levesque, and Plez concludes that the star has a radius around 600-2,800 solar radii.[14]
AH Scorpii 1,287-1,535[3] AH Sco is variable by nearly 3 magnitudes in the visual range, and an estimated 20% in total luminosity. The variation in diameter is not clear because the temperature also varies.
VV Cephei A 1,050–1,900 VV Cep A is a highly distorted star in a close binary system, losing mass to the secondary for at least part of its orbit.
VX Sagittarii 1,350–1,940[15](–1,520)[11] VX Sgr is a pulsating variable with a large visual range and varies significantly in size.
SMC 18136 1,310[2] This would be the largest star in the SMC.
Mu Cephei (Herschel's "Garnet Star") 650[16]-1,420[1][17]
BI Cygni 916[11]-1,240[1]
S Persei 780-1,230[1] In the Perseus Double Cluster
RAFGL 2139 (IRC-10414) 1,200[18] RAFGL 2139 is a red supergiant companion to WR 114.
PZ Cassiopeiae 1,190-1,940[1] The upper estimate is due to an unusual K band measurement and thought to be an artefact of a reddening correction error. The lower estimate is consistent with other stars in the same survey and with theoretical models.
NML Cygni 1,183[19]-2,208.5[20] NML Cyg is a semiregular variable star surrounded by a circumstellar nebula and is heavily obscured by dust extinction. Previously thought to be as large as 1,650 or 2,775 R☉.[20]
Betelgeuse (Alpha Orionis) 1,180[21][22] Ninth brightest star in the night sky. The angular diameter of Betelgeuse is only exceeded by R Doradus and the Sun.
EV Carinae 1,168[23]
BC Cygni 1,140[1] 856–1,553[24]
RT Carinae 1,090[1]
V396 Centauri 1,070[1]
HV 11423 1,060–1,220[25] HV 11423 is variable in spectral type (observed from K0/1 I to M4.5/5 I), thus probably also in diameter. In October 1978, he appeared as a star of M0I type.
CK Carinae 1,060[1]
V602 Carinae 860[1]-1,050[26]
V1749 Cygni 620-1,040[1]
U Lacertae 384–1,025[11]
KW Sagittarii 1,009[3]-1,460[1] Margin of possible error: ± 142 solar radii (Torres 2013).
NR Vulpeculae 980[1]
HV 2112 972[27]
GCIRS 7 960 ± 92[28]
S Cassiopeiae 930[29][30] The largest S-type star existent in Milky Way.[citation needed]
IX Carinae 920[1]
Antares A (Alpha Scorpii) 883[31] (653-1,246[foot 1])
V384 Puppis 500[11]-850[1]
CW Leonis 826[19]
BO Carinae 790[1]
SU Persei 780[1] In the Perseus Double Cluster
RS Persei 770[32]-1,000[1] In the Perseus Double Cluster. Margin of possible error: ± 30 solar radii (Baron 2014).
V355 Cepheus 300[11]-770[1]
V915 Scorpii 760[33]
S Cephei 760[34]
V382 Carinae 747[35] Yellow hypergiant, one of the rarest types of star.
RU Virginis 742[34]
XX Persei 710[36] (570–1,300[citation needed]) In the Perseus Double Cluster. The lower size is calculated from mass and luminosity figures. The upper estimate might not be true.
V648 Cassiopeiae 710[1]
TV Geminorum 620-710[37](-770[1])
V528 Carinae 700[1]
The following well-known stars are listed for the purpose of comparison.
RW Cygni 680[38]–980[1]
TZ Cassiopeiae 645[17]–800[1]
Psi1 Aurigae 637[citation needed]
NO Aurigae 630
V1749 Cygni 620-1,040[1] The upper estimate is due to an unusual K band measurement and thought to be an artifact of a reddening correction error. The lower estimate is consistent with other stars in the same survey and with theoretical models.
CE Tauri ("Ruby Star")[39] 601 ± 83[40] 119 Tauri, unofficially nicknamed the Ruby Star. Can be occulted by the Moon, allowing accurate determination of its apparent diameter.
DU Crucis 596[41]
S Pegasi 459-574[42]
W Hydrae 562[43]
S Coronae Borealis 537–664[44]
R Andromedae 485 ± 125
Chi Cygni 348–480[45]
R Hydrae 460
Rho Cassiopeiae 450 ± 50[46] Yellow hypergiant, one of the rarest types of a star.
Eta Carinae A (Tseen She) 430 ± 370[47] Previously thought to be the most massive single star, but in 2005 it was realized to be a binary system. Its size is poorly defined.
S Orionis 411–498[48]
R Leporis 400 ± 90[49] One of the largest carbon stars existent in the Milky Way.
V509 Cassiopeiae 400[50]–900[51]
La Superba (Y Canum Venaticorum) 390[52] Currently one of the coolest and reddest stars.
V838 Monocerotis 380 ± 90[53] V838 Mon is a new type of object known as a Luminous red nova. The very large cool "L-type supergiant" reported with this large radius is a transient object which will contract rapidly over a few decades. Once topped to the list as one of the largest stars. Lane et al originally estimated the radius of V838 Mon to be at 1,570 ± 400 solar radii.
S Doradus 100–380[54] Prototype S Doradus variable.
U Orionis 370 ± 96
R Doradus 370 ± 50[55] Star with the second largest apparent size after the Sun.
R Leonis 320–350[56]
V337 Carinae 350
The Pistol Star 346 ± 40[57] Blue hypergiant, currently among the most massive and luminous stars.
Mira A (Omicron Ceti) 332–402[58] Prototype Mira variable.
T Cephei 329[59]
V381 Cephei 327
Pi Puppis 290
Alpha Herculis A (Ras Algethi) 264–303[60]
R Cassiopeiae 263[61]
Cygnus OB2-12 246
Delta Canis Majoris (Wezen) 237 ± 66[62] 36th brightest star in the night sky.
LBV 1806-20 150–236
Zeta Cephei 230[63]
HR Carinae 220[64]
Deneb A (Alpha Cygni) 220 ± 17[65] 19th brightest star in the night sky.
Omicron1 Canis Majoris 231
V810 Centauri 210
Zeta Aurigae (Haedus) 200[66]
Delta2 Lyrae 200
Lambda Velorum (Al Suhail) 200
RS Puppis 200
Epsilon Pegasi (Enif) 185
L Carinae 179
6 Cassiopeiae 170
Rho Persei (Gorgonea Tertia) 164
Epsilon Carinae (Avior) 153
Gamma Cygni (Sadir) 150
Epsilon Geminorum (Mebsuta) 150
V533 Carinae (VV Storm) 141.5[67]
Epsilon Aurigae A (Almaaz) 135–190 Epsilon Aurigae was incorrectly hailed as the largest known star before 1970 with a radius around 2,700–3,000 R☉ (295-2,600 R☉ for Epsilon Aurigae B), even though it later turned out not to be an infrared light star but rather a dusk torus surrounding the system.
Mu Boötis (Alkalurops) 130
66 Andromedae 130
QS Aquilae 130
56 Aquilae 130
L Puppis 126
Iota Scorpii (Apollyon) 125
Delta Apodis 125
HIP 110307 124.1
32 G. Hydrae 121.7
I Carinae 120
Xi Puppis (Asmidiske) 120
Mu Sagittarii (Polis) 115
Omicron Cygni 115
Gamma Aquilae (Tarazed) 110
34 Boötis 110
Beta Arae 110
Atria (Alpha Trianguli Australis) 109
Beta Cygni A1 (Albireo) 109[68]
Beta Pegasi (Scheat) 95
Peony Nebula Star 92[69] Candidate for most luminous star in the Milky Way.
17 Camelopardalis 91.3
Beta Andromedae (Mirach) 90
R Scuti 87.4
Gamma Crucis (Gacrux) 84[67]
Nu Cephei 83.5
Gamma Andromedae (Almach) 83
Theta Herculis (Rukbalgethi Genubi) 80
Var 83 80
Rigel A (Beta Orionis A) 78.9 ± 7.4[70] Seventh brightest star in the night sky.
Alpha Leporis (Arneb) 77
P Cygni 76
Beta Doradus 76
DL Crucis 75-80
Pi Herculis 72
Canopus (Alpha Carinae) 71 ± 7[40] Second brightest star in the night sky.
13 Boötis 71
62 Sagittarii 70
Nu Aquilae (Equator Star) 66
R Coronae Borealis 65
Delta Virginis (Auva) 65
Delta Sagittarii (Kaus Media) 62
Alpha Persei (Mirfak) 60
Zeta Geminorum (Mekbuda) 60
Eta Aquilae (Bezek) 60
89 Herculis 60
Upsilon Sagittarii 60
Alpha Aquarii (Sadalmelik) 60
CPD -572874 60
Chi Orionis 59
Alpha Persei (Mirfak) 56
Iota Aurigae (Al Kab) 55
FF Aquilae 55
Alpha Apodis 55
Tau Serpentis 54
Beta Cancri (Tarf) 53
Alpha Antliae 53
Zeta¹ Scorpii 52
Alphard (Alpha Hydrae) 50.5
Gamma Draconis (Eltanin) 50
Beta Aquarii (Sadalsuud) 50
HD 5980 A 48-160
Epsilon Boötis (Izar) 48
Zeta² Scorpii 48
AG Antliae 47
V428 Andromedae 46.3
HD 13189 46
HD 203857 46
Aldebaran A (Alpha Tauri) 44.2 ± 0.9[71]
Alpha Cassiopeiae (Schedar) 42
Alpha Ceti (Menkar) 42
Delta Cephei (Alrediph) 41.6
Beta Ursae Minoris (Kochab) 41
Beta Draconis (Rastaban) 40
BD Camelopardalis 40
HD 5980 B 40
Eta Canis Majoris (Aludra) 37.8
Polaris (Alpha Ursae Minoris) 37.5[72] The current northern pole star.
87 Leonis 37
Gamma Centauri (Muhlifan) 36.5
S Normae 35.6
R136a1 35.4[73] Also on the list as the most massive and luminous star.
Sher 25 35
Gamma Leonis (Algieba) 31.9
Alpha Camelopardalis 31.2
Alpha Ursae Majoris (Dubhe) 30
11 Lacertae 30
Beta Camelopardalis 30
Cygnus OB2-8 28
Eta Leonis (Al Jabhah) 27
QPM-241 (Archen Star) 27
R Apodis 26.3
Epsilon Orionis (Alnilam) 26
Eta Piscium (Kullat Nunu) 26
Melnick 42 26
Arcturus (Alpha Boötis) 25.4[74] Brightest star in the northern hemisphere
HD 93129A 25
11 Ursae Minoris 24.1
HD 47536 23.5
Epsilon Leonis (Algenubi) 23
42 Draconis 22 ± 1
Alpha Reticuli 21
Chi Virginis 20.9
19 Cephei 20–30
HDE 226868 20–22[75] The supergiant companion of black hole Cygnus X-1. The black hole is 500,000 times smaller than the star (or 58.4388 km in diameter).
Zeta Orionis (Alnitak) 20
Theta Scorpii (Sargas) 20
Beta Herculis (Kornephoros) 20
Theta Apodis 20
Alpha Sagittae (Alsahm) 20
Stars of Westerlund 2 19.3
HR 2422 Monocerotis (Plaskett's Star) 19.2
Kappa Cassiopeiae 19
Beta Scorpii (Acrab) 19
Beta Lyrae (Sheliak) 19
Zeta Puppis (Naos) 18.6
R 122 18.5
HD 93250 18
Alpha Microscopii 17.5
LH45-425 A 17.5
Upsilon Hydrae 17.1
Beta Ceti (Deneb Kaitos) 17
Epsilon Canis Majoris (Adhara) 17
LY Aurigae 16
Theta Centauri (Menkent) 16
Beta Corvi (Kraz) 16
Delta Orionis A (Mintaka) 15.8
Nu Ophiuchi (Sinistra) 15.25
Alpha Arietis (Hamal) 15
Gamma Cassiopeiae (Tsih) 14
Beta Ophiuchi (Celbalrai) 13.2
VV Cephei B 13[76]–25[77] The B-type main sequence companion of VV Cephei A.
37 Aquilae 13
HD 240210 13
Alpha Aurigae A (Capella A) 12.2
Xi Aquilae 12
Gamma Arae 12
Gamma Sagittarii (Alnasl) 11
WR 104 10 In 389,400 years, this Wolf-Rayet star is expected to explode in a supernova. It has been suggested that it may produce a gamma ray burst that could pose a threat to life on Earth should its poles be aligned 12° or lower towards Earth. This will probably cause the Holocene exinction event. The star's axis of rotation has yet to be determined with certainty.
LH45-425 B 10
Sun 1[78] The largest object in the solar system.
The core hydrogen would be exhausted in 5.4 billion years. In 7.647 billion years, The Sun would reach the tip of the red-giant branch of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, achieving its size of 256 to 436 R☉.[79][80]
Reported for reference

Timeline of largest star recordholders

Star Size (R☉) Date Notes
UY Scuti 1,708 ± 192[3] Nov 2015— Margin of error in size determination: ± 192 solar radii. At its smallest, its size would be similar to that of V354 Cephei. At its largest, its size would be 1,900 solar radii.
NML Cygni 2,208.5 ± 566.5 June 2015–Nov 2015
UY Scuti 1,708 ± 192[3] Oct 2013—Nov 2015 Margin of error in size determination: ± 192 solar radii. At its smallest, its size would be similar to that of V354 Cephei. At its largest, its size would be 1,900 solar radii.
Westerlund 1-26 1,951–2,544[81][82][83] Sept 2012—Oct 2013 Very uncertain parameters for an unusual star with strong radio emission. The spectrum is variable but apparently the luminosity is not.
KY Cygni 2,850[1] August 2012–Sept 2012
WOH G64 1,730–2,474 July 2012–August 2012
NML Cygni 1,650–2,775[84] 2012—July 2012 NML Cyg is a semiregular variable star surrounded by a circumstellar nebula and is heavily obscured by dust extinction.
VY Canis Majoris 1,950 (1,800–2,100) 2007—2012 Previously thought to be a star so large that it contradicted stellar evolutionary theory, a newly improved measurement has brought it down to size.
VV Cephei A 1,750 (1,600[85]–1,900[86][1]) (possibly 2,640) 2006—2007 VV Cep A is a highly distorted star in a binary system, losing mass to its B-type companion VV Cephei B for at least part of its orbit.
Mu Cephei 1,800 (1,650–2,536[1]) June 2005–2006
KY Cygni 2,850[1] 2005–June 2005
V838 Monocerotis 1,970[87] 2002–2005
EV Carinae 2,880[88] 2 Feb 1988–2002
VX Sagittarii 1,940[15] 1982—2 Feb 1988
VV Cephei A 1,600[89]–1,900[86][1] 1970—1982 VV Cep A is a highly distorted star in a binary system, losing mass to its B-type companion VV Cephei B for at least part of its orbit.
Epsilon Aurigae 2,700-3,000 ........—1970 Epsilon Aurigae was incorrectly hailed as the largest known star before 1970, even though it later turned out not to be an 'infrared light star' but rather a dusk torus surrounding the system.

Relations between Solar radius and Orbital radius of planets

List of orbital radius of planets
Planet Astronomical unit
(AU = 1.49597870691 × 108km = 214.9 solar radii) 		Solar radii
(Sun = 695,742 km) 		Example stars
Mercury 0.31 - 0.47 66 - 100 Canopus (71) Rigel (78.9) Beta Cygni (109)
Venus 0.72 - 0.73 154 - 157 Epsilon Pegasi (185)
Earth 0.98 - 1.02 211 - 219 Deneb (220) LBV 1806-20 (150–236) Alpha Herculis (264–303)
Mars 1.38 - 1.67 297 - 358 Mira (332-402) Pistol Star (346) Chi Cygni (348-480) Epsilon Aurigae (143-358) V838 Monocerotis (380) La Superba (390)
Inner limits of the Asteroid Belt 1.92 412 Eta Carinae (430) Rho Cassiopeiae (450) S Pegasi (580) V1749 Cygni (620-1,040) TZ Cassiopeiae (645) RW Cygni (680-980) TV Geminorum (620-710) V382 Carinae (747) S Persei (780-1,230)
Outer limits of the Asteroid Belt 3.79 816 CW Leonis (826) Antares (883) KW Sagittarii (1,009-1,460)
Jupiter 4.95 - 5.46 1,064 - 1,173 EV Carinae (1,168) Betelgeuse (887–1,180) NML Cygni (1,183) Mu Cephei (1,260) VV Cephei (1,050-1,900) VY Canis Majoris (1,420) KY Cygni (1,420-2,850) HR 5171 (1,490) WOH G64 (1,540-1,730) V838 Monocerotis (Lane et al estimate) (1,570) NML Cygni (Zhang et al estimate) (1,650) UY Scuti (1,708)
Saturn 9.02 - 10.08 1,940 - 2,169 None - some obsolete historical estimates are given for context: VY Canis Majoris (Humphreys et al estimate) (1,800-2,252) Westerlund 1-26 (Clark et al estimate) (1,951–2,544) Star size limit (2,600) NML Cygni (upper estimate) (2,775) KY Cygni (upper estimate) (2,850) EV Carinae (upper estimate) (2,880)
Uranus 18.33 - 20.11 3,941 - 4,324
Neptune 29.81 - 30.33 6,411 - 6,526
Pluto 29.658 - 49.305 6,377 - 10,602
Planet Nine (Also known as Phattie) 200 - 1,200 43,006 - 258,039

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af Table 4 in Levesque, E. M.; Massey, P.; Olsen, K. A. G.; Plez, B.; Josselin, E.; Maeder, A.; Meynet, G. (2005). "The Effective Temperature Scale of Galactic Red Supergiants: Cool, but Not as Cool as We Thought". The Astrophysical Journal. 628 (2): 973. arXiv:astro-ph/0504337. Bibcode:2005ApJ...628..973L. doi:10.1086/430901.
  2. ^ a b Levesque, E. M.; Massey, P.; Olsen, K. A. G.; Plez, B.; Meynet, G.; Maeder, A. (2006). "The Effective Temperatures and Physical Properties of Magellanic Cloud Red Supergiants: The Effects of Metallicity". The Astrophysical Journal. 645 (2): 1102. arXiv:astro-ph/0603596. Bibcode:2006ApJ...645.1102L. doi:10.1086/504417.
  3. ^ a b c d e Arroyo-Torres, B.; Wittkowski, M.; Marcaide, J. M.; Hauschildt, P. H. (2013). "The atmospheric structure and fundamental parameters of the red supergiants AH Scorpii, UY Scuti, and KW Sagittarii". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 554: A76. arXiv:1305.6179. Bibcode:2013A&A...554A..76A. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220920.
  4. ^ Emily M. Levesque, Philip Massey, Bertrand Plez, and Knut A. G. Olsen (June 2009). "The Physical Properties of the Red Supergiant WOH G64: The Largest Star Known?". Astronomical Journal. 137 (6): 4744. Bibcode:2009AJ....137.4744L. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/137/6/4744.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Ohnaka, K.; Driebe, T.; Hofmann, K. H.; Weigelt, G.; Wittkowski, M. (2009). "Resolving the dusty torus and the mystery surrounding LMC red supergiant WOH G64". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. 4: 454. Bibcode:2009IAUS..256..454O. doi:10.1017/S1743921308028858.
  6. ^ Humphreys, R. M. (1978). "Studies of luminous stars in nearby galaxies. I. Supergiants and O stars in the Milky Way". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 38: 309. Bibcode:1978ApJS...38..309H. doi:10.1086/190559.
  7. ^ Davies, Ben; Kudritzki, Rolf-Peter; Figer, Donald F. (2010). "The potential of red supergiants as extragalactic abundance probes at low spectral resolution". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 407 (2): 1203. arXiv:1005.1008. Bibcode:2010MNRAS.407.1203D. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16965.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  8. ^ Wright, N. J.; Wesson, R.; Drew, J. E.; Barentsen, G.; Barlow, M. J.; Walsh, J. R.; Zijlstra, A.; Drake, J. J.; Eisloffel, J.; Farnhill, H. J. (16 October 2013). "The ionized nebula surrounding the red supergiant W26 in Westerlund 1". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters. 437 (1): L1–L5. arXiv:1309.4086. Bibcode:2014MNRAS.437L...1W. doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slt127.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  9. ^ Clark, J. S.; Ritchie, B. W.; Negueruela, I.; Crowther, P. A.; Damineli, A.; Jablonski, F. J.; Langer, N. (2011). "A VLT/FLAMES survey for massive binaries in Westerlund 1". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 531: A28. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201116990.
  10. ^ Clark, J. S.; Ritchie, B. W.; Negueruela, I. (2010). "A serendipitous survey for variability amongst the massive stellar population of Westerlund 1". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 514: A87. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200913820.
  11. ^ a b c d e f Mauron, N.; Josselin, E. (2011). "The mass-loss rates of red supergiants and the de Jager prescription". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 526: A156. arXiv:1010.5369. Bibcode:2011A&A...526A.156M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201013993.
  12. ^ Wittkowski, M.; Arroyo-Torres, B.; Marcaide, J. M.; Abellan, F. J.; Chiavassa, A.; Guirado, J. C. (2017). "VLTI/AMBER spectro-interferometry of the late-type supergiants V766 Cen (=HR 5171 A), σ Oph, BM Sco, and HD 206859". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 597: A9. arXiv:1610.01927. Bibcode:2017A&A...597A...9W. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629349.
  13. ^ Chesneau, O.; Meilland, A.; Chapellier, E.; Millour, F.; Van Genderen, A. M.; Nazé, Y.; Smith, N.; Spang, A.; Smoker, J. V.; Dessart, L.; Kanaan, S.; Bendjoya, Ph.; Feast, M. W.; Groh, J. H.; Lobel, A.; Nardetto, N.; Otero, S.; Oudmaijer, R. D.; Tekola, A. G.; Whitelock, P. A.; Arcos, C.; Curé, M.; Vanzi, L. (2014). "The yellow hypergiant HR 5171 A: Resolving a massive interacting binary in the common envelope phase". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 563: A71. arXiv:1401.2628v2. Bibcode:2014A&A...563A..71C. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201322421.
  14. ^ Y. K. Choi; Hirota; Honma; Kobayashi; Bushimata; Imai; Iwadate; Jike; Kameno (2008). "Distance to VY VMa with VERA". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan. 60 (5). Publications Astronomical Society of Japan: 1007. arXiv:0808.0641. Bibcode:2008PASJ...60.1007C. doi:10.1093/pasj/60.5.1007. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |author2= and |last2= specified (help); More than one of |author3= and |last3= specified (help); More than one of |author4= and |last4= specified (help); More than one of |author5= and |last5= specified (help); More than one of |author6= and |last6= specified (help); More than one of |author7= and |last7= specified (help); More than one of |author8= and |last8= specified (help); More than one of |author9= and |last9= specified (help)
  15. ^ a b Lockwood, G.W.; Wing, R. F. (1982). "The light and spectrum variations of VX Sagittarii, an extremely cool supergiant". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 198 (2): 385–404. Bibcode:1982MNRAS.198..385L. doi:10.1093/mnras/198.2.385.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  16. ^ Tsuji, Takashi (2000). "Water in Emission in the Infrared Space Observatory Spectrum of the Early M Supergiant Star μ Cephei". The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 540 (2): 99–102. arXiv:astro-ph/0008058. Bibcode:2000ApJ...540L..99T. doi:10.1086/312879.
  17. ^ a b Josselin, E.; Plez, B. (2007). "Atmospheric dynamics and the mass loss process in red supergiant stars". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 469 (2): 671–680. arXiv:0705.0266. Bibcode:2007A&A...469..671J. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20066353.
  18. ^ Gvaramadze, V. V.; Menten, K. M.; Kniazev, A. Y.; Langer, N.; MacKey, J.; Kraus, A.; Meyer, D. M.-A.; Kamiński, T. (2014). "IRC -10414: A bow-shock-producing red supergiant star". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 437: 843. arXiv:1310.2245. Bibcode:2014MNRAS.437..843G. doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1943.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  19. ^ a b De Beck, E.; Decin, L.; De Koter, A.; Justtanont, K.; Verhoelst, T.; Kemper, F.; Menten, K. M. (2010). "Probing the mass-loss history of AGB and red supergiant stars from CO rotational line profiles. II. CO line survey of evolved stars: Derivation of mass-loss rate formulae". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 523: A18. arXiv:1008.1083. Bibcode:2010A&A...523A..18D. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200913771.
  20. ^ a b Zhang, B.; Reid, M. J.; Menten, K. M.; Zheng, X. W.; Brunthaler, A. (2012). "The distance and size of the red hypergiant NML Cygni from VLBA and VLA astrometry". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 544: A42. arXiv:1207.1850. Bibcode:2012A&A...544A..42Z. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219587.
  21. ^ Smith, Nathan; Hinkle, Kenneth H.; Ryde, Nils (March 2009). "Red Supergiants as Potential Type IIn Supernova Progenitors: Spatially Resolved 4.6 μm CO Emission Around VY CMa and Betelgeuse". The Astronomical Journal. 137 (3): 3558–3573. arXiv:0811.3037. Bibcode:2009AJ....137.3558S. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/137/3/3558.
  22. ^ Dolan, Michelle M.; Mathews, Grant J.; Lam, Doan Duc; Lan, Nguyen Quynh; Herczeg, Gregory J.; Dearborn, David S. P. (2016). "Evolutionary Tracks for Betelgeuse". The Astrophysical Journal. 819: 7. arXiv:1406.3143v2. Bibcode:2016ApJ...819....7D. doi:10.3847/0004-637X/819/1/7.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  23. ^ Van Loon, J. Th.; Cioni, M.-R. L.; Zijlstra, A. A.; Loup, C. (2005). "An empirical formula for the mass-loss rates of dust-enshrouded red supergiants and oxygen-rich Asymptotic Giant Branch stars". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 438: 273. arXiv:astro-ph/0504379. Bibcode:2005A&A...438..273V. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042555.
  24. ^ Turner, David G.; Rohanizadegan, Mina; Berdnikov, Leonid N.; Pastukhova, Elena N. (2006). "The Long-Term Behavior of the Semiregular M Supergiant Variable BC Cygni". The Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 118 (849): 1533. Bibcode:2006PASP..118.1533T. doi:10.1086/508905.
  25. ^ Massey, Philip; Levesque, Emily M.; Olsen, K. A. G.; Plez, Bertrand; Skiff, B. A. (2007). "HV 11423: The Coolest Supergiant in the SMC". The Astrophysical Journal. 660: 301. arXiv:astro-ph/0701769. Bibcode:2007ApJ...660..301M. doi:10.1086/513182.
  26. ^ Arroyo-Torres, B.; Wittkowski, M.; Chiavassa, A.; Scholz, M.; Freytag, B.; Marcaide, J. M.; Hauschildt, P. H.; Wood, P. R.; Abellan, F. J. (2015). "What causes the large extensions of red supergiant atmospheres?. Comparisons of interferometric observations with 1D hydrostatic, 3D convection, and 1D pulsating model atmospheres". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 575: A50. arXiv:1501.01560. Bibcode:2015A&A...575A..50A. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201425212.
  27. ^ Levesque, Emily (1 September 2014). "Discovery of a Thorne-̇Żytkow object candidate in the Small Magellanic Cloud". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters. 443: L94. arXiv:1406.0001. Bibcode:2014MNRAS.443L..94L. doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slu080.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  28. ^ Paumard, T.; Pfuhl, O.; Martins, F.; Kervella, P.; Ott, T.; Pott, J.-U.; Le Bouquin, J. B.; Breitfelder, J.; Gillessen, S.; Perrin, G.; Burtscher, L.; Haubois, X.; Brandner, W. (2014). "GCIRS 7, a pulsating M1 supergiant at the Galactic centre. Physical properties and age". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 568 (85): A85. arXiv:1406.5320. Bibcode:2014A&A...568A..85P. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201423991.
  29. ^ Ramstedt, S.; Schöier, F. L.; Olofsson, H. (2009). "Circumstellar molecular line emission from S-type AGB stars: mass-loss rates and SiO abundances". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 499 (2): 515–527. Bibcode:2009A&A...499..515R. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200911730.
  30. ^ Ramstedt, S.; Schöier, F. L.; Olofsson, H.; Lundgren, A. A. (2006). "Mass-loss properties of S-stars on the AGB". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 454 (2): L103. Bibcode:2006A&A...454L.103R. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20065285.
  31. ^ Baade, R.; Reimers, D. (October 2007). "Multi-component absorption lines in the HST spectra of α Scorpii B". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 474 (1): 229–237. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..229B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20077308.
  32. ^ Baron, F.; Monnier, J. D.; Kiss, L. L.; Neilson, H. R.; Zhao, M.; Anderson, M.; Aarnio, A.; Pedretti, E.; Thureau, N.; Ten Brummelaar, T. A.; Ridgway, S. T.; McAlister, H. A.; Sturmann, J.; Sturmann, L.; Turner, N. (2014). "CHARA/MIRC Observations of Two M Supergiants in Perseus OB1: Temperature, Bayesian Modeling, and Compressed Sensing Imaging". The Astrophysical Journal. 785: 46. arXiv:1405.4032. Bibcode:2014ApJ...785...46B. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/785/1/46.
  33. ^ Stickland, D. J. (1985). "IRAS observations of the cool galactic hypergiants". The Observatory. 105: 229. Bibcode:1985Obs...105..229S.
  34. ^ a b Bergeat, J.; Chevallier, L. (2005). "The mass loss of C-rich giants". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 429: 235. Bibcode:2005A&A...429..235B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20041280. pp. 235-246.
  35. ^ Achmad, L.; et al. (1992). "A photometric study of the G0-4 Ia(+) hypergiant HD 96918 (V382 Carinae)". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 259: 600–606. Bibcode:1992A&A...259..600A.
  36. ^ Fok, Thomas K. T.; Nakashima, Jun-Ichi; Yung, Bosco H. K.; Hsia, Chih-Hao; Deguchi, Shuji (2012). "Maser Observations of Westerlund 1 and Comprehensive Considerations on Maser Properties of Red Supergiants Associated with Massive Clusters". The Astrophysical Journal. 760: 65. arXiv:1209.6427. Bibcode:2012ApJ...760...65F. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/760/1/65.
  37. ^ Wasatonic, Richard P.; Guinan, Edward F.; Durbin, Allyn J. (2015). "V-Band, Near-IR, and TiO Photometry of the Semi-Regular Red Supergiant TV Geminorum: Long-Term Quasi-Periodic Changes in Temperature, Radius, and Luminosity". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Pacific. 127 (956): 1010. Bibcode:2015PASP..127.1010W. doi:10.1086/683261.
  38. ^ Josselin, E.; Plez, B. (2007). "Atmospheric dynamics and the mass loss process in red supergiant stars". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 469 (2): 671. Bibcode:2007A&A...469..671J. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20066353.
  39. ^ "Big and Giant Stars"
  40. ^ a b Cruzalebes, P.; Jorissen, A.; Rabbia, Y.; Sacuto, S.; Chiavassa, A.; Pasquato, E.; Plez, B.; Eriksson, K.; Spang, A.; Chesneau, O. (2013). "Fundamental parameters of 16 late-type stars derived from their angular diameter measured with VLTI/AMBER". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 434 (1): 437–450. arXiv:1306.3288. Bibcode:2013MNRAS.434..437C. doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1037.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  41. ^ Harris, G. L. H. (1976). "Evolved stars in open clusters". Astrophysical Journal. 30: 451. Bibcode:1976ApJS...30..451H. doi:10.1086/190368.
  42. ^ http://vizier.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/VizieR-5?-out.add=.&-source=II/224/cadars&recno=10781
  43. ^ http://vizier.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/VizieR-5?-out.add=.&-source=II/224/cadars&recno=6127
  44. ^ Wallerstein, G. (1977). "Are long-period variables really pulsating". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. 71: 298. Bibcode:1977JRASC..71..298W.
  45. ^ http://vizier.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/VizieR-5?-out.add=.&-source=II/224/cadars&recno=9107
  46. ^ Gorlova, N.; Lobel, A.; Burgasser, A. J.; Rieke, G. H.; Ilyin, I.; Stauffer, J. R. (2006). "On the CO Near‐Infrared Band and the Line‐splitting Phenomenon in the Yellow Hypergiant ρ Cassiopeiae". The Astrophysical Journal. 651 (2): 1130–1150. arXiv:astro-ph/0607158. Bibcode:2006ApJ...651.1130G. doi:10.1086/507590.
  47. ^ Gull, T. R.; Damineli, A. (2010). "JD13 – Eta Carinae in the Context of the Most Massive Stars". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. 5: 373. arXiv:0910.3158. Bibcode:2010HiA....15..373G. doi:10.1017/S1743921310009890.
  48. ^ Wittkowski, M.; Boboltz, D. A.; Ohnaka, K.; Driebe, T.; Scholz, M. (2007). "The Mira variable S Orionis: Relationships between the photosphere, molecular layer, dust shell, and SiO maser shell at 4 epochs". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 470: 191. arXiv:0705.4614. Bibcode:2007A&A...470..191W. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20077168.
  49. ^ Hofmann, K.-H.; Eberhardt, M.; Driebe, T.; Schertl, D.; Scholz, M.; Schoeller, M.; Weigelt, G.; Wittkowski, M.; Woodruff, H. C. (2005). "Interferometric observations of the Mira star o Ceti with the VLTI/VINCI instrument in the near-infrared". Proceedings of the 13th Cambridge Workshop on Cool Stars. 560: 651. Bibcode:2005ESASP.560..651H.
  50. ^ http://vizier.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/VizieR-5?-out.add=.&-source=II/224/cadars&recno=10628
  51. ^ Nugent, Richard. "The Garnet Star". weblore.com. Retrieved 2009-12-04. DIAM .. m Cep 1224 ... V509 CAS 910 ... V382 CAR 747
  52. ^ Luttermoser, Donald G.; Brown, Alexander (1992). "A VLA 3.6 centimeter survey of N-type carbon stars". Astrophysical Journal. 384: 634. Bibcode:1992ApJ...384..634L. doi:10.1086/170905.
  53. ^ Tylenda, R.; Kamiński, T.; Schmidt, M.; Kurtev, R.; Tomov, T. (2011). "High-resolution optical spectroscopy of V838 Monocerotis in 2009". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 532: A138. arXiv:1103.1763. Bibcode:2011A&A...532A.138T. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201116858.
  54. ^ Lamers, H. J. G. L. M. (February 6–10, 1995). "Observations and Interpretation of Luminous Blue Variables". Proceedings of IAU Colloquium 155, Astrophysical applications of stellar pulsation. Astrophysical applications of stellar pulsation. Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series. Vol. 83. Cape Town, South Africa: Astronomical Society of the Pacific. pp. 176–191. Bibcode:1995ASPC...83..176L.
  55. ^ Bedding, T. R.; et al. (April 1997), "The angular diameter of R Doradus: a nearby Mira-like star", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 286 (4): 957–962, arXiv:astro-ph/9701021, Bibcode:1997MNRAS.286..957B, doi:10.1093/mnras/286.4.957{{citation}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  56. ^ Fedele; Wittkowski; Paresce; Scholz; Wood; Ciroi (2004). "The K-band intensity profile of R Leonis probed by VLTI/VINCI". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 431 (3): 1019–1026. arXiv:astro-ph/0411133. Bibcode:2005A&A...431.1019F. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042013.
  57. ^ Najarro, F.; Figer, D. F.; Hillier, D. J.; Geballe, T. R.; Kudritzki, R. P. (2009). "Metallicity in the Galactic Center: The Quintuplet Cluster". The Astrophysical Journal. 691 (2): 1816. arXiv:0809.3185. Bibcode:2009ApJ...691.1816N. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/691/2/1816.
  58. ^ Woodruff, H. C.; Eberhardt, M.; Driebe, T.; Hofmann, K.-H.; et al. (2004). "Interferometric observations of the Mira star o Ceti with the VLTI/VINCI instrument in the near-infrared". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 421 (2): 703–714. arXiv:astro-ph/0404248. Bibcode:2004A&A...421..703W. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20035826.
  59. ^ Gerd Weigelt; et al. (2003). "JHK-band spectro-interferometry of T Cep with the IOTA interferometer". SPIE. Interferometry for Optical Astronomy II. 4838: 181. Bibcode:2003SPIE.4838..181W. doi:10.1117/12.458659. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); More than one of |pages= and |pp= specified (help); More than one of |pp= and |pages= specified (help)
  60. ^ Moravveji, Ehsan; Guinan, Edward F.; Khosroshahi, Habib; Wasatonic, Rick (2013). "The Age and Mass of the α Herculis Triple-star System from a MESA Grid of Rotating Stars with 1.3 <= M/M ⊙ <= 8.0". The Astronomical Journal. 146 (6): 148. arXiv:1308.1632. Bibcode:2013AJ....146..148M. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/146/6/148.
  61. ^ Takeuti, Mine; Nakagawa, Akiharu; Kurayama, Tomoharu; Honma, Mareki (2013). "A Method to Estimate the Masses of Asymptotic Giant Branch Variable Stars". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan. 65 (3): 60. Bibcode:2013PASJ...65...60T. doi:10.1093/pasj/65.3.60.
  62. ^ Davis J, Booth AJ, Ireland MJ, Jacob AP, North JR, Owens SM, Robertson JG, Tango WJ, Tuthill PG, J.; Booth, A. J.; Ireland, M. J.; Jacob, A. P.; North, J. R.; Owens, S. M.; Robertson, J. G.; Tango, W. J.; Tuthill, P. G. (2007). "The Emergent Flux and Effective Temperature of Delta Canis Majoris". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia. 24 (3): 151. arXiv:0709.3873. Bibcode:2007PASA...24..151D. doi:10.1071/AS07017.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  63. ^ Boffin, Henri M. J.; Rivinius, Thomas; Merand, Antoine; Mehner, Andrea; Lebouquin, Jean-Baptiste; Pourbaix, Dimitri; De Wit, Willem-Jan; Martayan, Christophe; Guieu, Sylvain (2016). "The LBV HR Car has a partner: Discovery of a companion with the VLTI". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 593: A90. arXiv:1607.07724. Bibcode:2016A&A...593A..90B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629127.
  64. ^ Schiller, F.; Przybilla, N. (2008). "Quantitative spectroscopy of Deneb". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 479 (3): 849–858. arXiv:0712.0040. Bibcode:2008A&A...479..849S. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078590.
  65. ^ http://www.hposoft.com/EAur09/ZetaAurigae.html
  66. ^ a b Snow, Theodore P.; Lamers, Henny J. G. L. M.; Lindholm, Douglas M.; Odell, Andrew P. (1994). "An atlas of ultraviolet P Cygni profiles". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 95: 163. Bibcode:1994ApJS...95..163S. doi:10.1086/192099.
  67. ^ "Albireo". Big and Giant Stars.
  68. ^ Barniske, A.; Oskinova, L. M.; Hamann, W. -R. (2008). "Two extremely luminous WN stars in the Galactic center with circumstellar emission from dust and gas". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 486 (3): 971. arXiv:0807.2476. Bibcode:2008A&A...486..971B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200809568.
  69. ^ Moravveji, Ehsan; Guinan, Edward F.; Shultz, Matt; Williamson, Michael H.; Moya, Andres (March 2012). "Asteroseismology of the nearby SN-II Progenitor: Rigel. Part I. The MOST High-precision Photometry and Radial Velocity Monitoring". The Astrophysical Journal. 747 (1): 108–115. arXiv:1201.0843. Bibcode:2012ApJ...747..108M. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/747/2/108.
  70. ^ Richichi, A.; Roccatagliata, V. (2005). "Aldebaran's angular diameter: how well do we know it?". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 433: 305–312. arXiv:astro-ph/0502181. Bibcode:2005A&A...433..305R. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20041765.
  71. ^ Fadeyev, Y. A. (2015). "Evolutionary status of Polaris". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 449: 1011. arXiv:1502.06463. Bibcode:2015MNRAS.449.1011F. doi:10.1093/mnras/stv412.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  72. ^ Crowther, P. A.; Schnurr, O.; Hirschi, R.; Yusof, N.; Parker, R. J.; Goodwin, S. P.; Kassim, H. A. (2010). "The R136 star cluster hosts several stars whose individual masses greatly exceed the accepted 150 M⊙ stellar mass limit". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 408 (2): 731. arXiv:1007.3284. Bibcode:2010MNRAS.408..731C. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17167.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  73. ^ I. Ramírez; C. Allende Prieto (December 2011). "Fundamental Parameters and Chemical Composition of Arcturus". The Astrophysical Journal. 743 (2): 135. arXiv:1109.4425. Bibcode:2011ApJ...743..135R. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/743/2/135.
  74. ^ Ziółkowski, J. (2005), "Evolutionary constraints on the masses of the components of HDE 226868/Cyg X-1 binary system", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 358 (3): 851–859, arXiv:astro-ph/0501102, Bibcode:2005MNRAS.358..851Z, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.08796.x{{citation}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) Note: for radius and luminosity, see Table 1 with d=2 kpc.
  75. ^ Wright, K. O. (1977). "The system of VV Cephei derived from an analysis of the H-alpha line". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. 71: 152. Bibcode:1977JRASC..71..152W.
  76. ^ Hack, M.; Engin, S.; Yilmaz, N.; Sedmak, G.; Rusconi, L.; Boehm, C. (1992). "Spectroscopic study of the atmospheric eclipsing binary VV Cephei". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series (ISSN0365-0138). 95: 589. Bibcode:1992A&AS...95..589H.
  77. ^ Mamajek, E.E.; Prsa, A.; Torres, G.; et, al., IAU 2015 Resolution B3 on Recommended Nominal Conversion Constants for Selected Solar and Planetary Properties, arXiv:1510.07674
  78. ^ Rybicki, K. R.; Denis, C. (2001). "On the Final Destiny of the Earth and the Solar System". Icarus. 151 (1): 130–137. Bibcode:2001Icar..151..130R. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6591.
  79. ^ Schroder, K. P.; Connon Smith, Robert (2008). "Distant Future of the Sun and Earth Revisited". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 386 (1): 155–163. arXiv:0801.4031. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386..155S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  80. ^ Clark, J. S.; Ritchie, B. W.; Negueruela, I.; Crowther, P. A.; Damineli, A.; Jablonski, F. J.; Langer, N. (2011). "A VLT/FLAMES survey for massive binaries in Westerlund 1". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 531: A28. Bibcode:2011A&A...531A..28C. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201116990.
  81. ^ Fok; Jun-ichi Nakashima; Yung; Chih-Hao Hsia; Shuji Deguchi (2012). "Maser Observations of Westerlund 1 and Comprehensive Considerations on Maser Properties of Red Supergiants Associated with Massive Clusters". The Astrophysical Journal. 760: 65. arXiv:1209.6427v1. Bibcode:2012ApJ...760...65F. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/760/1/65.
  82. ^ Clark, J. S.; Ritchie, B. W.; Negueruela, I. (2010). "A serendipitous survey for variability amongst the massive stellar population of Westerlund 1". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 514: A87. Bibcode:2010A&A...514A..87C. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200913820.
  83. ^ Zhang, B.; Reid, M. J.; Menten, K. M.; Zheng, X. W.; Brunthaler, A. (2012). "The distance and size of the red hypergiant NML Cygni from VLBA and VLA astrometry". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 544: A42. Bibcode:2012A&A...544A..42Z. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219587.
  84. ^ Habets, G. M. H. J.; Heintze, J. R. W. (November 1981). "Empirical bolometric corrections for the main-sequence". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement. 46: 193–237. Bibcode:1981A&AS...46..193H.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Page 225 "Table IV" #178
  85. ^ a b Professor James B. (Jim) Kaler. "VV CEP (VV Cephei)". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2010-03-15.
  86. ^ Lane, B. F.; Retter, A.; Thompson, R. R.; Eisner, J. A. (April 2005). "Interferometric Observations of V838 Monocerotis". The Astrophysical Journal. 622 (2). The American Astronomical Society: L137–L140. arXiv:astro-ph/0502293. Bibcode:2005ApJ...622L.137L. doi:10.1086/429619.
  87. ^ de Jager, C.; Nieuwenhuijzen, H.; van der Hucht, K.A. (1988). "Mass loss rates in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 72: 259–289. Bibcode:1988A&AS...72..259D.
  88. ^ Habets, G. M. H. J.; Heintze, J. R. W. (November 1981). "Empirical bolometric corrections for the main-sequence". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement. 46: 193–237. Bibcode:1981A&AS...46..193H.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Page 225 "Table IV" #178
  • Giant Stars An interactive website comparing the Earth and the Sun to some of the largest stars
  • BBC News Three largest stars identified
  • Universe Today What is the Biggest Star in the Universe?

Template:Top 10 largest stars

This is a list of stars which are the least voluminous known (the smallest stars by volume).

List

Notable small stars

Star Star mean radius, km Star class Refs Notes
A.C.+70°8247 1.048656438 white dwarf [1] Smallest white dwarf star known
XTE J1650-500 B 24 black hole [2] This binary X-ray transient system, XTE J1650-500, component black hole, at 3.8 solar masses, is smaller than the previous recordholder GRO J1655-40 B of 6.3 MSun in the microquasar system GRO J1655-40.
Sirius B 5,466 white dwarf [3] Historically first detected white dwarf star
Beta Cygni Ab (unconfirmed) 6,000 brown dwarf Smallest brown dwarf known
Procyon B 8,584.938 white dwarf [4][5]
40 Eridani B 9,739.8 white dwarf [6]
2MASS J0523-1403 60,000 red dwarf [7][8] This red dwarf is considered (as in 2013) the smallest star known, and representative of the smallest star possible, which is not a brown dwarf or a dead star.
SSSPM J0829-1309 61,300 red dwarf [8]
TRAPPIST-1 79,400 red dwarf [9] Hosts a planetary system with at least seven rocky planets
OGLE-TR-122B 81,100 red dwarf [10][11][12][10][11][12] This was once the smallest known actively fusing star, when found in 2005, through 2013. It is the smallest eclipsing red dwarf, and smallest observationally measured diameter.
Proxima Centauri 98,093.7 red dwarf [13] This is the nearest neighbouring star to the Sun.

This is a list of stars which are the least voluminous known (the smallest stars by volume).

List

Star name Radius
Solar radii
(Jupiter = 1) 		Radius
Jupiter radii
(Sun = 1) 		Notes
Sirius B 0.7733333333 0.0828571428
Procyon B 0.8733333333 0.00935714285 [14]
Teegarden's Star 0 0
2MASS J0523-1403 0 0
The Sun 1 1000

Smallest by type

List of the smallest stars by star type
Type Star name Radius
Solar radii
(Sun = 1) 		Radius
Jupiter radii
(Jupiter = 1) 		Radius
Earth radii
(Earth = 1) 		Radius
(km / mi) 		Date Notes
Red dwarf 2MASS J0523-1403 0.086 .896 9.39 2013 This red dwarf is considered the smallest star known, and representative of the smallest star possible, which is not a brown dwarf or a dead star. [7]
Brown dwarf
White dwarf A.C.+70°8247 0.00000150734 0.00157316804 0.5 1934 [15]
Neutron star
Stellar-mass black hole XTE J1650-500 B 24 km (15 mi) 2008 This binary X-ray transient system, XTE J1650-500, component black hole, at 3.8 solar masses, is smaller than the previous recordholder GRO J1655-40 B of 6.3 MSun in the microquasar system GRO J1655-40. [16]

Smallest active stars

This is a listing of the smallest stars that are incontrovertibly stars that are still alive and fusing. Hence they are the smallest red dwarfs known, and those brown dwarfs that are known to be still in their short actively fusing phase.

List of the smallest live stars
Star name Radius
Solar radii
(Sun = 1) 		Radius
Jupiter radii
(Jupiter = 1) 		Type Notes
SSSPM J0829-1309 0.088 .917 Red dwarf [8]
OGLE-TR-122B 0.120 1.16 Red dwarf This was once the smallest known actively fusing star, when found in 2005, through 2013. It is the smallest eclipsing red dwarf, and smallest observationally measured diameter. [10][11][12]
Proxima Centauri 0.145 1.510 Red dwarf This is the nearest neighbouring star to the Sun. [12][13]
Barnard's Star 0.196 2.042 Red dwarf [12][13]
CM Draconis B 0.2396 2.496 Red dwarf Part of the binary red dwarf system CM Draconis [12][17]
CM Draconis A 0.2534 2.640 Red dwarf Part of the binary red dwarf system CM Draconis [12][17]
Kapteyn's Star 0.291 3.031 Red dwarf This is the closest halo star to the Sun. [12][13]
Timeline of smallest live star recordholders
Star name Date Radius
Solar radii
(Sun = 1) 		Radius
Jupiter radii
(Jupiter = 1) 		Type Notes
2MASS J0523-1403 2013— 0.086 .896 Red dwarf This red dwarf is considered the smallest star known, and representative of the smallest star possible that is not a brown dwarf. [7][8]
OGLE-TR-122B 2005-2013 0.120 1.16 Red dwarf This is the smallest eclipsing red dwarf, and smallest observationally measured diameter. [10][11][12]

List

Star name Radius
Solar radii
(Jupiter = 1) 		Radius
Jupiter radii
(Sun = 1) 		Notes
Sirius B 0.7733333333 0.0828571428
Procyon B 0.8733333333 0.00935714285 [18]
Teegarden's Star 0 0
2MASS J0523-1403 0 0
The Sun 1 1000

Smallest by type

List of the smallest stars by star type
Type Star name Radius
Solar radii
(Sun = 1) 		Radius
Jupiter radii
(Jupiter = 1) 		Radius
Earth radii
(Earth = 1) 		Radius
(km / mi) 		Date Notes
Red dwarf 2MASS J0523-1403 0.086 .896 9.39 2013 This red dwarf is considered the smallest star known, and representative of the smallest star possible, which is not a brown dwarf or a dead star. [7]
Brown dwarf
White dwarf A.C.+70°8247 0.00000150734 0.00157316804 0.5 1934 [19]
Neutron star
Stellar-mass black hole XTE J1650-500 B 24 km (15 mi) 2008 This binary X-ray transient system, XTE J1650-500, component black hole, at 3.8 solar masses, is smaller than the previous recordholder GRO J1655-40 B of 6.3 MSun in the microquasar system GRO J1655-40. [16]

Smallest active stars

This is a listing of the smallest stars that are incontrovertibly stars that are still alive and fusing. Hence they are the smallest red dwarfs known, and those brown dwarfs that are known to be still in their short actively fusing phase.

List of the smallest live stars
Star name Radius
Solar radii
(Sun = 1) 		Radius
Jupiter radii
(Jupiter = 1) 		Type Notes
SSSPM J0829-1309 0.088 .917 Red dwarf [8]
OGLE-TR-122B 0.120 1.16 Red dwarf This was once the smallest known actively fusing star, when found in 2005, through 2013. It is the smallest eclipsing red dwarf, and smallest observationally measured diameter. [10][11][12]
Proxima Centauri 0.145 1.510 Red dwarf This is the nearest neighbouring star to the Sun. [12][13]
Barnard's Star 0.196 2.042 Red dwarf [12][13]
CM Draconis B 0.2396 2.496 Red dwarf Part of the binary red dwarf system CM Draconis [12][17]
CM Draconis A 0.2534 2.640 Red dwarf Part of the binary red dwarf system CM Draconis [12][17]
Kapteyn's Star 0.291 3.031 Red dwarf This is the closest halo star to the Sun. [12][13]
Timeline of smallest live star recordholders
Star name Date Radius
Solar radii
(Sun = 1) 		Radius
Jupiter radii
(Jupiter = 1) 		Type Notes
2MASS J0523-1403 2013— 0.086 .896 Red dwarf This red dwarf is considered the smallest star known, and representative of the smallest star possible that is not a brown dwarf. [7][8]
OGLE-TR-122B 2005-2013 0.120 1.16 Red dwarf This is the smallest eclipsing red dwarf, and smallest observationally measured diameter. [10][11][12]

References

  1. ^ Kuiper, G. P. (February 1936). "The White Dwarf A.C.+70°8247, the Smallest Star Known". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. 30: 48. Bibcode:1936JRASC..30...48K.
  2. ^ Kuiper, G. P. (February 1936). "The White Dwarf A.C.+70°8247, the Smallest Star Known". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. 30: 48. Bibcode:1936JRASC..30...48K.
  3. ^ Temperature, radius, and rotational velocity of sirius b
  4. ^ name="Levesque2009"
  5. ^ Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 Photometry of the Bright, Mysterious White Dwarf Procyon B
  6. ^ Provencal, J. L.; Shipman, H. L.; Høg, Erik; Thejll, P. (1998). "Testing the White Dwarf Mass-Radius Relation with HIPPARCOS". The Astrophysical Journal. 494 (2): 759. Bibcode:1998ApJ...494..759P. doi:10.1086/305238.
  7. ^ a b c d e John Bochanski (23 December 2013). "New Cutoff for Star Sizes". Sky and Telescope.
  8. ^ a b c d e f Sergio B. Dieterich; Todd J. Henry; Wei-Chun Jao; Jennifer G. Winters; Altonio D. Hosey; Adric R. Riedel; John P. Subasavage (May 2014). "The Solar Neighborhood XXXII. The Hydrogen Burning Limit". The Astronomical Journal. 147 (5): 25. arXiv:1312.1736. Bibcode:2014AJ....147...94D. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/147/5/94. 94.
  9. ^ Gillon, M.; Triaud, A. H. M. J.; Demory, B.-O.; Jehin, E.; Agol, E.; Deck, K. M.; Lederer, S. M.; De Wit, J.; Burdanov, A.; Ingalls, J. G.; Bolmont, E.; Leconte, J.; Raymond, S. N.; Selsis, F.; Turbet, M.; Barkaoui, K.; Burgasser, A.; Burleigh, M. R.; Carey, S. J.; Chaushev, A.; Copperwheat, C. M.; Delrez, L.; Fernandes, C. S.; Holdsworth, D. L.; Kotze, E. J.; Van Grootel, V.; Almleaky, Y.; Benkhaldoun, Z.; Magain, P.; Queloz, D. (2017). "Seven temperate terrestrial planets around the nearby ultracool dwarf star TRAPPIST-1" (PDF). Nature. 542 (7642): 456. doi:10.1038/nature21360.
  10. ^ a b c d e f Robert Roy Britt (3 March 2005). "Newfound Star Smaller than Some Planets". Space.com.
  11. ^ a b c d e f Jonathan O'Callaghan; Josh Barker (National Space Centre) (22 March 2013). "What is the smallest star?". SpaceAnswers.com.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Pont, F.; Melo, C. H. F.; Bouchy, F.; Udry, S.; Queloz, D.; Mayor, M.; Santos, N. C. (27 January 2005). "A planet-sized transiting star around OGLE-TR-122. Accurate mass and radius near the hydrogen-burning limit". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 433 (2) (published April 2005): L21-L24. arXiv:astro-ph/0501611. Bibcode:2005A&A...433L..21P. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200500025. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |publicationdate= ignored (|publication-date= suggested) (help)
  13. ^ a b c d e f g B.-O. Demory; D. Segransan; T. Forveille; D. Queloz; J.-L. Beuzit; X. Delfosse; E. Di Folco; P. Kervella; J.-B. Le Bouquin; C. Perrier (2 June 2009). "Mass-radius relation of low and very low-mass stars revisited with the VLTI". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 505 (1) (published October 2009): 205–215. arXiv:0906.0602. Bibcode:2009A&A...505..205D. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200911976. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |publicationdate= ignored (|publication-date= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ name="Levesque2009"
  15. ^ Kuiper, G. P. (February 1936). "The White Dwarf A.C.+70°8247, the Smallest Star Known". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. 30: 48. Bibcode:1936JRASC..30...48K.
  16. ^ a b Andrea Thompson (1 April 2008). "Smallest Black Hole Found". Space.com.
  17. ^ a b c d J.C. Morales; I. Ribas; C. Jordi; G. Torres; J. Gallardo; E.F. Guinan; D. Charbonneau; M. Wolf; D.W. Latham; G. Anglada-Escudé; D.H. Bradstreet; M.E. Everett; F.T. O'Donovan; G. Mandushev; R.D. Mathieu (February 2009) [8 October 2008]. "Absolute properties of the low-mass eclipsing binary CM Draconis". The Astrophysical Journal. 691 (2): 1400–1411. arXiv:0810.1541. Bibcode:2009ApJ...691.1400M. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/691/2/1400. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |publicationdate= ignored (|publication-date= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ name="Levesque2009"
  19. ^ Kuiper, G. P. (February 1936). "The White Dwarf A.C.+70°8247, the Smallest Star Known". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. 30: 48. Bibcode:1936JRASC..30...48K.

This is a list of coolest stars discovered, arranged by decreasing temperature. The stars with temperatures lower than 3,000 K are included.

List

Star name Temperature
(K) 		Notes
WISE J0855-0714 225–260[1]
CFBDSIR 1458+10B 370
2MASS 0939-2448 A/B 650[2]
2MASS 0415-0935 764
2M 1237+6526 850[3]
SCR 1845-6357B 950
2MASS 0243-2453 1,050
Cha 110913-773444 1,350
2MASS 0036+1821 1,650
2MASS 1507-1627 1,650
OTS 44 1,700
S Cassiopeiae 1,800 One of largest stars

See also


References

  1. ^ Clavin, Whitney; Harrington, J. D. (25 April 2014). "NASA's Spitzer and WISE Telescopes Find Close, Cold Neighbor of Sun". NASA.gov. Archived from the original on 26 April 2014. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ Leggett, S. K.; Cushing, Michael C.; Saumon, D.; Marley, M. S.; Roellig, T. L.; Warren, S. J.; Burningham, Ben; Jones, H. R. A.; Kirkpatrick, J. D.; Lodieu, N.; Lucas, P. W.; Mainzer, A. K.; Martín, E. L.; McCaughrean, M. J.; Pinfield, D. J.; Sloan, G. C.; Smart, R. L.; Tamura, M.; Van Cleve, J. (2009). "The Physical Properties of Four ~600 K T Dwarfs". The Astrophysical Journal. 695 (2): 1517–1526. arXiv:0901.4093. Bibcode:2009ApJ...695.1517L. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/695/2/1517.
  3. ^ Liebert; Burgasser (2007). "On the Nature of the Unique Hα-emitting T Dwarf 2MASS J12373919+6526148". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 655 (1): 522–527. arXiv:astro-ph/0609793. Bibcode:2007ApJ...655..522L. doi:10.1086/509882. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |last-author-amp= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)

Below is a list of the largest exoplanets so far discovered, in terms of physical size, ordered by radius.

List

The sizes are listed in units of Jupiter radii (RJ, R♃). All planets listed are larger than the largest planet in the Solar System, Jupiter.

Exoplanet Radius (RJ)
(Jupiter = 1) 		Notes
HD 100546 b 6.9+2.7
−2.9[1] 		The largest exoplanet. The planet's size puts it near the border between a giant planet and a brown dwarf.
HD 77065 b 3.4484[2]
2MASS J0839+4721 c 3.29
Gliese-758 b 3.2712[2]
2MASS J2126-8140 3.14
DENIS-P J082303.1-491201 b 3.055 ± 1.239[2][3] Most massive exoplanet known. 28.5 MJ; probably a brown dwarf. Radius estimated based on mass.[3]
GQ Lup b 3.0[4] ~20 MJ; probably a brown dwarf. Radius estimated based on luminosity and temperature.
BD 26+1888 b 2.9627[2]
CFBDS 1458 2.932[2]
BD+20 2457 b 2.7773[2]
AS 205 Ab 2.6802[2]
ROXs 42Bb 2.5[5] 6-15 MJ, may be a brown dwarf.
HD 82943 c 2.433[2]
HAT-P-13 c 2.4262[2]
HD 8673 b 2.4217[2]
HD 22781 b 2.39[2]
AB Pictoris b 2.3812[2]
WISE J1741-4642 2.32
BD+20 2457 c 2.3191[2]
2MASS J12074836–3900043 2.29
2MASS J2208+2921 2.29
SDSS J111010.01+011613.1 2.22
CFBDS 1458 b 2.1899
CT Cha b 2.2[6] 11-23 MJ; is likely a brown dwarf.
HD 39091 b 2.1759[2]
SIMP J2154–1055 2.15
KOI-368.01 2.1[7]
XO-6b 2.07[5] 1.9 (± 0.5) MJ; a very puffy Hot Jupiter
HAT-P-32b 2.037[5] 0.941 (± 0.166) MJ; a very puffy Hot Jupiter
WASP-17b 1.991+0.08
−0.58[note 1][5][8] 		Was the largest known planet in 2012. At only 0.486 MJ, this Hot Jupiter is extremely low density.
KOI-3681.01 2.0+0.7
−1[7] 		Orbits fairly close to its 1.1+0.2
−0.2 M☉ star, with 217 day-long years.
KOI-680 b 1.99+0.18
−0.18[7]
CVSO 30b 1.91+0.21
−0.21[5]
51 Pegasi b 1.9[5]
HAT-P-65b 1.89[5]
HATS-23b 1.86[5]
KELT-8b 1.86[5]
WASP-76b 1.83[9]
HAT-P-33b 1.827[5]
WASP-121b 1.81[9]
TrES-4 1.799[10]
KELT-12b 1.79[7]
HATS-26b 1.75[5]
WASP-12b 1.736[9]
HAT-P-46b 1.73[5]
WASP-94 Ab 1.72[9]
KELT-4Ab 1.706[7]
WASP-79b 1.7[5]
WASP-78b 1.7[9]
1RXS 1609b 1.7[5]
WASP-88b 1.7[9]
The following well-known exoplanets are listed for the purpose of comparison.
Exoplanet Radius (RJ)
(Jupiter = 1) 		Notes
Kepler-12b 1.695[5]
Kepler-447b 1.65
beta Pic b 1.65
OGLE2-TR-L9b 1.614[7]
PSO J318.5-22 1.53
WASP-103b 1.528
Kepler-13b 1.51[7]
HAT-P-8b 1.5
WASP-71b 1.5
Kepler-854b 1.5
WASP-33b 1.497
Kepler-7b 1.478
Kepler-5b 1.431
Kepler-8b 1.419
TrES-3 1.341
XO-4b 1.34
TrES-2b 1.272
OGLE-TR-10b 1.26
Kepler-39b 1.22 One of the most massive exoplanets known.
Kepler-418b 1.2
Kappa And b 1.2
OGLE-TR-182b 1.13
Jupiter 69,911 km [11] Largest planet in the Solar System, by radius and volume.[12]
Reported for reference

Timeline of largest exoplanet recordholders

Planet Size (RJ) Date Notes
HD 100546 b 6.9[13] 2015—
HAT-P-32b 2.02 2013—2015 CT Cha b may be larger at over 2.2 Jupiter radii, but its status as a planet or brown dwarf is unconfirmed.
WASP-17b 1.991 2012—2013
WASP-12b 1.83 2009—2012
TRES-4b 1.67 2007—2009 This planet has a density of 0.2 g/cm3, about that of balsa wood, less than Jupiter's 1.3g/cm3 It was succeeded by WASP-17b as the largest exoplanet.[14][15]
HD 209458 b 1.3 —2007 This was the first exoplanet whose size was determined.[16]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ for Case I in paper page 6, others range from 1.41 to 2.07 Jupiter radii.

References

  1. ^ Quanz, Sasch P.; Amara, Adam; Meyer, Michael P.; Kenworthy, Matthew P.; et al. (2014). "Confirmation and characterization of the protoplanet HD100546 b - Direct evidence for gas giant planet formation at 50 au". Astrophysical Journal. arXiv:1412.5173.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "Planet: All planets". Extrasolar Planet's Catalogue. Kyoto University.
  3. ^ a b "DENIS-P J082303.1-491201 b". Caltech. Retrieved 8 March 2014.
  4. ^ Astrometric and photometric monitoring of GQ Lupi and its sub-stellar companion, Ralph Neuhäuser, Markus Mugrauer, Andreas Seifahrt, Tobias Schmidt, and Nikolaus Vogt, Astronomy and Astrophysics 484, #1 (2008), pp. 281–291. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078493. Bibcode:2008A&A...484..281N
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o "All Exoplanets". The Extrasolar Planet Encyclopedia.
  6. ^ Direct evidence of a sub-stellar companion around CT Cha, T. O. B. Schmidt et al., accepted for publication in Astronomy and Astrophysics, Bibcode:2008arXiv0809.2812S, arXiv:0809.2812.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g "All extrasolar planets". Open Exoplanet Catalogue.
  8. ^ Anderson, D. R.; et al. (2010). "WASP-17b: An Ultra-Low Density Planet in a Probable Retrograde Orbit". The Astrophysical Journal. 709 (1): 159–167. arXiv:0908.1553. Bibcode:2010ApJ...709..159A. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/709/1/159.
  9. ^ a b c d e f "WASP Planets". SuperWASP. Retrieved 2016-01-26.
  10. ^ Daemgen, S.; Hormuth, F.; Brandner, W.; Bergfors, C.; Janson, M.; Hippler, S.; Henning, T. (200). "Binarity of transit host stars - Implications for planetary parameters" (PDF). Astronomy and Astrophysics. 498: 567–574. arXiv:0902.2179. Bibcode:2009A&A...498..567D. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200810988.
  11. ^ Elizabeth Howell (21 April 2014). "The Planets in Our Solar System in Order of Size". Universe Today.
  12. ^ Jerry Coffey (8 July 2008). "What is the Biggest Planet in the Solar System?". Universe Today.
  13. ^ NASA. "Confirmed Planets". NASA Website. NASA Exoplanet Archive.
  14. ^ Ker Than (6 August 2007). "Largest Known Exoplanet Discovered". Space.com.
  15. ^ California Institute of Technology (6 August 2007). "Keck Confirms Largest Exoplanet To Date". W.M. Keck Observatory.
  16. ^ Laurance R. Doyle; Hans-Jörg Deeg; Timothy M. Brown (September 2000). "Searching for Shadows of Other Earths" (PDF). Scientific American. 283: 59–65. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0900-58. PMID 10976467.
NGC 604, one of largest nebulae (H II region) is localed in the Triangulum Galaxy
(viewed by the Hubble Space Telescope).

Below is a list of the largest nebulae so far discovered, ordered by size.

List

List of the largest H II regions
H II region Size (ly/pc) Type Notes
NGC 604 1,520 ly (470 pc)[1] H II region Located in the Triangulum Galaxy
Gum Nebula 1,100 ly (340 pc) Emission Nebula
N44 1,000 ly (310 pc)[2] Emission Nebula
Tarantula Nebula 600 ly × 652 ly (184 pc × 200 pc)[3] H II region Most active starburst region in the Local Group
N119 430 ly × 570 ly (130 pc × 170 pc) H II region Peculiar S-shape
Carina Nebula 460 ly (140 pc)[4] H II region Nearest giant H II region to Earth
RCW 49 350 ly (110 pc) H II region
N70 300 ly (92 pc) H II region The N 70 Nebula, in the Large Magellanic Cloud has a shell structure and is really a bubble in space. It is a "Super Bubble".
Barnard's Loop 100 ly × 300 ly (31 pc × 92 pc) H II region
Cygnus Loop 125 ly × 210 ly (38 pc × 64 pc) SNR
Eagle Nebula 110 ly × 140 ly (34 pc × 43 pc) H II region
Rosette Nebula 130 ly (40 pc) H II region
Lagoon Nebula 40 ly × 110 ly (12 pc × 34 pc) H II region
Veil Nebula 100 ly (31 pc) Supernova remnant

List of largest H I regions

List of largest lyman-alpha blobs

Polarized image of Lyman-alpha blob 1, shown as the faint, green gas cloud
List of the largest lyman-alpha blobs
Lyman-alpha blobs Size (ly/pc) Type Notes
LAB Giant Concentration
(coinciding with EQ J221734.0+001701) 		200,000,000 ly (61,000,000 pc)[5] complex of LαBs Also on record as one of the largest structures in the universe.
Lyman-alpha blob 1 300,000 ly (92,000 pc)[6] LαB Largest blob in the LAB Giant Concentration
Himiko Gas Cloud 55,000 ly (17,000 pc)[7] intergalactic cloud
(possible LαB) 		One of the most massive lyman-alpha blobs known

List of largest High-velocity clouds

List of the largest High-velocity clouds
High-velocity clouds Size (ly/pc) Type Notes
NGC 262 Halo Cloud 1,300,000 ly (400,000 pc) H I region Spiral nebula surrounding NGC 262. NGC 262 is also one of the largest known galaxies.
Leo Ring 650,000 ly (200,000 pc)[8] HVC
Magellanic Stream 600,000 ly (180,000 pc) complex of HVCs Connects the Large and Small Magellanic clouds; extends across 180° of the sky.
HVC 127-41-330 20,000 ly (6,100 pc)[9] HVC
Smith's Cloud 3,300 ly × 9,800 ly (1,000 pc × 3,000 pc)[10] HVC Extends about 20° of the sky

List of largest star clusters

List of the largest star clusters
Star clusters Size (ly/pc) Type Notes
NGC 206 800 ly (250 pc)
Sagittarius Star Cloud 600 ly (180 pc)
NGC 2419 520 ly (160 pc) The largest known globular cluster
NGC 121 350 ly (110 pc)
Palomar 12 324 ly (99 pc)
Terzan 7 320 ly (98 pc)
Laevens 1 320 ly (98 pc)
Messier 54 306 ly (94 pc)
NGC 339 238 ly (73 pc)
Messier 3 180 ly (55 pc)
Messier 15 176 ly (54 pc)
Messier 2 174.6 ly (53.5 pc)
Omega Centauri 172 ly (53 pc)
Messier 13 168 ly (52 pc)
Messier 5 160 ly (49 pc)
Palomar 5 152 ly (47 pc)
Messier 19 140 ly (43 pc)
Messier 75 134 ly (41 pc)
47 Tucanae 120 ly (37 pc)
Messier 68 106 ly (32 pc)
Messier 14 100 ly (31 pc)
Messier 22 100 ly (31 pc)

See also

References

  1. ^ distance × sin( diameter_angle / 2 ) = 760 ly. radius
  2. ^ "Roses in the Southern Sky". ESO. 3 November 2003. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
  3. ^ Lebouteiller, V.; Bernard-Salas, J.; Brandl, B.; Whelan, D. G.; et al. (June 2008). "Chemical Composition and Mixing in Giant H II Regions: NGC 3603, 30 Doradus, and N66". The Astrophysical Journal. 680 (1): 398–419. arXiv:0710.4549. Bibcode:2008ApJ...680..398L. doi:10.1086/587503.
  4. ^ "NGC 3372 - The Eta Carinae Nebula". Atlas of the Universe. Retrieved 2013-10-01.
  5. ^ Ravilious, Kate. "Giant "Blob" is Largest Thing in Universe". National Geographic News. Retrieved June 23, 2011.
  6. ^ "Giant Space Blob Glows from Within". ESO Press Release. 17 August 2011. Retrieved 18 August 2011.
  7. ^ Hsu, Jeremy (2009-04-22). "Giant Mystery Blob Discovered Near Dawn of Time". SPACE.com. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
  8. ^ Léo Michel-Dansa; Pierre-Alain Duc (2010). "The mysterious Leo giant gas ring explained by a billion year old collision between two galaxies". Canada France Hawaii Telescope.
  9. ^ Josh Simon (2005). "Dark Matter in Dwarf Galaxies: Observational Tests of the Cold Dark Matter Paradigm on Small Scales" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 13, 2006. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  10. ^ Lockman, Felix J.; Benjamin, Robert A.; Heroux, A. J.; Langston, Glen I. (May 2008). "The Smith Cloud: A High-Velocity Cloud Colliding with the Milky Way" (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal. 679 (1): L21. arXiv:0804.4155. Bibcode:2008ApJ...679L..21L. doi:10.1086/588838. Retrieved April 3, 2012.


Cite error: There are <ref group=foot> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=foot}} template (see the help page).

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ynoss/sandbox&oldid=791762341"