Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan portrait
Birth name:	Temüjin (Mongolian: Тэмүүжин)
Family name:	Borjigin (Mongolian: Боржигин)
Title:	Great Khan of Mongol Empire (Khan of the Mongols)
Birth:	1155/1162/1167
Place of birth:	Hentiy, next to Onon River
Death:	August 18, 1227
Dates of reign:	1206 - August 18, 1227
Succeeded by:	Ogedei Khan
Marriage:	Börte
Children:	Borjigin Chagatai, son Borjigin Jochi, son Borjigin Ogedei, son Borjigin Tolui, son

Genghis Khan (Mongolian: Чингис Хаан, Jenghis Khan, Jinghis Khan, Chinghiz Khan, Jinghiz Khan, Chinggis Khan, Chingis Khan, etc., born as Temüjin, Temuchin, Mongolian: Тэмүүжин) (c. 1155/1162/1167 – August 18, 1227) was a Mongol Khan and founder of the Mongol Empire after unifying independent Mongol tribes under his banner by 1206. One of the foremost and significant leaders of world history, he is regarded with extreme respect by Mongols as a leader who eliminated centuries of dissention and brought political and economic stability in Eurasia under his domain, although with considerable loss of life and property to those that opposed him. His grandson and later successor great Khan Kublai Khan established China's Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) by re-establishing the invasion of Southern Song Dynasty.

There are many who claimed to have descended from Genghis Khan that conquered much lands on their own including Timur Lenk, Turkic conquerer, Babur, founder of India's Mughal Empire. Also those descended from Genghis Khan continued to claim leadership over Mongolia until the 17th century when the last Chingissids were over-ruled by the Manchu.

Early life

Genghis Khan was born by the name of Temujin In 1162, the second son of Yesükhei, a tribal chief of the Kiyad (singular: Kiyan). Yesükhei's clan is called Borjigin (plural: Borjigid). His mother was Hoelun of the Olkunut tribe. He was named after a defeated rival chief.

Temüjin's early life was a most difficult one. When he was only nine, his father delivered Temujin to his future wife's family where he was to live until he reached the marriageable age of 14. Shortly thereafter, his father was murdered by the neighboring Tartars while returning home and Temüjin was inducted as the clan's chief. His clan abandoned him and his family, refusing to be led by a mere boy. For the next few years, he and his family lived the way of life of poor nomads, surviving primarily off rodents. In one instance he slew his half-brother over a dispute about sharing hunting spoils. In another, Temüjin was captured in a raid by his former tribe and held captive with a wooden collar around his neck. He later escaped with an assistance from a sympathetic captor. His mother Hoelun taught him many lessons from surviving in the harsh climates of Mongolia, especially the need for alliances with others, which would shape his understanding in his later years for unification.

Around the age of 16, Temüjin married his Börte of the Konkirat tribe, and received a black sable coat as a dowry; this was the foundation for his increased wealth from conquest. Later she was kidnapped in a raid by the Merkit tribe and Temujin called on his friend and later rival, Jamuka, and his protector, Toghril of the Kereit tribe. The birth of Börte's first child too soon after she was freed led to doubt over whose son he was and Jochi and his descendants were never considered for the Mongol succession.

Uniting the tribes

Temüjin began his slow ascent to power by allying himself with his father's friend Toghril, a local chief. He traded his coat for an army and joined the Keriat, a confederacy of Mongols led by Wang Khan. After successful campaigns against the Tartars (1202), Temüjin was adopted as Wang Khan's heir. This led to bitterness on the part of Senggum, Wang's former heir, who planned to assassinate Temüjin. Temüjin learned of Senggum's intentions. Eventually Temüjin defeated Senggum and those that were loyal to him and succeeded to the title of Wang Khan. Temüjin eventually created a written code of laws for the Mongols called Yassa, and he demanded it to be followed very strictly in order to built his organization and power among his realm.

With the need to secure his borders from southern Jin Empire and Western Xia Xia that were well-established in modern day China, Genghis Khan organized his system with increased power and not to be over-powered by the Chinese that started to get uncomfortable with newly emergent Mongols under Genghis Khan that would eventually restrict their supply of goods that passed through modern day Mongolia. With his personal charisma and strong will Genghis Khan finally managed to unite the tribes under a single system, a monumental feature for Mongols, who had a long history of internecine dispute and economic hardship.

In 1206 Temüjin had successfully united the formerly fragmented tribes of what is now Mongolia, and at a Kurultai (a council of Mongol chiefs) he was titled "Genghis Khan" (alternate spellings exist; see above) or Universal Ruler (also "Ruler of all between the oceans").

The foundations of an empire

China

At the time of the Khuriltai, Genghis was involved in a dispute with Western Xia [Jurchen] that demanded Mongols under Genghis Khan to surrender under their control and pay tribute. Despite problems in taking well-defended Western Xia cities, by 1209 when peace with Western Xia was made, he had substantially reduced the Western Xia dominion, and was acknowledged by their emperor as overlord. The emperor betrayed the peace with the Mongols and Genghis set about bring the Jurchen completely under his dominion. He declared war in 1211, so that the Jurchen couldn't challenge the Mongols for territory, riches and so that they wouldn't continue to be a constant threat. In 1215 Genghis besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (later known as Beijing). The Jin emperor, Xuan Zong, however, did not surrender, but removed his capital to Kaifeng because of the growing threat of Mongols on the north. There his successors finally were defeated, but not until 1234.

Central Asia

Meanwhile, Kuchlug, the deposed khan of the Naiman Mongols, had fled west and had usurped the state of Kara-Khitan Khanate, the western allies that had decided to side with Genghis. By this time, the Mongol army was exhausted by ten years of continuous campaigning against Western Xia and Jin. Therefore, Genghis sent only two tumen under a brilliant young general, Jebe, against Kuchlug. An internal revolt was incited by Mongol agents; then Jebe overran the country. Kuchlug's forces were defeated west of Kashgar; he was captured and executed, and Kara-Khitan was annexed. By 1218 the Mongol state extended as far west as Lake Balkhash and adjoined Khwarizm, a Muslim state that reached to the Caspian Sea in the west and to the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea in the south.

In 1218 Genghis sent emissaries to an eastern province of Khwarizm with the intention of discussing possible trade with the Khwarizmian Empire. The governor of the province had them killed, and Genghis Khan was furious and retaliated with a force of 200,000 troops. The Mongol army again with superior strategy and tactics quickly took the town and executed the governor by pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes as retribution for the insult to Genghis Khan and the Mongols' good intentions.

At this point (1219) Genghis decided to extend Mongol dominions into the Muslim world. The Mongol army methodically marched through Khwarizm's main cities (Bukhara, Samarkand, and Balkh), and the shah, Muhammad, prepared to battle them. However, he was outmaneuvered by the much swifter Mongol army and driven into extended retreat. In the end, the shah killed himself when he was cornered and by 1220, the Khwarizmian Empire was eradicated because of poor choice.

Now the Mongol armies split with the intention and confidence that they were better warriors, Genghis Khan led a division on a raid through Afghanistan and northern India, while another contingent led by his general Subedei marched through the Caucasus and Russia. Neither campaign added territory to the empire, but they pillaged settlements and defeated any armies they met in their wake that did not acknowledge Genghis Khan and Mongols' presence as rightful leader of the world and better warriors. In 1225 both divisions returned to Mongolia.

These invasions added Transoxiana and Persia to an already formidable empire and began to establish Genghis Khan's reputation as a bloodthirsty warrior among many others that didn't acknowledge his right as master of the world.

Europe

Depending on exactly where Europe starts, while Genghis was gathering his forces in Persia and Armenia, 40,000 of his troops pushed deep into Armenia and Azerbaijan (see above in Central Asia). There Genghis destroyed Georgian crusaders, took Geneose trade-fortress in Crimea and stayed the winter near Black Sea. While Genghis was heading home, he met Prince Mstitslav of Kiev with his 80,000 troops, which was the presumed Battle of Kalka River in 1223. He destroyed Prince Mstitslav and his army.

See also: Khwarezmid Empire

The final campaign

The vassal emperor of Western Xia had refused to take part in the war against the Khwarizm, and Genghis had vowed punishment. While he was in Iran, Western Xia and Jin had formed an alliance against the Mongols, where Genghis Khan left many of the leaders at their post after the presumed to surrender in which Genghis Khan started to know it was a mistake to do so. After rest and a reorganization of his armies, Genghis prepared for war against their alliance that he deemed a betrayal to him and his honor.

By this time, advancing years had led Genghis to prepare for the future and to assure an orderly succession among his descendants and stop constant argument as to who will be his successor as rightful master of the world; he selected his third son Ögedei as his successor and established the method of selection of subsequent khans, specifying that they should come from his direct descendants. Meanwhile, he studied intelligence reports from Western Xia and Jin and readied a force of 180,000 troops for a new campaign.

File:Mongol Empire after Genghis.jpg

Khanates of Mongol Empire: Ilkhanate, Chagatai Khanate, Empire of the Great Khan (Yuan Dynasty), Golden Horde

At his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire amongst his four sons. Jochi was the eldest, but he was already dead and his paternity was in doubt, so the most distant lands trodden by the Mongol Empire, then southern Ruthenia, were divided among his sons, Batu leader of the Blue Horde, and Orda, leader of the White Horde. Chagatai was next eldest son of Genghis, but he was considered a hothead, and so was given Central Asia and northern Iran. Ogedei, third oldest was made Great Khan and given China. Tolui, the youngest, was given the Mongol homeland as Mongol custom.

In AD 1226, Genghis Khan attacked the Tanguts (Western Xia) on the pretext that the Tanguts received the Mongols' enemies and he sought retribution for this betrayal. In February, Genghis Khan took Heisui City, Gan-zhou and Su-zhou and in the autumn, he took Xiliang-fu. A Western Xia general challenged the Mongols for a battle near Helanshan Mountain. (Helan means "great horse" in northern dialect.) The Western Xia armies were defeated. In November, he laid siege to the Tangut city of Ling-zhou and then crossed the Yellow River and defeated the Tangut relief army. Genghis reportedly saw five stars arranged in a line in the sky, which he took to be an omen.

In AD 1227, Genghis Khan attacked the Tanguts' capital, and in February, he took Lintiao-fu. In March, he took Xining prefecture and Xindu-fu. In April, he took Deshun prefecture. At Deshun, the Western Xia General Ma Jianlong resisted the Mongols for days and personally led charges against them outside of the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from many arrows. Genghis, after conquering Deshun, went to Liupanshan Mountain (Qingshui County, Gansu Province) for shelter from the severe summer.

The new Western Xia emperor, being attacked by the Mongols, surrendered to them. The Tanguts officially surrendered in AD 1227, after being in existence for 190 years, from AD 1038 to AD 1227. The Mongols killed the Tangut emperor and his royal family members for their betrayal and dishonor.

On his deathbed in 1227, Genghis Khan outlined to his youngest son, Tolui, the plans that later would be used by his successors to complete the destruction of the Jin Empire.

File:Mongol Empire at 1227.jpg

Mongol Empire in 1227 at Genghis Khan's death.

In his last campaign leading the Mongol fight against Western Xia, Genghis Khan died in August 18, 1227. The reason of his death is uncertain as many assume he fell off his horse, just due to an old age and physical wearing down, or even prophecies from his opponents. The Galician-Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by Tanguts, but as of today we don't know.

After he died, his body was returned to Mongolia and presumebly to his birth place in Hentiy aimag, where many assume he is buried somewhere close to the Onon river. The funeral escort killed anyone and anything that strayed across their path to his burial, so as not to reveal where he was finally laid to rest their beloved leader. In his funeral, as secrecy, it is said that 40 baby camels were buried in Genghis Khan's grave, so that their mothers could not even locate the location where the baby camels were buried. The Genghis Khan Mausoleum is his memorial, but not his burial site. As of October 6, 2004, there has been an alleged discovery of "Genghis Khan's palace" that makes a discovery of his burial site more likely.

Organization and accomplishments

Politics and economics

Genghis Khan was strict and capable leader. He initiated a Mongol written code of law for all people under his empire to follow everyday in which violaters would be put to death for minor offenses. Because of the ethnic, religious and tribal diversity of the civilians and soldiers of Mongol Empire including modern day Persians, Chinese and Europeans, he transferred all loyalty only to himself (Great Khan) and no others. In order to sustain and replenish for military costs and activities, Genghis Khan allowed leaders to remain in power as long as they provided military service, payed tribute and furnished labor on a constant basis. Having conquered a vast land, Genghis Khan encouraged trade and exchange on a constant basis and Mongols valued goods and trade that came from other lands and peoples. Traders, clergyman, and envoys were provided with security and guidance under Mongol Empire, in which, for example, some of them reached China including traveller Giovanni da Pian del Carpini under Ogedei Khan's rule and Italian traveller Marco Polo to Beijing under Kubilai Khan's rule, whom each of them wrote books on their travels. Under Genghis Khan's rule, all "individuals and religions were equal under Mongol law".

Because of the extent of his empire, Genghis Khan deeply affected the cultures of many Asian countries, most notably China and Russia. He destroyed the existing aristocracy of every region he controlled, creating a rough meritocracy during that time. He created a wide postal system and spread the use of a universal alphabet, though he for many years was believed to be illiterate due to the estimated recentness of the language, and his age at its implementation. Recently, however, findings by Chinese and Mongolian academics have shown that Genghis Khan was a highly literate man. A handwritten note was proven to be his, and the contents of the note indicated that he was able to read Taoist sermons [1]. Trade and travel between China, Middle East and Europe flourished by mostly the political stability that Mongol Empire provided to re-establishing the Silk Road. He outlawed torture in his provinces, exempted teachers and doctors from taxes, and established freedom of religion. Various languages like the Turkish language spread and as well as very different kinds of religions flourished because of freedom of religion. The Mongol army ended up including many people of diverse heritage that part take in his campaigns as the Turks being one of the main ethnic groups among Mongol army. The Mongols introduced most of Asia to the abacus and the compass and Europe the explosives that were first created in China and as well as high-powered siege engines that the Chinese developed for European compatriots. Genghis Khan also united all the Mongol tribes, which some people argue that it was his most significant achievement. Also it's claimed that Genghis Khan also stopped the division between southern and northern China that began from the time of Song Dynasty. Related to his unification of Mongols, one of the impressive achievements of Genghis Khan was he managed to gain the support of Mongols.

Military

File:H 01.jpg

Representation of 12th and 13th century Mongol soldiers in Naadam.

Genghis Khan's military strategy seemed to be incomparibly superior to any military in 12th and 13th century because of their superior strategy and mobility.

Genghis organized the Mongol soldiers into groups based around the number ten (i.e. 10 (arban), 100 (zuun), 1000(myangan), 10,000(tumen)), and each group of soldiers had a leader whom would report higher up in his rank to the rank of tumen. This command structure proved to be highly flexible and allowed the Mongol army to attack en masse, divide into somewhat smaller groups to encircle and lead enemies into and ambush, or divide into small groups of 10 to mop up a fleeing and broken army. The Mongol army also was highly flexible due to the durability of its soldiers. Each Mongol soldier would have between 2 and 4 horses allowing them to gallop for days without stopping or tiring. The Mongol soldier also could live for days off of only his horse's blood and eating dried yak meat if times were hard.

When integrating new soldiers into the army, Genghis Khan divided the soldiers under a different leaders to break up the social and tribal connections, so as to there be no division based on heritage of tribal alliances. In all campaigns, the soldiers took their families along with them for the battle. Only through merit were regular soldiers promoted to a higher rank. Each unit leader was responsible for preparedness of his soldiers at any time and would be replaced if this were found lacking.

Mongol cavalry soldiers were extremely light troops relative to contemporary standards, allowing them to practice tactics and false retreats that would be highly practical for a very mobile army, compared to European knights for example. Mongols under Genghis Khan and his descendants were the perfection of light cavalry horse archer type of warfare. One of the commonly used techniques of Mongol soldiers was the feinted retreat where right during the middle of battle, a Mongol unit or whole army would retreat suddenly, which gave the opposition a confidence to believe Mongols were losing the fight. After that and some distance later, the opposition would find itself surrounded by Mongol soldiers that would eventually shower them with arrows. Mongols didn't favor close combat and mostly preferred to fight from a distance with their bows and long-practiced marksmanship from horses.

In terms of battle detail, a Mongol army leader during battle might be anywhere in the formation and would use flags and horns to order his strategies during the battle. To the Mongols, victory seemed to matter most, and they couldn't afford to lose battles nor men because they were poor in logistics and had few spare troops (at best half as many soldiers in almost all major battles than their enemies, and travelling far away from their homeland). As said earlier, the main weapon of the Mongol soldiers was the Hun bow and curved swords, lighter and more efficient for slashing and parrying than the European long and straight heavy swords. The rules of engagement were clear under Genghis Khan. For a specific example, if two or more soldiers break away from their group without their leader's approval, they would be put to death. The Mongol style of engaging in warfare seemed to be natural to the way their nomadic way of life, which would mean that with travelling long distances, they would require less baggage, but greater speed and durability.

Therefore Genghis Khan added the one necessary ingredient, which was strict discipline to his armies that were similar to many armies of the steppes during the time that were based upon the light cavalry horse-archer type of warfare.

Genghis Khan's military philosophy in general was to defeat opponents with the least risk and cost to the Mongols, relying on his loyal and meritocratically chosen generals and his soldiers.

Genghis Khan employed psychological warfare successfully in his battles, especially in terms of spreading terror and fear to other towns and cities. For example if he found that there was an opposition, Genghis Khan would offer an opportunity to surrender and pay tribute. If the offer was refused, he would invade the cities and towns and let few civilians flee to spread word of their loss to other cities. When word got out that Genghis Khan's force destroyed any resistance, it became much harder for other leaders to persuade their people to stop Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan's stance against opponents was for them to surrender and pay tribute or have them die. When besieging, Genghis Khan usually left the town unharmed and guaranteed them protection as a resource for future campaigns and logistics, and if they resisted, Genghis Khan stood by what he meant with 'ruler of the world'. It is said, however, that he saved many lives because of psychological warfare and intimidation of opponents.

Technology was one of the important facets of his warfare. For instance siege machines were an important part of Genghis Khan's warfare especially in attacking fortified cities. He used Chinese technicians that were very advanced for the time. The siege engines were disassembled and were caried on horses to be rebuilt at the site of the battle.

In terms of scenarios of typical warfare realizing that one will never know for sure all possible variations, before invasion of an opposing area, Genghis Khan and his generals made extensive preparation in Kurultai to decide how the upcoming war would be conducted and as well which generals would participate; meanwhile they would thoroughly accumulate intelligence from their opponents, after which the course of hostilities would be calculated through. From this campaign planning, they decided how many units would be needed. On the other hand, Mongol generals were armed with a high degree of independent decision making privileges as long as they abode by Genghis Khan overview and get the job done, which seemed to minimize the surprises during the campaign without need for checking with Genghis Khan on what to do next. Because of the light nature of Mongol armies, Genghis Khan built a sophisticated intelligence network through the Mongol army, trade networks and vassals in which intelligence would arrive instantly on all corners from the Mongol Empire. It is said that, in preparation of warfare, the generals would send out 200 horsemen to four geographic directions to scout for possible enemy activity and on such occasions soldiers riding 300 km in one or two days was common during the time for scouts of Mongol armies.

Even though Mongol strategy seemed to vary slightly in response to their enemies, their technique might have been the same. Mongols would engage in columns, usually three separate columns, so that the two side columns can diverge from the center when they figured out where they should split up. These flanking columns with equal amount of menpower perhaps (also depending on the situation, but we don't know for sure) goes into neighboring territories and starts overwhelming the enemy with streams of Mongol soldiers breaking up into 10, 100, 1,000, 10,000 soldiers again with their leaders, which would give a very sophisticated and highly organized fighting force that was almost unstoppable to peasant armies of Europe and China for example. Once they let their presence known and had scouted for surrounding fields and cities they would somewhere reunite with the center column and give one final push to the main army or city with the stronghold. The idea and the advantage of flanking forces was to spread terror, in which the Mongols were good at, gather intelligence from their opponents and eliminate smaller opponent armies from giving and receiving support. In other words, it was sort of a divide and conquer approach. These flanking columns had messengers that timely relayed intelligence to the mother column on what is happening on their side and if they themselves needed or needed to give support to any of the other two columns. Mongol armies were willing to engage field armies before seeking battle with the main opposition, which gave them advantage in terms of eliminating the possible communication from the opponent's city to another that might be expecting or providing aid. Mongols were good at siege warfare and diverting rivers and foods for cities and sending off refugees to other, unconquered cities to give economic stress to that city in terms of food, shelter, etc. They were continuously expanding their fighting power with conquered land, resources, knowledge, technology and manpower.

Once the main battle and siege was over, the Mongol army is said to follow the enemy leader until he was killed in order to make him unable to be a rallying point for his army after war. Most times the enemy leaders would try to escape realizing that they would likely lose the war, but the Mongol forces followed until they made sure they died.

Genghis Khan today

Perceptions of Genghis Khan

Genghis is an extremely polarizing figure to many who look at him from both the Eastern and Western points of view. In the West and the Middle East, the perception of Genghis Khan is negative due to his carnage of human life and property. While those in the East acknowledge this, they nonetheless admire his superior military command and historical legacy. On the other hand, in the Middle East, people have mixed views about Genghis Khan and his descendants because their armies conquered and destroyed Baghdad, but some Mongol armies eventually converted to Islam and adopted its way of life, because the religious tolerance faciliated cultural exchange and assimilation. Many scholars and scientists, depending heavily from where they are, consider Mongols as one of the greatest builders and destroyers.

Genghis Khan and the Mongols are controversial topics from where our current understanding stands today, and those are about to change to give balance to different cultural views, in which the negativity mostly comes from the West and Middle East that was threated and destroyed (In Europe, Poland, Hungary, and parts of Russia, for example).

Views toward Genghis Khan in the modern day People's Republic of China are ambivalent with current Chinese historians seeing him as neither strongly positive or negative. While acknowledging the vast amount of damage the Genghis Khan created, his reputation is somewhat redeemed by the fact that he would set into motion events which would later end the north-south division of China that had begun during the Song Dynasty. In addition, to vilify Genghis would greatly offend Chinese citizens of Mongol descent, who like their relations in Mongolia regard Genghis Khan as an ethnic folk hero, and so the tendency in modern Chinese histories has been to avoid doing so.

Legacy

Genghis Khan's successors expanded it even further, into south China, Russia, Iraq, Korea, and Tibet. The Mongols eventually conquered Poland and Hungary under Batu Khan's rule, and varying degrees of success, Syria, Japan, and Vietnam (for inhospitable hot weather, and so goes to the Middle East, especially Saudi Arabia). The European expansion came to halt, when high-ranking members of Mongols returned to modern day Mongolia to participate in selection of the next great Khan, as Europeans draw so much emotion from this. The Mongols might have been ready to conquer the whole Europe having conquered Poland and Hungary in a month period. The Mongol Empire reached its height under Genghis Khan's grandson Kublai Khan, but broke apart into separate and less powerful khanates shortly afterward.

At its height, Mongol Empire was the largest empire in human history (sometimes largest "contiguous" empire), stretching from Southeast Asia to Europe, covering 35 million square kilometers (13.8 million square miles). According to some sources, the empire encompassed almost 50% of the world population and included the most advanced and populous nations of that time; China and many of the main contemporary states of the Islamic world in Iraq, Persia, and Asia Minor.

It can't be denied that Genghis Khan's waging of war was characterized by wholesale destruction on unprecedented scale and radically changed the demographic situation in Asia. According to the works of Iranian historian Rashid-ad-Din Fadl Allah, Mongols killed over 70,000 people in Merv and more than a million in Nishapur. China suffered a drastic decline in population. Before the Mongol invasion, China had about 100 million inhabitants; after the complete conquest in 1279, the census in 1300 showed it to have roughly 60 million people. This does not, of course, mean that Genghis Khan's men were directly responsible for the deaths of 40 million people but it does give a sense of the ferocity of the onslaught.

In recent times, Genghis Khan has become a symbol for Mongolia's attempts to regain its identity after many long years of Communism under Russia. Genghis Khan's face appears on Mongolian bank notes and vodka labels. He is often associated in the Western world with bloodthirstiness and barbarism. Later Mongol Khans encouraged the people to even worship Genghis Khan as a religious entity throughout the empire. Without Genghis Khan, there would seem to be no Mongolia, as the Mongol Empire consistenly shrank from what was built by Genghis Khan when he was titled in 1206. Significant accounts on Genghis Khan and the Mongols, although not always as factual, are covered in the book The Secret History of the Mongols.

A recent genetic survey (Zerjal et al. 2003, pdf of paper) found a cluster of Y chromosome variants in 1/12 of the men in the area of the Mongol Empire, and 1/200 of men worldwide. The age of the cluster, estimated from the mutation rate, places its origin around the time of Genghis Khan, and it is especially common among the Hazara people, who claim to be descended from Genghis Khan, which has traditionally been rejected by most scientists because it was assumed to be local folklore.

He is remembered for his wholesale destruction, his strong willpower, persuasiveness, but in Eastern Asia also for his achievements as a unifying, even cosmopolitan ruler, who nonetheless valued his Mongol identity over all.

External links

References

Zerjal, Tatiana, Yali Xue, Giorgio Bertorelle, R. Spencer Wells, Weidong Bao, Suling Zhu, Raheel Qamar, Qasim Ayub, Aisha Mohyuddin, Songbin Fu, Pu Li, Nadira Yuldasheva, Ruslan Ruzibakiev, Jiujin Xu, Qunfang Shu, Ruofu Du, Huanming Yang, Matthew E. Hurles, Elizabeth Robinson, Tudevdagva Gerelsaikhan, Bumbein Dashnyam, S. Qasim Mehdi, and Chris Tyler-Smith. 2003. The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols. The American Journal of Human Genetics 72:718-721
Genghis Khan and the Mongols
Mongol Arms