Libyan civil war (2011)

2011 Libyan uprising
Part of 2010–11 Middle East and North Africa protests
• Cities controlled by pro-Gaddafi forces • Cities controlled by anti-Gaddafi forces (supported by coalition forces) • Ongoing fighting/unclear situation (situation as of 24 March 2011)
Date 15 February 2011 (2011-02-15) – present Location Libya Status Ongoing
Belligerents
National Transitional Council Free Libyan Air Force Libyan People's Army National Conference for the Libyan Opposition anti-Gaddafi tribes Limited/Alleged: Egypt Tunisia United Nations member states enforcing United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973: NATO Qatar Template:Collapsible bulletlist	Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Libyan Armed Forces Foreign mercenaries
Commanders and leaders
Mustafa Abdul Jalil Omar El-Hariri Abdul Fatah Younis Suleiman Mahmoud Khalifa Belqasim Haftar	Muammar Gaddafi Saif al-Islam al-Gaddafi Khamis al-Gaddafi Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr
Strength
approximately 17,000 (1,000 trained men) International Forces: Numerous air and maritime forces (see here)	10,000–12,000 (Al Jazeera estimate)
Casualties and losses
1,435-1,760 opposition fighters killed (see here) International Forces: 1 USAF F-15E Strike Eagle crashed (both pilots survived)	397-463 soldiers killed, (see here)
Estimated total killed on both sides including civilians: 2,000-10,000

The 2011 Libyan uprising (Arabic: الثورة الليبية) or Jalil-Gaddafi Civil War is an ongoing armed conflict in the North African state of Libya against Mustafa Abdul Jalil's recently imposed rule. The contending Libyan Arab Jamahiriya is attempting to restore order and resolve the situation, which grew out of protesters calling for the opportunity of leadership renewal through convening of elections. Protests and confrontations on 15 February 2011 within a week spread to the advantage of Transitionist guerillas in their attempt to seize rulership of the entire country. The anti-Jalil movement responded with military force and other such measures as censorship and blocking of communications. With parts of the Libyan military in the east aligning to the Libyan Republic, the Libyan Arab Republic has reportedly recruited foreign volunteers to supplement its forces. Although Gaddafi has offered peace talks with Jalil through a chief envoy, Jalil has snubbed the initiative and demand for Gaddafi to resign.

With rebels establishing a government named the Transitional National Council based in Benghazi, affairs escalated into revolutionary war. International human rights organizations have documented severe human rights abuses. The International Criminal Court warned the Arab Republic that members of its government may have committed crimes against humanity. In early March, Arab Republic forces rallied, pushed eastwards and re-took several coastal cities before attacking Benghazi. The United Nations then declared and began to enforce a no-fly over Libya, to prevent the use of military aircraft against civilians. The United Nations Security Council passed an initial resolution freezing the assets of Gaddafi and ten members of his inner circle and restricting their travel. The resolution also referred the actions of the Arab Republic to the International Criminal Court for investigation. A further resolution authorized member states to enforce a no-fly zone over Libya. The Gaddaffi government then announced a ceasefire, but failed to uphold it. A collection of states began enforcing the no-fly zone on 19 March by disabling the Arab Republic's air defenses.

Background

History

Main article: History of Libya under Gaddafi

The Arab Jamahiriya has been the form of government in Libya since the overthrow of King Idris I in 1969. WikiLeaks' disclosure of confidential US diplomatic cables has revealed US diplomats there speaking of Gaddafi's "mastery of tactical maneuvering". While placing relatives and loyal members of his tribe in central military and government positions, he has skilfully marginalized supporters and rivals, thus maintaining a delicate balance of powers, stability and economic developments. This extends even to his own children, as he changes affections to avoid the rise of a clear successor and rival.

Petroleum revenues contribute up to 58% of Libya's GDP. Governments with "resource curse" revenue have a lower need for taxes from other industries and consequently feel less pressure to develop their middle class. To calm down opposition, they can use the income from natural resources to offer services to the population, or to specific government supporters. Libya's oil wealth being spread over a relatively small population has allowed for a relatively high living standard compared to neighboring countries. Despite one of the highest unemployment rates in the region at 21% (latest census), there was a consistent labor shortage with over a million migrant workers present on the market. These migrant workers formed the bulk of the refugees leaving Libya after the beginning of hostilities.

Libya's purchasing power parity (PPP) GDP per capita in 2010 was US $14,878; its human development index in 2010 was 0.755; and its literacy rate in 2009 was 87%. These numbers were lower in Egypt and Tunisia. Indeed, Libyan citizens are considered to be well educated and to have a high standard of living. Its corruption perception index in 2010 was 2.2, which was worse than that of Egypt and Tunisia, two neighboring countries who faced uprising before Libya. This specific situation creates a wider contrast between good education, high demand for democracy, and the government's practices (perceived corruption, political system, supply of democracy). Much of the country's income from oil, which soared in the 1970s, was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring militancy and terror around the world. Once a breadbasket of the ancient world, the eastern parts of the country became impoverished under Jamahiriya-sponsored economic theories. The uprising has been viewed as a part of the 2010–2011 Middle East and North Africa protests which has already resulted in the ousting of long-term presidents of adjacent Tunisia and Egypt with the initial protests all using similar slogans. Social media had played an important role in organizing the opposition.

Human rights

Further information: Human rights in Libya

According to the 2009 Freedom of the Press Index, Libya is the most-censored country in the Middle East and North Africa. Jamahiriya revolutionary committees resemble the systems of historical and current regimes and reportedly ten to twenty percent of Libyans work in surveillance for these committees, a proportion of informants on par with Saddam Hussein's Iraq or Kim Jong-il's North Korea.

The surveillance takes place in government, in factories, and in the education sector. Engaging in political conversations with foreigners is a crime punishable by three years of prison in most cases. The Jamahiriya removed foreign languages from school curriculum for a decade. The Jamahiriya has paid for murders of his critics around the world. As of 2004, Libya still provided bounties for critics, including US$1 million for Ashur Shamis, a Libyan-British journalist. The regime has often executed opposition activists publicly and the executions are rebroadcast on state television channels.

Anti-Gaddafi movement

The flag of the former Kingdom of Libya. It, or modified versions, has been used by many protesters as an opposition flag.

Lead-up to the uprising

Between 13 and 16 January, upset at delays in the building of housing units and over political corruption, protesters in Darnah, Benghazi, Bani Walid and other cities broke into and occupied housing that the government was building. On 24 January 2010, Libya blocked access to YouTube after it featured videos of demonstrations in the Libyan city of Benghazi by families of detainees who were killed in the 1996 Abu Salim prison massacre. The blocking was criticized by Human Rights Watch. By 27 January, the government had responded to the housing unrest with a US$24 billion investment fund to provide housing and development.

In late January, Jamal al-Hajji, a writer, political commentator and accountant, "call[ed] on the Internet for demonstrations to be held in support of greater freedoms in Libya" inspired by the Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings. He was arrested on 1 February by plain-clothes police officers, and charged on 3 February with injuring someone with his car. Amnesty International claimed that because al-Hajji had previously been imprisoned for his non-violent political opinions, the real reason for the present arrest appeared to be his call for demonstrations. In early February, Muammar Gaddafi on behalf of the Jamahiriya met with political activists, journalists, and media figures and warned them that they would be held responsible if they disturbed the peace or created chaos in Libya.

Start of the uprising

The protests and confrontations began in earnest on 15 February 2011. On the evening of 15 February, between 500 and 600 protesters chanted slogans in front of the police headquarters in Benghazi. The protest was broken up violently by police, resulting in 38 injuries. The novelist Idris Al-Mesmari was arrested hours after giving an interview with Al Jazeera about the police reaction to protests. In Al Bayda and Az Zintan, hundreds of protesters in each town called for an end of the Gaddafi regime and set fire to police and security buildings. In Az Zintan, the protesters set up tents in the town centre. The protests continued the following day in Benghazi, Darnah and Al Bayda, leading to 4 deaths and 3 injuries. Hundreds gathered at Maydan al-Shajara in Benghazi, and authorities tried to disperse protesters with water cannons.

A "Day of Rage" in Libya and by Libyans in exile is planned for 17 February. The National Conference for the Libyan Opposition asked that all groups opposed to the Gaddafi regime protests on 17 February, in memory of demonstrations in Benghazi two years earlier. The plans to protests were inspired by the 2010–2011 Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings. In early February, Jamahiriya spokesperson Muammar Gaddafi met with Libyan political activists, journalists, and media figures and warned them that they would be held responsible if they disturbed the peace or created chaos in Libya.

Organization

Libyan Boy Scouts helping in the social services in Benghazi

Many opposition participants called for return to the 1952 constitution and transition to multi-party democracy. Military units who have joined the rebellion and many volunteers have formed an army to defend against Jamahiriya attacks and to work to bring Tripoli under the influence of Jalil. In Tobruk, volunteers turned a former headquarters of the regime into a center for helping protesters. Volunteers reportedly guard the port, local banks and oil terminals to keep the oil flowing. Teachers and engineers have set up a committee to collect weapons.

The National Transitional Council (Arabic: المجلس الوطني الانتقالي, al-Majlis al-Waṭanī al-'intaqālī) was established on 27 February in an effort to consolidate the transition. The main objectives of the group do not include forming an interim government, but instead to coordinate resistance efforts between the different towns held in rebel control, and to give a political "face" to the opposition to present to the world. The Benghazi-based opposition government has called for a no-fly zone and airstrikes against the Jamahiriya. The council refers to the Libyan state as the Libyan Republic and it now has a website. Former Jamahiriya Justice Minister said in February that the new government will prepare for elections and they could be held in three months.

An independent newspaper called Libya appeared in Benghazi, as well as rebel-controlled radio stations. The movement opposes tribalism and defected soldiers wear vests bearing slogans such as "No to tribalism, no to factionalism". Libyans have said that they have found abandoned torture chambers and devices that have been used in the past.

Gaddafi's response

Main article: Muammar Gaddafi's response to the 2011 Libyan uprising

Gaddafi has accused his opponents as those who have been influenced by hallucinogenic drugs put in drinks and pills. He has specifically referred to substances in milk, coffee and Nescafé. He has claimed that Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda are distributing these hallucinogenic drugs. He has also blamed alcohol. He later also claimed that the revolt against his rule is the result of a colonialist plot by foreign countries, particularly blaming France, the United States, and the United Kingdom, to control oil and enslave the Libyan people. Gaddafi vowed to cleanse Libya house by house until he had crushed the insurrection. Gaddafi declared that people who don't "love" him "do not deserve to live". A Swedish arms trafficking watchdog organization observed flights between Tripoli and Belarus, including visits to a dedicated Belorussian military base that only handles stockpiled weaponry and military equipment.

File:Muammar Gaddafi speech, 22 Feb 2011.png

Muammar Gaddafi vowing to hunt down and execute any opposition members.

Blocking of communications and media

Gaddafi shut down all Internet communications in the country, and arrested Libyans who have given phone interviews to the media. International journalists were banned by the Libyan authorities from reporting from Libya except by invitation of the Gaddafi government. The New York Times reported that Gaddafi has tried to impose a blackout on information from the country. Several residents reported that cellphone service was down, and even landline phone service is sporadic.

Mercenaries, and human shields

Numerous eyewitnesses and identity documents of captured soldiers show that Gaddafi is employing foreign nationals to attack Libyan civilians. French-speaking fighters apparently come from neighbouring African countries such as Chad and Niger. However, some have urged caution, saying that Libya has a significant black population who could be mistaken for mercenaries but are actually serving in the regular army. Also, many Chadian soldiers who fought for Gaddafi in past conflicts with Chad were given Libyan citizenship. There have been reports of Gadaffi employing mercenaries from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Mali, Sudan, Tunisia, Kenya and possibly even Asia and Eastern Europe. Speculation that members of the Zimbabwe National Army were covertly fighting in Libya grew as Zimbabwe’s Defence Minister Emmerson Mnangagwa avoided giving a clear answer to a question on the topic posed in Parliament. Some of Gaddafi's mercenaries such as a 16-year old shepherd from Chad tell they were deceived and forcibly airlifted to shoot demonstrators.

According the International Federation for Human Rights, thousands of migrants would have been forced to join the army and are being used as front line fighters or simple human shield for Libyan soldiers in street fights. Cases such as handcuffing truck drivers to steering wheels to prevent them from running away have been documented.

Treatment of dissidents

Amnesty International argues Gaddafi has publicly made clear his readiness to kill those who oppose him in order to stay in power. Amnesty International has also reported that writers, intellectuals and other prominent opposition sympathizers have disappeared in cities controlled by Gaddafi and fears they may be subjected to illegal detention, torture or may have been killed. Soldiers who refuse to shoot at civilians or rebels are executed, and even burned alive.Amnesty International further raised concerns that Gaddafi's forces are targeting paramedics who help injured protesters. In multiple incidents people have also documented Gaddafi's forces using ambulances in their attacks. Injured demonstrators have been denied access to hospitals and ambulance transport. The regime also banned giving blood transfusions to people who have taken part in the demonstrations. The International Federation for Human Rights concluded that Gaddafi is implementing a strategy of scorched earth and seeks to eliminate and suppress Libyan citizens who stood up against his regime. In Tripoli some people are offered an automobile, money and weapons to drive around Tripoli and attack people showing signs of dissent.

Gaddafi's commanders appear to summarily execute soldiers who refuse to defend Gaddafi. A number of videos have leaked out of the country. The International Federation for Human Rights reported a case where Gaddafi's commanders executed 130 soldiers who had refused to support Gaddafi.

Meanwhile, after Gaddafi army retreated south, local rebels had begun a campaign of manhunting and ethnic cleansing in Benghazi. All black or dark-skinned libyans are being arrested on pretext of being Gaddafi mercenaries with little or no evidence, brutally beaten and thrown into the former Gaddafi prisons and improvised concentration camps. There are also reports about the wholesale massacres of black-skinned foreign workers in Eastern Libya.

Battles between Gaddafi and opposition

Main article: Timeline of the 2011 Libyan uprising

By the end of 23 February, headlines in online news services were reporting a range of themes underlining the precarious state of the regime – former justice minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil alleged that Gaddafi personally ordered the 1988 Lockerbie bombing, resignations and defections of close allies, the loss of Benghazi, the second largest city in Libya, reported to be "alive with celebration" and other cities including Tobruk and Misurata reportedly falling with some reports that the government retained control of just a few pockets, mounting international isolation and pressure, and reports that Middle East media consider the end of his "disintegrating" regime all but inevitable.

After taking over the city of Zawiya on 24 February, Gaddafi's troops attacked the outskirts of the city on 28 February, but were repelled. The town of Nalut, on the Tunisian border, had also fallen to the opposition forces. On 2 March, government forces attempted to recapture the oil port town of Brega, but the attack failed and they retreated to Ra's Lanuf. Rebel forces advanced following their victory and on 4 March, the opposition captured Ra's Lanuf. On the same day, government troops started a full-scale assault on Zawiyah with tank, artillery and air strikes. On 6 March, the rebel advance along the coastline had been stopped by government forces at the town of Bin Jawad. Government troops ambushed the rebel column and dozens of rebels were killed. At the same time, Gaddafi's forces attempted an attack on Misurata and managed to get as far as the centre of the city before their attack was stopped and they retreated to the city's outskirts.

On 10 March, Zawiyah and Ra's Lanuf were retaken by Gaddafi's forces. By March 15, the town of Brega had also been recaptured by Gaddafi's forces and the rebel city of Ajdabiya, the last town before Benghazi, was surrounded.

File:Libya Brega rebel fighters 10 March 2011 - VOA Ittner.jpg

Rebels on the outskirts of Brega.

On 17 March, the United Nations Security Council voted to imposed a no-fly zone in Libyan airspace, with British, French and Arab aircraft launching air strikes within hours of its imposition. As a result of the UN resolution, on 18 March, Gaddafi's government declared an immediate ceasefire, but a few hours later, Al Jazeera reported that Government forces are still fighting with rebels. Even after the government-declared ceasefire, artillery shelling on Misurata and Ajdabiya continued, and government soldiers continued approaching Benghazi. BBC News reported that government tanks entered the city on 19 March while hundreds fled the fighting. Artillery and mortars were also fired into the city.

Territory controlled by each side

By the end of February, Gaddafi had lost control of a significant part of the country, including the major cities of Misurata and Benghazi, and the important harbors at Ra's Lanuf and Mersa Brega. The Libyan opposition had formed a National Transitional Council and a free press had begun to operate in Cyrenaica.

On 6 March, the Gaddafi regime launched a counter-offensive, retaking Ra's Lanuf and Mersa Brega, pushing towards Ajdabiya and Benghazi. Gaddafi has remained in continuous control of Tripoli, Sirt, Zliten and Sabha, as well as several other towns.

Gaddafi controls the well-armed Khamis Brigade, among other loyalist military and police units, and some believe a small number of foreign mercenaries. Some of Gaddafi's officials, as well as a number of current and retired military personnel, have sided with the protesters and requested outside help in bringing an end to massacres of non-combatants.

As of March 22, out of Libya's twenty-two districts, thirteen were under government control, seven were under rebel control and two were contested territories (see map).

United Nations intervention

A French navy rescue helicopter, from the French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle, lands aboard the American command ship USS Mount Whitney

Main article: Coalition intervention in Libya

See also: Operation Ellamy, Operation Odyssey Dawn, Opération Harmattan, and Operation MOBILE

At 1600 GMT, 19 March, BBC News reported that the French Air Force had sent 19 fighter planes over an area 100 km by 150 km (60 by 100 miles) over Benghazi to prevent any attacks on the rebel controlled city. "Our air force will oppose any aggression by Colonel Gadhafi against the population of Benghazi," said French President Nicolas Sarkozy. BBC News reported at 16:59 GMT that at 16:45 GMT a French warplane had fired at and destroyed a Libyan military vehicle – this being confirmed by French defense ministry spokesman Laurent Teisseire.

Rebel plane shot down

File:Libyan MiG-23BN shoot down.jpg

A rebel Mig-23 shot down over Benghazi.

Also on 19 March, a Mig-23BN was shot down over Benghazi by ground fire. A rebel spokesman later confirmed that the plane belonged to the Free Libyan Air Force and had been engaged in error by rebels. Fox news initially reported that the plane was "bombing their (rebels) eastern stronghold".The Libyan government said the rebels violated the UN "no fly" resolution by using a helicopter and a fighter jet to bomb Libyan armed forces.

At 2031 GMT the Pentagon announced that U.S. and British forces had fired 114+ Tomahawk cruise missiles targeting 20 Libyan integrated air and ground defense systems. 25 coalition ships, including 3 U.S. submarines, are in the area. CBS New's David Martin reported that 3 B-2 stealth bombers flew non-stop from the United States to drop 40 bombs on a major Libyan airfield. Martin further reported that US fighter jets are searching for Libyan ground forces to attack. On Sunday, around 1500 CST, Pentagon officials confirmed this.

Libyan State TV reported that Libyan forces had shot down a French warplane over Tripoli. France's military denied earlier reports from Libyan state TV that a French aircraft had been shot down and reported that all planes had returned to their air bases. On 20 March 2011, several Storm Shadow missiles have been launched against Gaddafi by British jets. Also, sustained anti-aircraft fire erupted in Tripoli at around 2:33 a.m. Libyan time. Gaddafi's forces claimed they had shot down two planes, which was denied by the United States. An American F-15E Strike Eagle fighter jet that was on a bombing run in Libya crashed after experiencing equipment failure. The pilot and a weapons officer parachuted from the jet before it crashed, and were picked up by US rescue teams.

As of March 22, the US had fired 161 Tomahawk cruise missiles into Libya. The UK also fired US made Tomahawk missiles into Libya; two that had been fired from a British submarine hit the Libyan leader Muammar al-Qaddafi’s compound in downtown Tripoli on March 21.

On March 25th, NATO announced that it will take over the no-fly zone operations over Libyan airspace after there had been a heated debate over who should command and control the operations in Libya and as the USA had continuously reiterated its position that it wished to hand over the command to a more local organisation.

Humanitarian situation

Medical supplies, fuel and food have run dangerously low in the country. On 25 February, the International Committee of the Red Cross launched an emergency appeal for US$6,400,000 to meet the emergency needs of people affected by the violent unrest in the country. On 2 March, the ICRC's director general reminded everyone taking part in the violence that health workers must be allowed to do their jobs safely.

Fleeing the violence of Tripoli by road, as many as 4,000 people were crossing the Libya-Tunisia border daily during the first days of the uprising. Among those escaping the violence were foreign nationals including Egyptians, Tunisians and Turks – as well as Libyans. By 1 March, officials from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees had confirmed allegations of discrimination against sub-Saharan Africans who were held in dangerous conditions in the no-man's-land between Tunisia and Libya. By 3 March, an estimated 200,000 refugees had fled Libya to either Tunisia or Egypt. A provisional refugee camp was set up at Ras Ejder with a capacity for 10,000 was overflowing with an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 refugees. Many tens of thousands were still trapped on the Libyan side of the frontier. By 3 March, the situation was described as a logistical nightmare, with the World Health Organization warning of the risk of epidemics.

With a migrant population of about two million, countries that border Libya, especially Egypt and Tunisia, have been receiving a flow of migrants and nationals escaping the violence. Migrants workers as well as Libyan nationals have been finding their way to the border cities of Sallum in Egypt and Ras Ajdir in Tunisia creating a humanitarian crisis. According to the International Organization for Migration, as of 7 March, 115,399 migrants had arrived in Tunisia (19,184 of them Tunisians, 47,631 Egyptians and the rest from various nationalities), 101,609 in Egypt (of which 65,509 were Egyptian), 2,205 in Niger (1,865 Nigeriens) and 5,448 in Algeria.

Casualties

People protesting against Gaddafi's use of violence against Libyans.

Main article: Casualties of the 2011 Libyan uprising

Independent numbers of dead and injured in the conflict have still not been made available. Estimates have been widely varied. Conservative estimates have put the death toll at 1,000, Whereas the International Criminal Court estimated 10,000 killed on 7 March. The numbers of injured were estimated to be around 4,000 by 22 February. On 2 March, The International Federation for Human Rights estimated a death toll as high as 3,000 and the World Health Organization estimated approximately 2,000 killed. At the same time, the opposition claimed that 6,500 people had died. The Libyan Human Rights League estimated 6,000 killed on 5 March. Later, Rebel spokesman Abdel Hafiz Ghoga reported that the death toll reached 8,000.

On March 20, 2011, it was reported by the anti-Gaddafi Al Manara Media that Khamis al-Gaddafi had died from his injuries sustained when pilot Muhammad Mokhtar Osman allegedly crashed his plane into Bab al-Azizia a week earlier. However, this had not been confirmed by any other independent media. The crashing of the plane itself had also not been previously reported or confirmed by any other independent media except Al Manara and the Algerian Shuruk newspaper, which is closely connected to Al Manara, and with it there is a possibility of the reports being part of the rebel propaganda operations.

Domestic responses

Main article: Domestic responses to the 2011 Libyan protests

A map showing the ethnic and part of the tribal composition of Libya

Several officials resigned from their positions after 20 February in large part due to protests against the army's "excessive use of force", including justice minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil as well as Interior Minister and Major General Abdul Fatah Younis, whereas Oil Minister Shukri Ghanem was reported to have fled the country. Citing "grave violations of human rights", Gaddafi's cousin and close aide, Ahmad Qadhaf al-Dam, announced his defection from the government when he arrived in Egypt on 24 February.

Several members of the diplomatic corps also resigned. Amongst these were the ambassadors to the Arab League, Bangladesh, the People's Republic of China, the European Union and Belgium, India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Sweden and the United States. The deputy ambassador to the UN Ibrahim Omar Al Dabashi did not resign but distanced himself from the Libyan government's actions. The ambassador to the United States Ali Aujali together with the embassy staff also distanced himself from the government, "condemned" the violence and urged the international community (QTO STOP THE KILLINGS.) The ambassador to the United Kingdom denied reports that he had resigned.

The Arabian Gulf Oil Company, the second largest state-owned oil company in Libya, announced plans to use oil funds to support anti-Gaddafi forces. This will prove a major boost for the embattled rebel forces low on funds.

Two Libyan Air Force pilots and a naval vessel fled to Malta, reportedly claiming to have refused orders to bomb protesters in Benghazi.

Islamic leaders and clerics in Libya, notably the Network of Free Ulema – Libya urged all Muslims to rebel against Gaddafi. The Warfalla, Tuareg and Magarha tribes have announced their support of the protesters. The Zuwayya tribe, based in eastern Libya, have threatened to cut off oil exports from fields in their part of the country if Libyan security forces continued attacking demonstrators.

Youssef Sawani, a senior aide to Muammer Gaddafi's son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, resigned from his post "to express dismay against violence".

On 28 February, Gaddafi reportedly appointed the head of Libya's foreign intelligence service to speak to the leadership of the anti-government protesters in the east of the country.

A young Benghazian carrying King Idris' photo. Support of the royal Senussi dynasty has traditionally been strong in Cyrenaica.

Libyan-throne claimant, Muhammad as-Senussi, sent his condolences "for the heroes who have laid down their lives, killed by the brutal forces of Gaddafi" and called on the international community "to halt all support for the dictator with immediate effect." as-Senussi said that the protesters would be "victorious in the end" and calls for international support to end the violence. On 24 February, as-Senussi gave an interview to Al Jazeera English where he called upon the international community to help remove Gaddafi from power and stop the ongoing "massacre". He has dismissed talk of a civil war saying "The Libyan people and the tribes have proven they are united". He later stated that international community needs "less talk and more action" to stop the violence. He has asked for a no-fly zone over Libya but does not support foreign ground troops.

In an interview with Adnkronos, Idris al-Senussi, a pretender to the Libyan throne, announced he was ready to return to the country once change had been initiated. On 21 February 2011, Idris made an appearance on Piers Morgan Tonight to discuss the uprising. In March 2011 it was reported Idris had held meetings at the State Department and Congress in Washington with US Government Officials. It was also reported attempts at contact had been initiated by French and Saudi officials. On 3 March, it was reported that Prince Al Senussi Zouber Al Senussi had fled Libya with his family and was seeking asylum in Totebo, Sweden.

International reactions

Main article: International reactions to the 2011 Libyan uprising

Official responses

A number of states and supranational bodies condemned Gaddafi's use of military and mercenaries against Libyan civilians. However, Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega, Cuban political leader Fidel Castro and Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez all expressed support for Gaddafi. Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi initially said he did not want to disturb Gaddafi, but two days later he called the attacks on protesters unacceptable.

The Arab League suspended Libya from taking part in council meetings at an emergency meeting on 22 February and issued a statement condemning the "crimes against the current peaceful popular protests and demonstrations in several Libyan cities". Libya was suspended from the United Nations Human Rights Council by a unanimous vote of the United Nations General Assembly, citing the Gaddafi government's use of violence against protesters. On 26 February, the United Nations Security Council voted unanimously to impose strict sanctions against Gaddafi's government and, refer Gaddafi and other members of his regime to the International Criminal Court for investigation into allegations of brutality against civilians. Interpol issued a security alert concerning the "possible movement of dangerous individuals and assets" based on the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970, listing Gaddafi himself and fifteen members of his clan or his regime. A number of governments, including Britain, Canada, Switzerland, the United States, Germany and Australia took action to freeze assets of Gaddafi and his associates. The Gulf Cooperation Council issued a joint statement on 8 March, calling on the United Nations Security Council to impose an air embargo on Libya to protect civilians. The Arab League did the same on 12 March, with only Algeria and Syria voting against the measure.

Evacuations

During the uprising, many countries evacuated their citizens. China set up its largest evacuation operation ever with over 30,000 Chinese nationals evacuated, as well as 2,100 citizens from twelve other countries. On 25 February, 500 passengers, mostly Americans, sailed into Malta after a rough eight-hour journey from Tripoli following a two-day wait for the seas to calm. South Korea evacuated 12,000 people , utilizing airplanes and ferries, to Malta. Bulgaria evacuated some of its citizens with planes, along with Romanian and Chinese citizens. The Indian government launched Operation Safe Homecoming and evacuated 15,000 of its nationals. The Turkish government sent three ships to evacuate a reported 25,000 Turkish workers and return them to Istanbul. The Irish Department of Foreign Affairs assisted over 115 Irish nationals in leaving Libya. Several Russians, 21 Tadjiks and some Kazachs were evacuated by Russia autorities. A number of international oil companies decided to withdraw their employees from Libya to ensure their safety, including Gazprom, Royal Dutch Shell, Sinopec, Suncor Energy, Pertamina and BP. Other companies that decided to evacuate their employees included Siemens and Russian Railways.

The evacuations often involved assistance from various military forces. The United Kingdom deployed aircraft and the frigate HMS Cumberland to assist in the evacuations. China's frigate Xuzhou of the People's Liberation Army Navy was ordered to guard the Chinese evacuation efforts. The South Korean Navy destroyer ROKS Choi Young arrived off the coast of Tripoli on 1 March to evacuate South Korean citizens. The UK Royal Navy destroyer HMS York docked in the port of Benghazi on 2 March, evacuated 43 nationals, and delivered medical supplies and other humanitarian aid donated by the Swedish government. Canada deployed the frigate HMCS Charlottetown to aid in the evacuation of Canadian citizens and to provide humanitarian relief operations in conjunction with an US Navy carrier strike group, led by the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier USS Enterprise. Two Royal Air Force C-130 Hercules aircraft with British Special Forces onboard evacuated approximately 100 foreign nationals, mainly oil workers, to Malta from the desert south of Benghazi. A subsequent joint evacuation operation between the United Kingdom and Germany evacuated 22 Germans and about 100 other Europeans, mostly British oil workers, from the airport at Nafurah to Crete. An attempt by the Royal Netherlands Navy frigate HNLMS Tromp on 27 February to evacuate a Dutch civilian and another European from the coastal city of Sirt by helicopter failed after its 3-man crew was apprehended by Libyan forces loyal to Gaddafi for infiltrating Libyan airspace without clearance. The civilians were released soon after and the crew was released 12 days later, but the helicopter was confiscated.

Mediation proposals

There have been several peace mediation prospects during the crisis. Early in the conflict, Gaddafi requested that former British Prime Minister Tony Blair, who had dealings with Gaddafi in the last few years, mediate the crisis. Blair however bluntly refused and downplayed his dealings with Libyan regime. The South African government proposed an African Union-led mediation effort to prevent civil war. Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez also put himself forward as a mediator. Although Gaddafi accepted in principle a proposal by Chávez to negotiate a settlement between the opposition and the Libyan government, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi later voiced some skepticism to the proposal. The proposal has also been under consideration by the Arab League, according to its Secretary-General Amr Moussa. The Libyan opposition has stated any deal would have to involve Gaddafi stepping down. The United States and French governments also dismissed any initiative that would allow Gaddafi to remain in power. Turkish Prime Minister Tayyip Erdogan, 2010 winner of the al-Gaddafi prize for Human Rights, has offered to mediate the crisis, and proposed that Gaddafi appoint a president acceptable to all Libyans as means of overcoming the crisis.

Coalition intervention

UN Mandate (no-fly zone and other measures)

Countries committed to enforcement:

Belgium

Canada

Denmark

France

Italy

Jordan

Netherlands

Norway

Qatar

Romania

Saudi Arabia

Spain

UAE

United Kingdom

United States

Main article: 2011 military intervention in Libya

See also: International reactions to the 2011 military intervention in Libya

On 28 February, UK Prime Minister David Cameron proposed the idea of a no-fly zone to prevent Gaddafi from airlifting mercenaries and using military aircraft against civilians. A number of states indicated they would support a no-fly zone if it was backed by the UN. US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates has initially skeptical of this option, warning the US Congress that a no-fly zone would have to begin with an attack on Libya's air defenses. Russia and China, both holding veto powers on the United Nations Security Council, indicated they were opposed to the implementation of a no-fly zone. Romania, India and Turkey also indicated they were opposed to the implementation of a no-fly zone.

On 7 March, a United Nations diplomat confirmed to Agence France-Presse, on condition of anonymity, that France and Britain were drawing up a resolution for the United Nations Security Council to authorize a no-fly zone over Libya. The foreign ministers of the Arab League agreed at their 12 March meeting to ask the United Nations to impose a no-fly zone over Libya. The rebels concurrently stated that a no-fly zone alone would not be sufficient, because the majority of the bombardments were coming from tanks and rockets, not aircraft. The United States changed its position, as Gadaffi forces were quickly approaching Benghazi, and voiced support for the no-fly concept. On 17 March, the United Nations Security Council approved Resolution 1973 (2011), authorizing a no-fly zone, amongst other measures, by a vote of ten in favor, zero against, and five abstentions. Resolution 1973 bans all flights in Libyan airspace in order to protect civilians. A collection of countries began enforcing the no-fly zone on 19 March.

Opposition to bombing campaign

Further information: Protests against the 2011 military intervention in Libya

Russia, China, India and Turkey condemned the bombing campaign. Amr Moussa, the head of The Arab League, expressed great concern over civilians, clearly defining his position as supporting the UN resolution but not a bombing campaign. However, Amr Moussa later clarified that his comments were misinterpreted, and that he does in fact support the air strikes, and reiterated his support for protecting civilians. Turkey specifically singled out French leadership for ignoring the NATO alliance, which was left divided and split over the operation. NATO members Germany and Poland refused to cooperate, while Malta and Cyprus denied access to their airports for coalition forces.

The have been protests against the bombing campaign in New York City, San Francisco, Brussels, Chicago, Washington D.C., Boston, London, Athens, Belgrade, Moscow and Spain. In Chile, a protest was held on March 20 against Obama's visit. The ANSWER Coalition is organizing demonstrations across the US in opposition to the intervention.

According to IFOP polling, only 36% of the population supported French participation in any military intervention in Libya in the run-up to the intervention. However, an IFOP poll conducted after the intervention began showed 66% supported the intervention, with no difference of opinion between the left-wing and right-wing. In the United States, opposition before the intervention was as high as 74%, according to CNN/Opinion Research Corporation, while after the intervention a CBS News poll indicates 66% of Americans support the air and naval strikes, with 70% of democrats and republicans, and 65% of independents approving of missile and airstrikes. However, only 20% expect the no-fly zone to be 'very effective' in protecting civilians and rebels from Gaddafi's forces. In the United States, numerous politicians have voiced opposition to military action without congressional approval, or have requested clarifications and debate about U.S. goals and how they will be achieved, including Democratic and Republican congressional representatives, House Majority Leader John Boehner, House Armed Services Committee Chairman Buck McKeon, and Democratic House Caucus chair John Larson.

See also

• Human rights in Libya
• 2011 Egyptian revolution
• International reactions to the 2011 Libyan uprising
• 2010–2011 Middle East and North Africa protests
• List of modern conflicts in North Africa
• Tunisia's Jasmine Revolution
• Topple the Tyrants protest group

Further reading

• Morayef, Heba (2009). Truth and Justice Can't Wait: Human Rights Developments in Libya Amid Institutional Obstacles. New York: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 9781564325631.
• St. John, Ronald Bruce (2011). Libya: Continuity and Change. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415779777.

External links

Collected news coverage

• News coverage at libyafeb17.com
• "Libya Uprising". Al Jazeera English.
• "Live Blog". Al Jazeera English.
• "Libya Revolt". BBC News.
• "Libya in Crisis". The Guardian. UK.
• "Libya –The Protests (2011)". The New York Times.
• "Libya". Reuters.
• "Libya". Der Spiegel.
• Photos of Air Strikes on Libya