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Middle Chinese finals

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In Middle Chinese, the phonological system of medieval rime dictionaries and rime tables, the final is the rest of the syllable after the initial consonant. This analysis is derived from the traditional Chinese fanqie system of indicating pronunciation with a pair of characters indicating the sounds of the initial and final parts of the syllable respectively, though in both cases several characters were used for each sound. Reconstruction of the pronunciation of finals is much more difficult than for initials due to the combination of multiple phonemes into a single class, and there is no agreement as to their values. Because of this lack of consensus, understanding of the reconstruction of finals requires delving into the details of rime tables and rime dictionaries.[1]

Finals and rhyme classes

Each final is contained within a single rhyme class, but a rhyme class may contain more than one final:[2]

  • Several rhyme classes contain both "open" and "closed" finals, thought to be distinguished by the absence or presence of a medial /w/.
  • Five rhyme classes contain finals that appear to be distinguished according to the absence or presence of medial /j/: 戈 (closed) –wa –jwa (rows 1 and 3); 麻 –æ, -jæ (rows 2 and 3); 庚 –æng, -jæng (rows 2 and 3); 东 –uwng, -juwng (rows 1 and 3); 屋 –uwk, juwk (rows 1 and 3).
  • Some so-called chóngniǔ 重纽 "repeated button" rhyme classes contain two finals after a labial, velar and laryngeal initials, one placed in row 3 and the other in row 4. (The finals are not distinguished after dental or sibilant initials, and scholars disagree on which of the two finals these should be allocated to.) In all such cases, the paired finals have identical outcomes in all modern Chinese dialects as well as in Sino-Japanese borrowings, and are generally palatalized. However, in Sino-Vietnamese and Sino-Korean only the grade-4 finals have such palatalization. Karlgren ignored the difference, but all modern linguists consider the distinction important, though they do not agree on its realization. Li's and Baxter's transcriptions adopt a convention of using /ji/ the row-4 finals in contrast to /j/ or /i/ for the row-3 finals.[3]

Classes of finals

Karlgren noticed that classes of finals from the rime dictionaries were placed in different rows of the rime tables. As three classes of final were confined to the first, second and fourth rows respectively, he named them finals of divisions I, II and IV. The remaining finals he called "division-III finals" because they occurred in the third row of the tables. Some of these (the "pure" or "independent" division-III finals) occurred only in that row, while others (the "mixed" finals) could also occur in the second or fourth rows with some initials.[4] Karlgren disregarded the chongniu distinction, but later workers have emphasized its importance. Li Rong, in a systematic comparison of the rhyme tables with a recently discovered early edition of the Qieyun, identified seven classes of finals. The table below lists the combinations of initial and final classes that occur in the Qieyun, with the row of the rime tables in which each combination was placed:[5][6]

div. I div. II "division-III" finals div. IV
indep. mixed chongniu
Labials 1 2 3 3 3 4 4
Dental stops 1 4
Retroflex 2 3 3
Dental sibilants 1 4 4 4
Palatal 3 3
Retroflex 2 2 2
Velars 1 2 3 3 3 4 4
Laryngeals 1 2 3 3 3 4 4
Lateral 1 3 3 4

The mixed and chongniu finals, though designated as division-III finals, are spread across rows 2 and 4 as well as row 3 of the tables. To handle these cases, a distinction is made between the row that the homophone class is placed in and the "division" of its final. This article distinguishes rows by Arabic numerals 1 2 3 4 and divisions by Roman numerals I II III IV. In addition, chóngniǔ finals in division III are notated in the table of final outcomes below as III/3 or III/4, depending on the row in which they occur.

Significance of the division

There are correspondences between certain divisions and the presence or absence of medial glides in later dialects, in ways that differ depending on the class of the initial (e.g. velar, labial, retroflex, etc.). There are also clear co-occurrence restrictions between initials and divisions, in that initials from certain of these same classes can occur with finals only from certain divisions. The LMC authors of this system appear to have been aware of these classes of initials, and seem to have determined the separation into divisions partly on the basis of the co-occurrence relationships and partly on the medial glides, although it is debated how the exact classification was made. It is important to remember that the authors of this system were attempting to use LMC phonology to reconstruct EMC phonology (although they probably thought of it more in terms of trying to harmonize the way that words were normally pronounced with the rather different system of rhymes and homophones as laid out in the Qieyun).

The clearest difference is between division III and other divisions, with division III generally corresponding to palatal initials and/or finals with palatal (i.e. high-front) vowels or glides. In addition, divisions I and IV allow exactly the same set of initials in EMC, suggesting that the distinction between the two postdates the EMC period. Division-IV syllables are commonly thought to reflect a diphthong containing a vocalic glide /i/ in LMC, corresponding to an EMC mid-front monophthong, variously reconstructed as /ɛ/, /e/ or ɪ. Beyond this, there is no consensus.

Karlgren, and many authors following him, suggest that neither divisions I nor II had any medial other than /w/ or /u/, with division I corresponding to back vowels and division II to front vowels. Some authors have suggested that division II corresponded not so much to front vowels as to centralized vowels. Many authors have recently suggested that division-II syllables consistently had a medial /r/ in Old Chinese, although this appeared to have already disappeared by EMC, so it's unclear exactly how this would have been carried forward into LMC. (Some have suggested that the system of divisions dates back at least to the time of the Qieyun (c. 600 AD), and reflects a medial /ɣ/ present very early on in the EMC period.)

Table of Early Middle Chinese finals

The following table lists Early Middle Chinese (EMC) reconstructed "finals" (i.e. all of the syllable other than the initial consonant), according to different authors. It also lists the corresponding Late Middle Chinese (LMC) outcomes according to Pulleyblank, and the Standard Mandarin outcomes using Pinyin spelling. The table does not explicitly list finals ending in /p/, /t/ or /k/ (the so-called "entering tone" syllables), but these can easily be derived by substituting /p/ for /m/, /t/ for /n/, and /k/ for /ŋ/. Note also that some columns are not strictly in IPA.

Late Middle Chinese (LMC) outcomes

Codes for initial classes:

  • G = guttural (velar or laryngeal, i.e. a back consonant)
  • P = labial (includes labiodental)
  • PG = labial or guttural (i.e. a grave consonant)
  • A = acute consonant (anything not in PG)
  • SR = EMC retroflex sibilant
  • ST = alveolar sibilant
  • M = /m/
  • RXLʔ = EMC retroflex, EMC palatal sibilant, /l/ or /ʔ/
Standard Mandarin outcomes

The modern outcomes are listed using the following codes:

  • P = bilabial stops (p, b)
  • PM = bilabials (p, b, m)
  • F = labiovelars (f, w < /m-/)
  • T = alveolar stops (t, d)
  • S = alveolar sibilants (c, z, s)
  • Š = retroflex sibilants (ch, zh, sh)
  • ŠR = retroflex (ch, zh, sh, r)
  • K = velars (k, g, h)
  • Q = palatal sibilants (q, j, x); they occur in place of either velars or alveolar sibilants when i or ü follows
  • G = gutturals (velars or no initial; in the latter case, stemming from MC ʔ- or ŋ-/ng- and sometimes written w- or y- in Pinyin)
  • J = "jutturals" (same as gutturals but with palatal sibilants in place of velars; occurs before i or ü)

The outcomes are written either as individual outcomes in Pinyin, or combined outcomes in "pseudo-Pinyin" (when the outcome begins with a "-" or uppercase letter). "Pseudo-Pinyin" uses Pinyin conventions but without any of the abbreviations normally in use in Pinyin. Examples:

  • "-uei" indicates the pronunciation /uei/, normally spelled -ui or wei
  • "-üe" indicates the pronunciation /ye/, normally spelled -ue (after q-, j-, x-); -üe (after l-, n-); or yue
  • "-i" indicates the pronunciation /i/ (usually [i], but [ɨ] after alveolar or retroflex sibilants); normally spelled -i or yi

When not indicated, the choice of whether a velar or palatal occurs is determined by the following vowel: palatals before -i or -ü, velars elsewhere.

Example: A listed outcome like -uo, Ge, PMo; also Ta, occ. wo means that the outcome is -e for a guttural (i.e. ge, ke, he, e); -o for a labial (i.e. po, bo, mo); -uo elsewhere; but for alveolar stops, -a also appears (i.e. either tuo, duo or ta, da), and wo occasionally appears instead of e as the outcome of MC ʔ- or ŋ- (the outcome of both is a "null initial", which is counted as a "guttural" in the modern outcomes).

These outcomes assume the normal correspondences between EMC initials and Standard Mandarin initials:

  • EMC voiced stops and fricatives become unvoiced in Mandarin; stops in syllables with tone 1 become aspirated, otherwise unaspirated.
  • EMC palatal sibilants and retroflex stops become Mandarin retroflex sibilants.
  • EMC nasal changes: nr- becomes Mandarin n-; ny- becomes Mandarin r-, or sometimes the syllable er; ng- is dropped.
  • EMC guttural /ʔ-/ is dropped, and h- is dropped in the sequence hj-.
  • EMC velars and alveolar sibilants become Mandarin palatal sibilants before Early Mandarin -i- or -ü- (/y/).
  • With certain finals, EMC labial stops become Mandarin f-, and EMC m- usually becomes Mandarin w-; this is indicated by F-. Lowercase f- appears in finals where EMC labial stops become Mandarin f-, but either there are no known examples of EMC m- with the same final, or EMC m- with that final becomes Mandarin m- rather than w-.

In a couple of situations where two different EMC initials have merged, the modern outcome is nonetheless different depending on the EMC initial:

  • EMC retroflex and palatal sibilants merged in LMC, but sometimes the modern outcomes are different. For example, under -ip, the notation -i, Še < SR- means that EMC syip > shi but EMC srip > she.
  • EMC ng- and ʔ- both disappear, but sometimes with different results. For example, -ai, ya < ʔ-, Qie means that the modern result is ya when the EMC syllable began with ʔ- but ai when the EMC syllable began with ng- /ŋ-/. On the other hand, -ao, ao < ʔ-, Jiao means that the modern result is ao when the EMC syllable began with ʔ- but yao when the EMC syllable began with ng- /ŋ-/ (since J- includes original velars); likewise for -uo, wo < ʔ-, Jüe, indicating wo vs. yue.

Zero coda

Yunjing rhyme class Qieyun rhyme class division rounding Bernhard Karlgren Li Rong Edwin G. Pulleyblank [a] William H. Baxter Abraham Y.S. Chan Standard Mandarin pronunciation
EMC LMC Jinling Luoyang
果 (outer) 歌 I open ɑ ɑ a [ɑ] a [ɑ], Pua [ɑ] a ɑ ɐ -uo, Ge, PMo; also Ta, occ. wo
戈 I closed uɑ uɑ wa [wɑ] ua [uɑ] wa wɑ wɐ -uo; also Ge
戈 III-mixed open i̯ɑ iɑ ɨa [ɨɑ] ia [iɑ] ja ɑ œ Qie
戈 III-mixed closed i̯wɑ iuɑ ua [uɑ] ya [yɑ] jwa wɑ wœ Qüe
假 (outer) 麻 II open a a aɨ (ɛɨ) aː [ɑː], Gjaː [Gjɑː] æ æ ɛ -a, Jia
麻 II closed wa ua waɨ (wɛɨ) waː [wɑː] wæ wæ wɛ -ua
麻 III-mixed open i̯a ia ia [iɑ] ia [iɑ] jæ jæ jɛ Jie, ŠRe
遇 (inner) 模 I closed uo o ɔ uǝ̆ [uɔ] u u ə -u
魚 III-mixed closed i̯wo iɔ ɨǝ̆ iǝ̆ [iɛ], SRəǝ̆ [SRɤ] (yǝ̆ [yɛ], SRuǝ̆ [SRuɔ]) jo œ ø -ü, Fu, ŠRu
虞 III-mixed closed i̯u io uǝ̆ yǝ̆ [yɛ], SRuǝ̆ [SRuɔ] ju ø ø

Palatal glide coda

Yunjing rhyme class Qieyun rhyme class division rounding Bernhard Karlgren Li Rong Edwin G. Pulleyblank [a] William H. Baxter Abraham Y.S. Chan Standard Mandarin pronunciation
EMC LMC Jinling Luoyang
蟹 (outer) 咍 I open ɑ̌i ɒi əj aj oj əj əj -ai, Pei
灰 I closed uɑ̌i uɒi wəj uaj woj ʏj ʏj -uei, PMei, lei, nei
泰 I open ɑi ɑi aj aj ajH[b] ɑj ɐj -ai, Pei
泰 I closed wɑi uɑi waj uaj wajH[b] wɑj wɐj -uei
皆 II open ǝ̆i ɛi əɨj aːj, Gjaːj ɛj ɑj ɛj -ai, Qie; also Pei
皆 II closed wǝ̆i uɛi wəɨj waːj wɛj wɑj wɛj Kuai
佳 II open ai ɛ aɨj aːj, Gjaːj ɛ (ɛɨ)[c] ɛ ɛj -ai, ya < ʔ-, Qie; also Pa
佳 II closed wai uɛ waɨj waːj wɛ (wɛɨ)[c] wɛ wɛj -ua; also wai
夬 II open ai ai aɨj(s)[b] aːj, Gjaːj æjH[b] æj ɛj -ai, Qie
夬 II closed wai uai waɨj(s)[b] waːj wæjH[b] wæj wɛj Kuai
祭 III/3 open i̯ɛi iɛi iaj iaj jejH[b] ej ej -i
祭 III/4 open jɛi jiaj PGjiaj jiejH[b] jej jej
祭 III/3 closed i̯wɛi iuɛi wiaj yaj jwejH[b] wej wej -uei
祭 III/4 closed juɛi jwiaj PGjyaj jwiejH[b] wjej wjej
廢 III-indep open i̯æi iɐi ɨaj iaj jojH[b] øj øj fei, yi
廢 III-indep closed i̯wæi iuɐi uaj yaj jwojH[b] wøj wøj Kuei
齊 IV open iei ei ɛj PGjiaj, Aiaj ej ɐj ɪj -i
齊 IV closed iwei uei wɛj Gjyaj wej wɐj wɪj Kuei
止 (inner) 支 III/3 open iě ie iǝ̆ i, SRṛ, STẓ je e i -i, er < ny-; occ. Pei
支 III/4 open je jiǝ̆ PGji jie je ji
支 III/3 closed wiě iue wiǝ̆ yj, SRuj jwe we wi -uei, lei
支 III/4 closed jue jwiǝ̆ PGjyj jwie wje wji
脂 III/3 open i i i i, SRṛ, STẓ ij i i -i, er < ny-; occ. PMei
脂 III/4 open ji ji PGji jij ji ji
脂 III/3 closed wi ui wi yj, SRuj wij wi wi -uei, lei, yi?
脂 III/4 closed jui jwi PGjyj jwij wji wji
之 III-mixed open i iə ɨ i, SRṛ, STẓ i i e -i, er < ny-
微 III-indep open ěi iəi ɨj i jɨj yj yj Ji, Fei
微 III-indep closed wěi iuəi uj yj jwɨj wyj wyj Guei

Labial-velar glide coda

Yunjing rhyme class Qieyun rhyme class division rounding Bernhard Karlgren Li Rong Edwin G. Pulleyblank [a] William H. Baxter Abraham Y.S. Chan Standard Mandarin pronunciation
EMC LMC Jinling Luoyang
效 (outer) 豪 I open ɑu ɑu aw (u)aw aw ɑw ɐw -ao
肴 II open au au aɨw aːw, Gjaːw æw ɛw ɛw -ao, ao < ʔ-, Jiao
宵 III/3 open i̯ɛu iɛu iaw iaw jew ew ew -iao, ŠRao
宵 III/4 open jɛu jiaw PGjiaw jiew jew jew
蕭 IV open ieu eu ɛw PGjiaw, Aiaw ew ɪw ɪw
流 (inner) 侯 I open ə̆u u əw əw uw ʉ u -ou; also mu
尤 III-mixed open iə̆u iu uw iw, SRəw, Məw juw y y -iou, fou, mou, ŠRou; also Sou < Š-
幽 III/4 open i̯ĕu iĕu jiw jiw jiw iw iw -iou

Labial codas

Yunjing rhyme class Qieyun rhyme class division rounding Bernhard Karlgren Li Rong Edwin G. Pulleyblank [a] William H. Baxter Abraham Y.S. Chan Standard Mandarin pronunciation
EMC LMC Jinling Luoyang -m -p
咸 (outer) 覃 I open ɑ̌m ɒm əm am om ɔm ɔm -an -a, Ke
談 I open ɑm ɑm am am am ɑm ɐm
咸 II open ǝ̆m ɐm əɨm aːm, Gjaːm ɛm ɛm ɛm -an, Jian Jia, Ša
銜 II open am am aɨm aːm, Gjaːm æm æm ɛm
鹽 III/3 open i̯ɛm iɛm iam iam jem øm øm -ian, ŠRan -ie, Še
鹽 III/4 open jɛm jiam PGjiam jiem jøm? jøm?
嚴 III-indep open i̯æm iɐm ɨam iam jæm em em -ian, fan -ie, fa
凡 III-indep closed i̯wæm iuɐm uam iam jom/jwom? œm øm
添 IV open iem em ɛm PGjiam, Aiam em ɪm ɪm -ian Qie
深 (inner) 侵 III/3 open i̯əm iəm im im, SRəm im im im -in, ŠRen; also Sen < Š- -i, Še < SR-
侵 III/4 open jəm jim PGjim jim jim jim

Dental codas

Yunjing rhyme class Qieyun rhyme class division rounding Bernhard Karlgren Li Rong Edwin G. Pulleyblank [a] William H. Baxter Abraham Y.S. Chan Standard Mandarin pronunciation
EMC LMC Jinling Luoyang -n -t
山 (outer) 寒 I open ɑn ɑn an an an ɑn ɐn -an -a, Ge, PMo
桓 I closed uɑn uɑn wan uan wan wɑn wɐn -uan -uo
刪 II open an an aɨn aːn, Gjaːn æn æn ɛn -an, Jian -a, Jia
刪 II closed wan uan waɨn waːn wæn wæn wɛn -uan Kua
山 II open ǝ̆n ɛn əɨn aːn, Gjaːn ɛn ɛn ɛn -an, Jian -a, Jia
山 II closed wǝ̆n uɛn wəɨn waːn wɛn wɛn wɛn Kuan Gua
仙 III/3 open i̯ɛn iɛn ian ian jen en en -ian, ŠRan -ie, ŠRe
仙 III/4 open jɛn jian PGjian jien jen jen
仙 III/3 closed i̯wɛn iuɛn wian yan jwen wen wen -uan, Jüan; also lian Jüe, lie, Šuo
仙 III/4 closed juɛn jwian PGjyan jwien wjen wjen
元 III-indep open i̯æn iɐn ɨan ian jon øn øn Jian, Fan Jie, fa
元 III-indep closed i̯wæn iuɐn uan yan jwon wøn wøn Jüan, fan Jüe
先 IV open ien en ɛn PGjian, Aian en ɪn ɪn -ian -ie
先 IV closed iwen uen wɛn jyan wen wɪn wɪn Jüan Qüe
臻 (inner) 痕 I open ən ən ən ən on ən ən Gen Ke
魂 I closed u̯ən uən wən un won ʏn ʏn -uen, PMen -u, PMo, ne
臻 III/3 open i̯ɛn iɛn in SRən in in in -in, ŠRen; also Sen < Š- -i, Še < SR-
眞 III/3 open i̯ēn iēn in in, SRən in in in
眞 III/4 open jēn jin PGjin jin jin jin
眞 III/3 closed i̯wēn iuēn win yn win win win -uen, Jün -ü
諄 III/3 closed i̯uēn iuēn win yn win win win
諄 III/4 closed juēn jwin PGjyn jwin jwin jwin
欣(殷?) III-indep open i̯ən iən ɨn in jɨn in yn Jin Ji
文 III-indep closed i̯uən iuən un yn, yt, SRut jun yn yn Jün, Fen Jü, Fu

Velar codas

Yunjing rhyme class Qieyun rhyme class division rounding Bernhard Karlgren Li Rong Edwin G. Pulleyblank [a] William H. Baxter Abraham Y.S. Chan Standard Mandarin pronunciation
EMC LMC Jinling Luoyang -ŋ -k
宕 (outer) 唐 I open ɑŋ ɑŋ aŋ [ɑŋ] aŋ [ɑŋ] aŋ ɑŋ ɐŋ -ang -uo, Ge, PMo; also lao; occ. Sao
唐 I closed wɑŋ uɑŋ waŋ [wɑŋ] uaŋ [uɑŋ] waŋ wɑŋ wɐŋ Kuang Kuo
陽 III-mixed open i̯aŋ iaŋ ɨaŋ [ɨɑŋ] iaŋ [iɑŋ], SRaːŋ [SRɑːŋ] jaŋ œŋ œŋ -iang, Fang, ŠRang; also Šuang < SR- -üe, ŠRuo; also Jiao
陽 III-mixed closed i̯waŋ iuaŋ uaŋ [uɑŋ] yaŋ [yɑŋ] jwaŋ wœŋ wœŋ Kuang Qüe
江 (outer) 江 II open ɔŋ ɔŋ aɨwŋ aːwŋ, RXLʔwaːwŋ, Gjaːwŋ æwŋ ɔŋ ɔŋ Qiang, Pang, Šuang < TR- -uo, wo < ʔ-, Jüe, Pao; also Qiao, Po
曾 (inner) 登 I open əŋ əŋ əŋ əǝ̆ŋ [ɤŋ] oŋ oŋ oŋ -eng -e, PMo; also Sei, lei
登 I closed wəŋ uəŋ wəŋ uǝ̆ŋ [uɔŋ] woŋ woŋ woŋ Kong Kuo
蒸 III-mixed open i̯əŋ iəŋ iŋ iǝ̆ŋ [iɛŋ], iǝ̆k [iɛk], SRəǝ̆k [SRɤk] iŋ iŋ iŋ -ing, ŠReng -i, Še < SR-; also Se < SR-
蒸 III-mixed closed i̯wəŋ iuəŋ wiŋ yǝ̆ŋ [yɛŋ] wiŋ wiŋ wiŋ unobserved Jü
梗 (outer) 庚 II open æŋ ɐŋ aɨjŋ aːjŋ, Gjaːjŋ æŋ æŋ ɛŋ Jing, -eng; also Keng -ai, Ge; also PMo, Se < Š-
庚 II closed wæŋ uɐŋ waɨjŋ waːjŋ wæŋ wæŋ wɛŋ Keng unobserved
耕 II open ɛŋ ɛŋ əɨjŋ aːjŋ, Gjaːjŋ ɛŋ ɛŋ ɛŋ Jing, -eng; also Keng -ai, Ge; also Se < Š-
耕 II closed wɛŋ uɛŋ wəɨjŋ waːjŋ wɛŋ wɛŋ wɛŋ Kong Kuo
庚 III/3 open i̯æŋ iɐŋ iajŋ iajŋ jæŋ eŋ jɛŋ -ing, Šeng -i
庚 III/3 closed i̯wæŋ iuɐŋ wiajŋ yajŋ jwæŋ weŋ wjɛŋ Qiong unobserved
清 III/3 open i̯ɛŋ iɛŋ iajŋ iajŋ jeŋ eŋ eŋ -ing, Šeng -i
清 III/4 open jɛŋ jiajŋ PGjiajŋ jieŋ jeŋ jeŋ
清 III/3 closed i̯wɛŋ iuɛŋ wiajŋ yajŋ jweŋ weŋ weŋ Qiong, ying yi
清 III/4 closed juɛŋ jwiajŋ jyajŋ jwieŋ wjeŋ wjeŋ
青 IV open ieŋ eŋ ɛjŋ PGjiajŋ, Aiajŋ eŋ ɪŋ ɪŋ -ing -i
青 IV closed iweŋ ueŋ Kwɛjŋ jyajŋ weŋ wɪŋ wɪŋ Qiong unobserved
通 (inner) 東 I closed uŋ uŋ əwŋ əwŋ uwŋ ʉŋ uwŋ -ong, weng, PMeng; occ. Seng -u; also wo
冬 I closed uoŋ oŋ awŋ əwŋ owŋ uŋ uŋ
東 III-mixed closed iuŋ iuŋ uwŋ iwŋ, SRəwŋ, Məwŋ juwŋ yŋ yŋ -ong, Jiong, feng; also Kong -u, Jü; also liu, ŠRou
鍾 III-mixed closed i̯woŋ ioŋ uawŋ ywŋ jowŋ øŋ øŋ

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e f The table uses the notation in Pulleyblank (1991), which differs in some ways from Pulleyblank (1984).
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l These finals occur only in tone 3 (the "departing tone"). This is because they come from Old Chinese finals in -ts > -js, while the corresponding Old Chinese finals in -j lost the /j/. As a result, they often appear in Pulleyblank (1962) as e.g. aɨj(s) and in Baxter (1992) as e.g. æjH, where the s and H are the respective notations for tone 3.
  3. ^ a b In Baxter (1992), these finals are indicated as ɛɨ and wɛɨ, but in Baxter & Sagart (2010), they have changed to simply ɛ and wɛ.

References

Footnotes
  1. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 36–38.
  2. ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 62–63.
  3. ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 75–79.
  4. ^ Branner (2006), p. 24.
  5. ^ Branner (2006), p. 25.
  6. ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 63–81.
Works cited
  • Baxter, William H. (1992), A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-012324-1.
  • Baxter, William; Sagart, Laurent (20 February 2010), Baxter-Sagart Old Chinese reconstruction, Version 1.00. {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |authormask= ignored (|author-mask= suggested) (help)
  • Branner, David Prager (2006), "What are rime tables and what do they mean?", in Branner, David Prager (ed.), The Chinese Rime Tables: Linguistic Philosophy and Historical-Comparative Phonology, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 1–34, ISBN 978-90-272-4785-8. See also List of Corrigenda.
  • Chan, Abraham (2004), "Early Middle Chinese Towards a New Paradigm", T'oung Pao, 90 (1/3): 122–162, doi:10.1163/1568532042523149, JSTOR 4528958.
  • Karlgren, Bernhard (1957), Grammata Serica Recensa, Stockholm: Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, OCLC 1999753.
  • Li, Fang-Kuei (1974–75), "Studies on Archaic Chinese", Monumenta Serica, 31, Gilbert L. Mattos (trans.): 219–287.
  • Newman, J.; Raman, A. V. (1999), Chinese historical phonology: a compendium of Beijing and Cantonese pronunciations of characters and their derivations from Middle Chinese, LINCOM studies in Asian linguistics, vol. 27, Munich: LINCOM Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-543-5.
  • Norman, Jerry (1988), Chinese, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29653-3.
  • Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1962), "The Consonantal System of Old Chinese", Asia Major, 9: 58–144, 206–265.
  • Pulleyblank, Edwin George (1970), "Late Middle Chinese, Part I" (PDF), Asia Major, 15: 197–239. {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |authormask= ignored (|author-mask= suggested) (help)
  • Pulleyblank, Edwin George (1971), "Late Middle Chinese, Part II" (PDF), Asia Major, 16: 121–166. {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |authormask= ignored (|author-mask= suggested) (help)
  • Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1984), Middle Chinese: a study in historical phonology, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, ISBN 978-0-7748-0192-8. {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |authormask= ignored (|author-mask= suggested) (help)
  • Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1991), Lexicon of reconstructed pronunciation in early Middle Chinese, late Middle Chinese, and early Mandarin, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, ISBN 978-0-7748-0366-3. {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |authormask= ignored (|author-mask= suggested) (help)

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