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Winter Olympic Games

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For the previous Winter Games in Vancouver and Whistler, British Columbia, Canada, see 2010 Winter Olympics.
Winter Olympic Games
four pillars with flame at their tops surrounding a single fifth pillar in the middle, also with flame at the top. The background is sky with mountain.
The Olympic flame in Vancouver during the 2010 Winter Olympics.
Games
1924 • 1928 • 1932 • 1936 • 1940 • 1944 • 1948
1952 • 1956 • 1960 • 1964 • 1968 • 1972 • 1976
1980 • 1984 • 1988 • 1992 • 1994 • 1998 • 2002
 2006 • 2010 • 2014 • 2018 • 2022
Sports (details)
Alpine skiing • Biathlon • Bobsled
Cross‑country skiing • Curling • Figure skating
Freestyle skiing • Ice hockey • Luge
Nordic combined • Short track speed skating
Skeleton • Ski jumping • Snowboarding
Speed skating

The Winter Olympic Games are a winter multi-sport event held every four years. They feature winter sports held on snow or ice, such as alpine skiing, cross-country skiing, figure skating, and ice hockey. These sports along with Nordic combined, ski jumping, and speed skating have been competed at every Winter Olympics since 1924. Other events have been added as the Games have progressed, and some of them, such as luge, short track speed skating, and freestyle skiing have earned a permanent spot on the Olympic programme. Others, like speed skiing, bandy, and skijöring were demonstration sports but never incorporated officially as an Olympic sport.

Fewer countries participate in the Winter Olympics than the Summer Olympics. The first Winter Olympics were held in Chamonix, France in 1924. Prior to this, figure skating and ice hockey had been events at the Summer Olympics. The Games were held every four years from 1924 until 1940 when they were interrupted by World War II. The Winter and Summer Games resumed in 1948 and were celebrated on the same year as the Summer Olympics until 1992. Starting in 1994 the Winter Olympics were held in their own year, separate from the Summer Games. They continue to be celebrated every four years.

The Winter Games have undergone significant changes since their inception. The rise of television as a global medium for communication has enhanced the profile of the Games. It has also created an income stream via the sale of broadcast rights and advertising, which has become very lucrative for the International Olympic Committee (IOC). This has allowed outside interests, such as television companies and corporate sponsors, to influence various aspects of the Games. The IOC has had to address several internal scandals, and the use of performance enhancing drugs by Winter Olympians. There has been one political boycot at the Winter Olympics. Nations have also used the Winter Games to their own political ends, and to showcase the claimed superiority of their political systems.

The Winter Olympics have been hosted on three continents, but never in a country in the southern hemisphere. The United States has hosted the Games four times. France has been the host three times. Austria, Canada, Italy, Japan, Norway, and Switzerland have hosted the Games twice. The next Winter Olympics will be hosted by Sochi, in 2014, making it the first time a Russian city will host the Winter Olympic Games.

History

Early years

The first international multi-sport event specifically for winter sports were the Nordic Games, held in 1901 in Sweden. The Nordic Games were organized by General Viktor Gustaf Balck.[1] They were held again in 1903, a third event was held in 1905, and then every four years there after until 1926.[1] Balck was a charter member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and a close personal friend of Olympic Games founder Pierre de Coubertin. He attempted to have winter sports, specifically figure skating, added to the Olympic programme.[1] Balck was unsuccessful until the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, which featured four figure skating events.[2] Ulrich Salchow (10 time World champion) and Madge Syers won the individual titles.[3]

Three years later, Italian count Eugenio Brunetta d'Usseaux proposed that the IOC stage a week with winter sports as part of the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm. The organizers opposed this idea, their reasoning was two-fold: they desired to protect the integrity of the Nordic Games; and they were concerned about a lack of facilities that could accommodate winter sports.[4][5][6] The idea was resurrected for the 1916 Games, which were to be held in Berlin. A winter sports week with speed skating, figure skating, ice hockey and Nordic skiing was planned, but the 1916 Olympics were cancelled after the outbreak of World War I.[5]

The first Olympics after the war, the 1920 Games in Antwerp featured figure skating and ice hockey.[5] At the IOC Congress held the following year, it was decided that the organizers of the 1924 Summer Olympics, France, would also host a separate "International Winter Sports Week", under the patronage of the IOC. This "week" (it actually lasted 11 days) of events in Chamonix proved to be a great success. More than 250 athletes from 16 nations, competed in 16 events.[7] Thirteen women, all figure skaters, participated.[5] Finnish and Norwegian athletes dominated the events.[8] In 1925 the IOC decided to create a separate Olympic Winter Games,[5] and the 1924 Games in Chamonix were retroactively designated as the first Winter Olympics.[5][7]

a statue of Sonja Henie jumping
Statue of Sonja Henie in Oslo

St. Moritz was appointed by the IOC to host the second Olympic Winter Games in 1928.[9] Fluctuating weather conditions made these Olympics memorable. The opening ceremony was held in a blizzard.[10] In contrast, warm weather conditions plagued the Olympics for the remainder of the Games. Due to the weather the 10,000 metre (6.2 miles) speed skating event had to be abandoned and officially cancelled with no winner.[11] The 50 km (31 miles) cross-country event was officially contested but ended with a temperature of 25 °C (77 °F), which caused significant problems with snow and waxing conditions.[11] The weather was not the only note-worthy aspect of the 1928 Games; Sonja Henie of Norway created a sensation when she won the figure skating competition at the age of 15. She became the youngest Olympic champion in history, a distinction she would hold for 74 years.[12]

The next Winter Olympics was the first to be hosted outside of Europe. Fewer athletes participated than in 1928, as the journey to Lake Placid, United States, was a long and expensive one for most competitors, and there was little money for sports in the midst of the Great Depression. These Games were also marred by warm weather. Virtually no snow fell for two months preceding the Games. It was not until mid-January that there was enough snow to hold all the events.[13] Sonja Henie defended her Olympic title.[14] Eddie Eagan, who had been an Olympic champion in boxing in 1920, won the gold in the men's bobsled event to become the first, and so far only, Olympian to have won gold medals in both the Summer and Winter Olympics.[14]

The Bavarian towns of Garmisch and Partenkirchen joined to organize the 1936 edition of the Winter Games, held from February 6–16.[15] 1936 marked the last year that the Summer and Winter Olympics were held in the same country. Alpine skiing made its Olympic debut in Germany, but skiing teachers were barred from entering because they were considered to be professionals.[16] This decision caused the Swiss and Austrian skiers to refuse to compete in the Olympics.[16]

World War II

The Second World War interrupted the celebration of the Winter Olympics. The 1940 Winter Olympics had originally been awarded to Sapporo, Japan, but was rescinded in 1938 because of the Japanese invasion of China. St. Moritz, Switzerland was chosen by the IOC to host the Games, but three months later the IOC withdrew its selection because of quarrels with the Swiss organizing committee. Garmisch-Partenkirchen, the hosts of the previous Olympics, stepped in to host the Winter Games again, but both Summer and Winter Olympics were cancelled in November 1939 following Germany's invasion of Poland.[17] The 1944 Winter Olympics, scheduled to take place in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy were cancelled in the Summer of 1941 due to the continuing World War.[18]

1948 to 1960

An open air arena with crowds in the stands and people on the playing field surrounding a rostrum
The opening ceremonies of the 1956 Winter Olympics in Cortina d'Ampezzo

St. Moritz was selected to host the first post-war Games in 1948. The town was untouched by World War II due to Switzerland's neutrality. Since most of the venues were already constructed for the 1928 Games it was a logical choice to become the first city to host a Winter Olympics twice.[19] Twenty-eight countries competed in Switzerland. Athletes from Germany and Japan were not invited.[20] The Games were marred by controversy, and theft. Two hockey teams from the United States arrived. Both teams claimed to be the legitimate U.S. Olympic hockey representative. The Olympic flag presented at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp was stolen. Its replacement was also stolen. There was an unprecedented degree of parity in these Games. Ten countries won gold medals, more than any Games to that point.[21]

The city of Oslo, Norway, was invited to host the 1952 Winter Olympics. The Olympic Flame was lit in the fireplace of the home of skiing pioneer Sondre Nordheim.[22] The torch relay was conducted by 94 participants entirely on skis.[22][23] Bandy, a popular sport in the Nordic countries, was featured as a demonstration sport though only Norway, Sweden, and Finland fielded teams.[23]

After not being able to host the Games in 1944 due to the War, Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy, was selected to organize the 1956 Winter Olympics. At the opening ceremonies the final torch bearer, Guido Caroli, entered the Olympic Stadium on ice skates. As he skated around the stadium rink his skate caught on a cable and he fell, nearly extinguishing the flame. He was able to recover and lit the cauldron.[24] These were the first Winter Games to be televised, though no television rights would be sold until the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome.[25] The Cortina Games were used as an experiment on the feasibility of televising sporting events on such a large scale.[25] These Games marked the debut of the Soviet Union at the Winter Olympics. The Soviet team had an immediate impact, winning more medals than any other nation.[26] The IOC awarded the 1960 Olympics to Squaw Valley, United States. Since the village was underdeveloped, there was a rush to construct roads, hotels, restaurants, and bridges, as well as the ice arena, the speed skating track, ski lifts, and the ski jump hill.[27][28] The opening and closing ceremonies were produced by Walt Disney.[29] These Games were the first to have a dedicated athlete's village, and the first to use a computer (courtesy of IBM) to tabulate results.[29] The bobsled events were absent for the first and only time because the organizing committee found it too expensive to build the bobsled run. Women first took part in speed skating at these Games.[29]

1964 to 1980

The Tyrolean city of Innsbruck was the host in 1964. Despite being a traditional winter sports resort, warm weather caused a lack of snow during the Games and the Austrian army was called in to bring snow and ice to the sport venues.[29] Soviet speed skating star Lidia Skoblikova made history by sweeping all four speed skating events. Her career total of six gold medals set a record for the most medals by a Winter Olympics athlete.[29] Luge was first contested in these Olympics, although the sport received bad publicity when a competitor was killed in a pre-Olympic training run.[30][31]

Held in the French town of Grenoble, the 1968 Winter Olympics was the first Olympic Games to be broadcast in colour.[32] Frenchman Jean-Claude Killy became only the second person to sweep all the men's alpine skiing events.[32] The effects of television began to show at the Grenoble Games. The organizing committee sold the television rights for $2 million, a significant increase over the price of the broadcast rights for the Innsbruck Games, which totaled $936,667.[33] Venues were spread over long distances requiring three athletes' villages at these Games. The organizers claimed this was required to accommodate technological advances. Critics disputed this, alleging the layout was necessary to provide the best possible venues for television broadcasts at the expense of the athletes.[33]

The 1972 Winter Games, held in Sapporo, Japan, were the first to be hosted outside North America or Europe. The issue of professionalism became very contentious during these Games. Three days before the Olympics, IOC president Avery Brundage threatened to bar a large number of alpine skiers from competing because they participated in a ski camp at Mammoth Mountain in the United States. Brundage reasoned that the skiers had financially benefited from their status as athletes and were therefore no longer amateurs.[34] Eventually, only Austrian Karl Schranz, who earned more than all the other skiers, was not allowed to compete.[35] Canada did not send teams to the 1972 or 1976 ice hockey tournaments in protest of their inability to use players from professional leagues.[36] Francisco Ochoa became the only Spaniard to ever win a Winter Olympic gold medal, when he triumphed in the slalom.[37]

An empty arena with the sheet of ice and the score board
The Herb Brooks Arena, site of the "Miracle on Ice", photo taken ca. 2007

Originally, the 1976 Winter Games had been awarded to Denver, United States, but in 1972 the voters of Colorado expressed unwillingness to host the Games through a state referendum.[38] Innsbruck, which still had maintained the infrastructure from the 1964 Games, was chosen in 1973 to replace Denver.[39] Two Olympic flames were lit because it was the second time the Austrian town had hosted the Games.[39] The 1976 Games also featured the first combination bobsled and luge track in neighbouring Igls.[37] The Soviet Union won its fourth straight ice hockey gold medal at these Games.[39]

The Olympic Winter Games returned to Lake Placid, which had hosted the 1932 Games. Rumours of a boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics by the United States and its allies clouded these Olympics.[40] American speed skater Eric Heiden set either an Olympic or world record winning each of the five events he competed in.[41] Hanni Wenzel won both the Slalom and Giant Slalom. Her country, Liechtenstein, became the smallest nation to produce an Olympic gold medallist.[14] In the "Miracle on Ice", the American hockey team beat the favoured Soviets and went on to win the gold medal.[42] The Republic of China boycotted the 1980 Olympics due to a conflict with China over the use of the name "Republic of China".[43]

1984 to 1998

Alberto Tomba in hat and ski clothes
Alberto Tomba, winner of five Olympic medals in Calgary, Albertville, and Lillehammer

The cities of Sapporo, Japan, and Gothenburg, Sweden were front-runners to host the 1984 Winter Olympics. It was therefore a surprise when Sarajevo, Yugoslavia was chosen to host the Games.[44] The Games were well-organized and displayed no indication of the war that would soon engulf the country.[45] Yugoslavia also won its first Olympic medal when alpine skier Jure Franko won a silver medal in the giant slalom.[45] Another sporting highlight was the free dance performance of British ice dancers Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean. Their performance to Ravel's Bolero earned the pair unanimous perfect scores in artistic impression, and the gold medal.[45]

In 1988, the Canadian city of Calgary hosted the first Winter Olympics to span 16 days.[46] New events were added in ski jumping and speed skating, while future Olympic sports curling, short track speed skating and freestyle skiing made their appearance as demonstration sports. For the first time, the speed skating events were held indoors, on the Olympic Oval. Dutch skater Yvonne van Gennip won three gold medals, and set two world records, in speed skating, beating the skaters from the favoured East German team in every race.[47] Her total was equalled by Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen, who won all the events in his sport.[46] Alberto Tomba, an Italian skier made his Olympic debut at these Games winning both the Giant Slalom and Slalom.[46] East German Christa Rothenburger won the women's 1000 metre speed skating event. Seven months later, she would earn a silver in track cycling at the Summer Games in Seoul.[46] She became the first and only athlete to win medals in both a Summer and Winter Olympics in the same year.[46]

The 1992 Games were the last to be held in the same year as the Summer Games.[48] They were hosted in the French Savoie region. The town of Albertville was the host city though only 18 events were competed in the city. The rest of the events were spread out over the Savoie.[48] Political changes of the time were reflected in the Olympic teams appearing in France. This was the first Games to be held after the fall of Communism and the dismantling of the Berlin Wall.[49] Germany competed as a single nation for the first time since the 1964 Games, and former Yugoslavian republics Croatia and Slovenia made their debut.[49] Most of the former Soviet republics still competed as a single team known as the Unified Team, but the Baltic States made independent appearances for the first time since before World War II.[49] At 16 years old, Finnish ski jumper Toni Nieminen made history by becoming the youngest male Winter Olympic champion.[50] New Zealand skier Annelise Coberger became the first Winter Olympic medallist from the southern hemisphere when she won a silver medal in the women's slalom.[50]

In 1986, the IOC voted to separate the Summer and Winter Games and place them in alternating even-numbered years starting in 1994. The Lillehammer Games were the first Winter Olympics to be held without the Summer Games in the same year.[51] After the division of Czechoslovakia in 1993, the Czech Republic and Slovakia made their Olympic debut in Lillehammer, Norway.[52] The women's figure skating competition garnered significant media attention. American skater Nancy Kerrigan had been injured on January 6 in an assault planned by the ex-husband of opponent Tonya Harding.[53] Both skaters competed in the Games, but neither of them won the gold medal, which went to Oksana Baiul, who won Ukraine's first Olympic title.[54][55]

The 1998 Winter Olympics was the first Games to host more than 2,000 athletes.[56] The Games were held in the Japanese city of Nagano. The men's ice hockey tournament was open to all professionals for the first time. Canada and the United States, with their many NHL players, were favoured for the gold .[56] However, neither nation won any medals, as the Czech Republic prevailed.[56] Women's ice hockey made its debut at these Games, with the United States winning the gold medal.[57] Bjørn Dæhlie of Norway won three gold medals in Nordic skiing. He became the most decorated Winter Olympic athlete with eight gold medals and twelve medals overall.[56] Austrian Hermann Maier survived a crash during the downhill competition and returned to win gold in the Super-G and the Giant Slalom[56] A wave of new world records were set in speed skating due to the use of the clap skate.[58]

2002 to present

Interwoven steel frame several stories high with the lit flame at the top
Olympic flame during the Opening Ceremony of the 2002 Games in Salt Lake City

The 19th Olympic Winter Games were held in Salt Lake City, United States. German Georg Hackl won a silver in the singles luge, becoming the first athlete in Olympic history to medal in the same individual event in five consecutive Olympics.[59] Canada achieved an unprecedented double by winning both the men's and women's Ice Hockey gold medals.[59] Canada became embroiled with Russia in a controversy that involved the judging of the pairs figure skating competition. The Russian pair of Yelena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze competed against the Canadian pair of Jamie Salé and David Pelletier for the gold medal. The Canadians appeared to have skated well enough to win the competition, yet the Russians were awarded the gold. The judging broke along Cold War lines with the exception of the French judge, Marie-Reine Le Gougne, who awarded the gold to the Russians. An investigation revealed that she had been pressured to give the gold to the Russian pair regardless of how they skated; in return the Russian judge would look favourably on the French entrants in the ice dancing competition.[60] The IOC decided to award both pairs the gold medal in a second medal ceremony held later in the Games.[61] Australian Steven Bradbury became the first gold medallist from the southern hemisphere when he won the 1000 metre short-track speed skating event.[62]

The Italian city of Turin hosted the 2006 Winter Olympics. It was the second time that Italy hosted the Winter Olympic Games. South Korean athletes dominated the short-track speed skating events at these Games. Sun-Yu Jin won three gold medals while her teammate Hyun-Soo Ahn won three gold medals and a bronze.[63] In the women's Cross-Country team pursuit Canadian Sara Renner broke one of her poles. When he saw her dilemma, Norwegian coach Bjørnar Håkensmoen decided to lend her a pole. In so doing she was able to help her team win a silver medal in the event. Norway finished fourth.[63][64] Claudia Pechstein of Germany became the first speed skater to earn nine career medals.[63] In February of 2009, Pechstein tested positive for "blood manipulation", which she appealed. The Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld her suspension but a Swiss court ruled that she could compete for a spot on the 2010 German Olympic team.[65] She lost her final appeal to lift her suspension on January 26, 2010, which precluded her from competing in Vancouver even if she had made the German Olympic team.[66]

In 2003 the IOC awarded the 2010 Winter Olympics to Vancouver, thus allowing Canada to host its second Winter Olympics. With a population of more than 2.5 million people, Vancouver is the largest metropolitan area to ever host a Winter Olympic Games.[67] The death of Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili in a training run on the day of the opening of the Games, cast a pall over the Games. His death also forced officials at the Whistler Sliding Centre to make changes to the track to make it safer for the athletes.[68] Norwegian cross-country skier Marit Bjørgen dominated the women's cross-country events. Of the six women's races on the programme, Bjørgen medalled in five of them, earning three golds, a silver and a bronze.[69] Canada repeated it's feat from 2002 of winning gold in both men's and women's ice hockey.[70] These Games were also notable for the poor performance of the Russian athletes. From their first Winter Olympics in 1956 until 2006, a Soviet or Russian delegation had never been outside the top five medal-winning nations. In 2010 they finished sixth in total medals and eleventh in gold medals. This caused great concern at the highest levels of the Russian government. President Dmitry Medvedev called for the resignation of top sports officials immediately following the Games.[71]

Future

The decision for the location of the 2014 Winter Olympics was made on 4 July 2007. Sochi, Russia, was elected as the host city over the other two finalists: Salzburg, Austria, and Pyeongchang, South Korea. Sochi will be the first city with a subtropical climate to host the Winter Games.[72] The Olympic Village and Olympic Stadium will be located on the Black Sea coast. All of the mountain venues will be 50 kilometres (30 mi) away in the alpine region known as Krasnaya Polyana.[72] The host city for the 2018 Winter Olympics has yet to be determined. Pyeongchang, Munich, Germany and Annecy, France have all indicated an interest in hosting the Games. A final vote by the IOC on the location of the 2018 Games will be held in July, 2011.[73]

Commercialization

As president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972, Avery Brundage rejected all attempts to link the Olympics with commercial interests. He felt that the Olympic movement should be completely separate from financial influence.[74] The 1960 Winter Olympics marked the beginning of corporate sponsorship of the Games. Brundage saw this as an unwelcome development.[74] He resisted any efforts to commercialize the Games, but as the decade of the 1960s continued the revenue generated by corporate sponsorship swelled.[75] By the Grenoble Games, Brundage had become so concerned about the direction of the Winter Olympic Games towards commercialization that if they could not be corrected, then he felt the Winter Olympics should be abolished.[76] Brundage's resistance to this revenue stream meant the IOC was slow to seek a share of the financial windfall that was coming to host cities, and also slow to control how sponsorship deals would be structured.[74] When Brundage retired, the IOC had $2 million in assets, eight years later the IOC coffers had swelled to $45 million.[74] This was primarily due to a shift in ideology among IOC members toward expansion of the Games through corporate sponsorship and the sale of television rights.[74] Brundage's concerns did prove to be prophetic to a degree. The power and influence of the television lobby has expanded as the cost of the broadcast rights for each successive Games has increased. At the 1998 Nagano Games, CBS paid $375 million, whereas the 2006 Turin Games cost NBC $613 million to broadcast.[77] The more television companies have paid the greater their persuasive power with the IOC has been. For example, the television lobby has influenced the Olympic programme by dictating when event finals were held so that they would appear in prime time for television audiences.[78]

In 1986, the IOC decided to stagger the Summer and Winter Games on separate years. Instead of holding both Games in the same calendar year, it was decided to alternate them every two years. Both Games would still be held on four-year cycles. The rationale given by the IOC for this change was in order to give more prominence to the Winter Olympic Games.[79] It was decided that 1992 would be the last year to have both a Winter and Summer Olympic Games.[51]

There were two groups pushing for this change. One was the television lobby, who had applied pressure to reschedule the Games due to the difficulty in raising advertising revenue for two Games in the same year.[79] Television studios would now be able to emphasize story-lines and generate interest for each separate Games, thereby maximizing viewership and consequently profit.[80] The second was the IOC's desire to gain more control over the revenue generated by the Games. The financial success of the 1984 Summer Olympics, which created a surplus of $227 million, exposed the importance of maximizing television rights and corporate sponsorships. The IOC also realized that under the current structure they had little access to the corporate sponsorship funds raised by individual host cities. They determined that by staggering the Games, corporations would be more likely to sponsor individual Olympic Games thereby maximizing revenue potential. The IOC also sought to directly organize sponsorship contracts so that they had more control over the Olympic "brand".[81] The first Winter Olympics to be hosted in this new format was the 1994 Games in Lillehammer.[48]

Controversy

a head shot of Juan Antonio Samaranch with dark glasses on
Juan Antonio Samaranch, former IOC president, was implicated in a bidding scandal for the 2002 Winter Olympics.

The Winter Olympics have not been immune to improprieties. One recent scandal occurred around the 2002 Winter Olympics. After Salt Lake City had been awarded the right to host the 2002 Games it was discovered that the organizers had engaged in an elaborate bribery scheme to curry favour with IOC officials in order to win the bid to host the Games. Gifts and other financial considerations were given to IOC officials. These gifts included medical treatment for relatives, a college scholarship for one member's son, and a land deal in Utah. Even IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch received two rifles valued at $2,000. Samaranch defended the gift as inconsequential since as president he was a non-voting member.[82] He also indicated that the rifles would go on display at the Olympic museum.[83] The subsequent investigation resulted in the expulsion of ten members of the IOC and the sanctioning of another ten members.[84] The investigation also uncovered inconsistencies in the bids for every Games (both summer and winter) since 1988.[85] For example, the gifts received by IOC members from the Japanese Organizing Committee in exchange for their support of the bid for the 1998 Winter Olympics, were described by the investigation committee as "astronomical".[86] Although nothing strictly illegal had been done, the IOC feared that corporate sponsors would lose faith in the integrity of the process, and that the Olympic brand would be tarnished to such an extent that advertisers would begin to pull their support.[87] The results of the investigation were stricter rules for future bids. Ceilings were also put into place for how much IOC members could accept from bid cities. Additionally new term and age limits were established for IOC membership, and fifteen former Olympic athletes were added to the committee.[88][89]

Doping

In 1967 the IOC began enacting drug testing protocols. They started randomly testing athletes at the 1968 Winter Olympics.[90] The first Winter Games athlete to test positive for a banned substance was Alois Schloder, a West German hockey player who had ephedrine in his system. He was disqualified from the rest of the tournament but his team was still allowed to compete.[91][92] During the 1970s, testing out of competition was escalated and found to be a useful deterrent to athletes.[93] The problem with testing during this time was a lack of standardization of test procedures, which undermined the credibility of the test process. It was not until the late 1980s that international sporting federations, of which the IOC was a member, began to coordinate efforts to standardize the drug testing protocols.[94] The IOC decided to take a leadership role in the fight against steroids when they established an independent World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in November 1999.[95][96] The 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin became notable for a scandal involving the emerging trend of blood doping, which is the use of blood transfusions or synthetic hormones like Erythropoietin (EPO), to improve oxygen flow in order to reduce fatigue.[97] The Italian police conducted a raid during the Games on the Austrian cross-country ski team's residence. They seized blood doping specimens and equipment.[97][98] This event followed the pre-Olympics suspension of 12 cross-country skiers who tested positive for unusually high levels of hemoglobin, which is evidence of blood doping.[97] This particular method of cheating has been used by cross-country athletes before. At the 2002 Games three skiers were stripped of their medals after they tested positive for blood doping.[97]

Politics

Cold War

The Winter Olympics have been an ideological front in the Cold War since the Soviet Union first participated at the 1956 Winter Games. It did not take long for the Cold War combatants to discover what a powerful propaganda tool the Olympic Games could be. Soviet and American politicians used the Olympics, and other international sporting events, as an opportunity to prove the advantages of their respective political systems.[99] The successful Soviet athlete was feted and honoured. Irina Rodnina, three-time Olympic gold medallist in figure skating, was awarded the Order of Lenin after her victory at the 1976 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck.[100] With the award came monetary compensation anywhere from $4,000–$8,000 depending on the prestige of the sport. A world record was worth an additional $1,500.[101] The United States responded to the propaganda pressure of the Soviet Union. In 1978, the U.S. Congress passed legislation completely reorganizing the United States Olympic Committee (USOC). This sort of political intrusion in a sports federation was unheard of in a democratic country. It was a direct response to the increasing international profile that television gave to the Olympic Games.[102] Several National Olympic Committees currently pay its athletes for Olympic medals won. The USOC pays $25,000 for gold, $15,000 for silver and $10,000 for bronze. Multiple medals garner multiple amounts of money.[103]

The Cold War also created tensions among countries allied to the two super powers. The strained relationship between East and West Germany created a difficult political situation for the IOC. Due to its role in World War II, Germany was not allowed to compete at the 1948 Winter Olympics.[20] In 1950, the IOC recognized the West German Olympic Committee.[104] It was a West German team who represented Germany at the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo. The East Germans were invited to cooperate as a unified team in 1952 but they declined this offer.[105] In 1955 the Soviet Union recognized East Germany as a sovereign state, thereby giving more credibility to East Germany's campaign to become an independent participant at the Olympics. The IOC agreed to provisionally accept the East German National Olympic Committee with the condition that they compete as a unified team with the West Germans. This was done because the West Germans had adopted the Hallstein Doctrine, which forbade West Germany from entering into diplomatic relations with any country that recognized East Germany.[106] The situation became tenuous when the Berlin Wall was constructed in 1962. Many western countries, including France and the United States, refused visas to East German athletes competing in world championships in their countries.[107] The uneasy compromise of a unified team held until the 1968 Grenoble Games when the IOC officially split both teams and threatened to reject the host city bids of any country that refused entry visas to East German athletes.[108]

Boycott

A white symbol in shape of a five petal flower ringed by a blue and a red line. In its center stands a circular symbol depicting a white sun on a blue background. The five Olympic circles (blue, yellow, black, green and red) stand below it
The Olympic flag of Chinese Taipei, formerly known as Taiwan

While their Summer counterpart has experienced several boycotts, the Winter Games have had only one national team boycott. The Republic of China, also known as Taiwan, decided to boycott the 1980 Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid. The reason for the boycott was due to the fact that the IOC had agreed to allow China to compete in the Olympics for the first time since 1952. They were allowed to compete as the People's Republic of China and to use the Chinese flag and anthem. Until 1980, the island of Taiwan had been competing under the name, "Republic of China" and had been using the Chinese flag and anthem.[43] As part of their decision, the IOC demanded that Taiwan cease to call itself the "Republic of China".[109] As part of their decision the IOC renamed the island "Chinese Taipei and forced it to adopt a different flag and national anthem. The IOC initially attempted to have the countries compete together, but this proved to be unacceptable.[110] Taiwan would not concede to the IOC's demand that it be renamed and use different national symbols. Despite numerous appeals and court hearings the IOC's decision stood. When the Taiwanese athletes arrived at the Olympic village with their Republic of China identification cards they were not admitted. They subsequently left the Olympics in protest just before the opening ceremonies.[43] Taiwan returned to Olympic competition at the 1984 Winter Games in Sarajevo as Chinese Taipei. The country agreed to compete under a flag bearing the emblem of the National Olympic Committee, and to play the anthem of the National Olympic Committee should one of their athletes win a gold medal. Chinese Taipei continues to participate under the same compromise to this day.[111]

Sports

Chapter 1, article 6 of the 2007 edition of the Olympic Charter defines winter sports as "sports which are practised on snow or ice."[112] Through the years, the number of sports and events conducted at the Winter Olympic Games has increased. There have also been Demonstration sports, which are contested during the Games but no medals are awarded.

Current sport disciplines

Sport Years # of
events 		Medal events scheduled for 2010[113]
Alpine skiing Since 1936 10 Men's and women's downhill, super giant slalom, giant slalom, slalom and Alpine combined.[114]
Biathlon Since 1960 10 The Sprint (men: 10 km; women: 7.5 km), the individual (men: 20 km; women: 15 km), the pursuit (men: 12.5 km; women: 10 km), the relay (men: 4x7.5 km; women: 4x6 km), and the mass start (men: 15 km; women: 12.5 km).[115]
Bobsled 1924–1956
1964–present 		3 Four-man race, two-man race and two-woman race.[116]
Cross-country skiing Since 1924 12 Men's sprint, team sprint, 30 km pursuit, 15 km, 50 km and 4x10 km relay; women's sprint, team sprint, 15 km pursuit, 10 km, 30 km (women) and 4x5 km relay.[117]
Curling 1924
1998–present 		2 Men's and women's tournaments.[118]
Figure skating Since 1924Note 1 4 Men's and women's singles; pairs; and ice dancing.[119]
Freestyle skiing Since 1992 6 Men's and women's moguls, aerials and skicross.[120]
Ice hockey Since 1924Note 2 2 Men's and women's tournaments.[121]
Luge Since 1964 3 Men's and women's singles, men's doubles.[122]
Nordic combined Since 1924 3 Men's 10 km individual normal hill, 10 km individual large hill and team.[123]
Short track speed skating Since 1992 8 Men's and women's 500 metres, 1000 metres, 1500 metres; women's 3000 metre relay; and men's 5000 metre relay.[124]
Skeleton 1924; 1948
Since 2002 		2 Men's and women's events.[125]
Ski jumping Since 1924 3 Men's individual large hill, individual small hill and team large hill.[126]
Snowboarding Since 1998 6 Men's and women's parallel giant slalom, half-pipe and snowboard cross.[127]
Speed skating Since 1924 12 Men's and women's 500 metres, 1000 metres, 1500 metres, 5000 metres and team pursuit; women's 3000 metres; men's 10000 metres.[128]

^ Note 1. Figure skating events were also held at the 1908 and 1920 Summer Olympics.
^ Note 2. A men's ice hockey tournament was also held at the 1920 Summer Olympics.

Discontinued sports or disciplines

Demonstration events

Main article: Demonstration sport

List of Games

a map of the world with the countries that have hosted Winter Olympic Games shaded various colors, and dots on each country with the year(s) the country hosted the Games. The color key is: Green, countries that have hosted one Winter Olympics; Blue, countries that have hosted two or more Winter Olympics. There are also dots for the location of each host city: black dots for cities that hosted one Games, orange dots for cities that have hosted two Games
Map of Winter Olympics locations
Games Year Host Dates Nations Competitors Sports Events Ref
Total Men Women
I 1924 France Chamonix, France 25 January – 5 February 16 258 247 11 6 16 [7]
II 1928 Switzerland St. Moritz, Switzerland 11–19 February 25 464 438 26 4 14 [12]
III 1932 United States Lake Placid, United States 4–15 February 17 252 231 21 4 14 [14]
IV 1936 Nazi Germany Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany 6–16 February 28 646 566 80 4 17 [16]
1940 Originally awarded to Sapporo, Japan, cancelled because of World War II.
1944 Originally awarded to Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy, cancelled because of World War II.
V 1948 Switzerland St. Moritz, Switzerland 30 January – 8 February 28 669 592 77 4 22 [20]
VI 1952 Norway Oslo, Norway 14–25 February 30 694 585 109 4 22 [22]
VII 1956 Italy Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy 26 January – 5 February 32 821 687 134 4 24 [26]
VIII 1960 United States Squaw Valley, United States 18–28 February 30 665 521 144 4 27 [133]
IX 1964 Austria Innsbruck, Austria 29 January – 9 February 36 1091 892 199 6 34 [30]
X 1968 France Grenoble, France 6–18 February 37 1158 947 211 6 35 [32]
XI 1972 Japan Sapporo, Japan 3–13 February 35 1006 801 205 6 35 [134]
XII 1976 Austria Innsbruck, Austria 4–15 February 37 1123 892 231 6 37 [39]
XIII 1980 United States Lake Placid, United States 13–24 February 37 1072 840 232 6 38 [135]
XIV 1984 Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Sarajevo, Yugoslavia 8–19 February 49 1272 998 274 6 39 [45]
XV 1988 Canada Calgary, Canada 13–28 February 57 1423 1122 301 6 46 [46]
XVI 1992 France Albertville, France 8–23 February 64 1801 1313 488 7 57 [48]
XVII 1994 Norway Lillehammer, Norway 12–27 February 67 1737 1215 522 6 61 [51]
XVIII 1998 Japan Nagano, Japan 7–22 February 72 2176 1389 787 7 68 [56]
XIX 2002 United States Salt Lake City, United States 8–24 February 77 2399 1513 886 7 78 [59]
XX 2006 Italy Turin, Italy 10–26 February 80 2508 1548 960 7 84 [63]
XXI 2010 Canada Vancouver, Canada, 12–28 February 83 2629 – – 7 86 [136]
XXII 2014 Russia Sochi, Russia 7–23 February future event
XXIII 2018 TBD (2011) TBD future event
XXIV 2022 TBD (2015) TBD future event

Note: Unlike the Summer Olympics, the cancelled 1940 Winter Olympics and 1944 Winter Olympics are not included in the official Roman numeral counts for the Winter Games. While the official titles of the Summer Games actually count Olympiads (which occur even if the Games do not), the official titles of the Winter Games only count the Games themselves.

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ a b c Edgeworth, Ron (May, 1994). "The Nordic Games and the Origins of the Winter Olympic Games" (PDF). International Society of Olympic Historians Journal. 2 (number 2). LA84 Foundation. Retrieved 2009-03-09. {{cite journal}}: |number= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  2. ^ "Figure Skating History". CNNSI.com. Retrieved 2009-03-09.
  3. ^ "1908 Figure Skating Results". CNNSI.com. Retrieved 2009-03-09.
  4. ^ Judd (2008), p. 21
  5. ^ a b c d e f "1924 Chamonix, France". CBC Sports. CBC.ca. 2009-12-18. Retrieved 2010-03-05.
  6. ^ Findling & Pelle (2004) p. 283
  7. ^ a b c "Chamonix 1924". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-05.
  8. ^ "1924 Chamonix Winter Games". Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
  9. ^ Findling & Pelle (2004) pp. 289–290
  10. ^ Findling & Pelle (2004) p. 290
  11. ^ a b "1928 Sankt Moritz Winter Games". Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
  12. ^ a b "St. Moritz 1928". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-05.
  13. ^ Findling & Pelle (2004) p. 298
  14. ^ a b c d "Lake Placid 1932". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-05.
  15. ^ Seligmann, Davison, & McDonald (2004) p. 119
  16. ^ a b c d "Garmisch-Partenkirchen Olympics". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-11.
  17. ^ "Candidate Cities and Venues for the Winter Olympics" (PDF). International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
  18. ^ Cortina d'Ampezzo Olympics. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-03-12. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |work= ignored (help)
  19. ^ Findling & Pelle (2004) p. 248
  20. ^ a b c "St. Moritz 1948". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-11.
  21. ^ Findling & Pelle (2004) pp. 250–251
  22. ^ a b c "Oslo 1952". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-11.
  23. ^ a b Findling & Pelle (2004) p. 255
  24. ^ "1956 Cortina d'Ampezzo Winter Games". Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
  25. ^ a b Guttman (1986) p. 135
  26. ^ a b "Cortina d'Ampezzo 1956". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
  27. ^ Judd (2008) pp. 27–28
  28. ^ Shipler, Gary (February, 1960). "Backstage at Winter Olympics". Popular Science. Bonnier Corporation. p. 138. Retrieved 2009-08-06. {{cite magazine}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  29. ^ a b c d e Judd (2008) p. 28
  30. ^ a b "Innsbruck 1964". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010–03–13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  31. ^ Judd (2008) p. 29
  32. ^ a b c "Grenoble 1968". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
  33. ^ a b Findling & Pelle (2004) p. 277
  34. ^ Findling & Pelle (2004) p. 286
  35. ^ Fry (2006) p. 153–154
  36. ^ Podnieks, Andrew; Szemberg, Szymon (2008). "Story #17–Protesting amateur rules, Canada leaves international hockey". International Ice Hockey Federation. Retrieved 2009-05-13.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  37. ^ a b "Factsheet Olympic Winter Games" (PDF). International Olympic Committee. January, 2008. p. 5. Retrieved 2009-03-17. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  38. ^ Fry (2006) p. 157
  39. ^ a b c d "Innsbruck 1976". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2009-03-17.
  40. ^ Guttman (1992) pp. 151–152
  41. ^ Judd (2008) pp. 135–136
  42. ^ Huber, Jim (2000-02-22). "A Golden Moment". CNNSI.com. Retrieved 2009-03-18.
  43. ^ a b c Findling & Pelle (1996) p. 299
  44. ^ "1984 Sarajevo". CNNSI.com. Retrieved 2009-03-18.
  45. ^ a b c d "Sarajevo 1984". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2009-03-18.
  46. ^ a b c d e f "Calgary 1988". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2009-03-20.
  47. ^ "Yvonne van Gennip". The Beijing Organizing Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad. Retrieved 2009-03-20.
  48. ^ a b c d "Albertville 1992". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2009-03-20.
  49. ^ a b c Findling & Pelle (2004) p. 400
  50. ^ a b Findling & Pelle (2004) p. 402
  51. ^ a b c "Lillehammer 1994". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2009-03-20.
  52. ^ Araton, Harvey (1994-02-27). "Winter Olympics; In Politics and on ice, neighbors are apart". The New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 2009-03-20.
  53. ^ "Harding-Kerrigan timeline". The Washington Post. The Washington Post Company. 1998. Retrieved 2009-03-20.
  54. ^ Barshay, Jill J (1994-03-03). "Figure Skating; It's Stocks and Bouquets as Baiul returns to Ukraine". Associated Press. The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-03-20.
  55. ^ Phillips, Angus (1998). "Achievements still burn bright". The Washington Post. The Washington Post Company. Retrieved 2009-03-20.
  56. ^ a b c d e f "Nagano 1998". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2009-03-20.
  57. ^ Judd (2008) p. 126
  58. ^ Nevius, C.W. (1998-02-05). ""Clap" Skate draws boos from traditionalists". San Francisco Chronicle. Hearst Communications Inc. Retrieved 2009-03-20.
  59. ^ a b c "Salt Lake City 2002". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2009-03-21.
  60. ^ Roberts, Selena (2002-02-17). "The pivotal meeting; French judge's early tears indicating controversy to come". The New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 2009-03-23.
  61. ^ Bose, Mihir (2002-02-17). "Skating scandal that left IOC on thin ice". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2009-03-23.
  62. ^ "Australia win first ever gold". BBC Sport. 2002-02-17. Retrieved 2010-03-11.
  63. ^ a b c d "Turin 2006". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2009-03-21.
  64. ^ Berglund, Nina (2006-02-20). "Canadians hail Norwegian coach's sportsmanship". Aftenposten. Aftenposten.no. {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  65. ^ Crouse, Karen (2009-12-11). "Germany's Claudia Pechstein Tries to Restore Reputation". The New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 2010-03-11.
  66. ^ Dunbar, Graham (2010-01-26). "Claudia Pechstein's Doping Appeal Denied". The Huffington Post. HuffingtonPost.com. Retrieved 2010-03-11.
  67. ^ "Canadian Statistics – Population by selected ethnic origins, by census metropolitan areas (2001 Census)". StatCan. 2005-01-25. Retrieved 2006-05-31. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  68. ^ Longman, Jere (2010-02-13). "Quick to Blame in Luge, and Showing No Shame". The New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 2010-03-11.
  69. ^ Jones, Tom (2010-02-28). "Best and worst of the Winter Olympics in Vancouver". St. Petersberg Times. Tampabay.com. Retrieved 2010-03-11.
  70. ^ "Competition venues". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2009-03-21.
  71. ^ "Russia's president calls for resignations". ESPN.com. 2010-03-01. Retrieved 2010-03-11.
  72. ^ a b "Sochi elected as the host city of XXII Olympic Winter Games". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2009-03-21.
  73. ^ "Three cities in running for 2018 Winter Olympics". CNN International. Time Warner company. 2009-10-16. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  74. ^ a b c d e Cooper-Chen (2005) p. 231
  75. ^ Senn (1999) p. 136
  76. ^ Senn (1999) pp. 136–137
  77. ^ Gershon (2000) p.17
  78. ^ Cooper-Chen (2005) p. 230
  79. ^ a b Whannel (1992) p. 174
  80. ^ Schaffer & Smith (2000) p. 171
  81. ^ Whannel (1992) pgs. 174–177
  82. ^ Cashmore (2005) p. 444
  83. ^ Cashmore (2003) p. 370
  84. ^ "Samaranch reflects on bid scandal with regret". Deseret News. WinterSports2002.com. Retrieved 2002-03-22.
  85. ^ Cashmore (2005) p. 445
  86. ^ Cashmore (2003) p. 307
  87. ^ Payne (2006) p.232
  88. ^ Miller, Lawrence & McCay (2001) p. 25
  89. ^ Abrahamson, Alan (2003-12-06). "Judge Drops Olympic Bid Case". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2009-01-30.
  90. ^ Yesalis (2000) p. 57
  91. ^ The Official Report of XIth Winter Olympic Games, Sapporo 1972 (PDF). The Organizing Committee for the Sapporo Olympic Winter Games. 1973. p. 386. Retrieved 2009-03-22.
  92. ^ Hunt, Thomas M. (2007). "Sports, Drugs, and the Cold War" (PDF). Olympika, International Journal of Olympic Studie. 16 (1). International Centre for Olympic Studies: 22. Retrieved 2009-03-23.
  93. ^ Mottram (2003) p. 313
  94. ^ Mottram (2003) p. 310
  95. ^ Yesalis (2000) p. 366
  96. ^ "A Brief history of anti-doping". World Anit-Doping Agency. Retrieved 2009-03-25.
  97. ^ a b c d Macur, Juliet (2006-02-19). "Looking for Doping Evidence, Italian Police Raid Austrians". New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 2009-03-25.
  98. ^ "IOC to hold first hearings on doping during 2006 Winter Olympics". USA Today. Gannett Co. 2007-02-09. Retrieved 2009-03-25.
  99. ^ Hazan (1982) p. 36
  100. ^ Hazan (1982) p. 42
  101. ^ Hazan (1982) p. 44
  102. ^ Senn (1999) p. 171
  103. ^ "2008–2009 Athlete support programs". United States Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2009-03-25.
  104. ^ Hill (1992) p. 34
  105. ^ Hill (1992) p. 35
  106. ^ Hill (1992) pgs. 36–38
  107. ^ Hill (1992) p. 38
  108. ^ Hill (1992) p. 38–39
  109. ^ "History of the Winter Olympics". BBC Sport. 1998-02-05. Retrieved 2009-03-26.
  110. ^ Hill (1992) p. 48
  111. ^ Brownell, 2005, p. 187
  112. ^ "Olympic Charter" (PDF) (Press release). International Olympic Committee. 2007-07-07. Retrieved 2009-05-13.
  113. ^ "Vancouver 2010 (Sports)". The Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Winter Olympics. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  114. ^ "Alpine Skiing". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  115. ^ a b "Biathlon". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  116. ^ "Bobsleigh". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  117. ^ "Cross Country Skiing". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  118. ^ "Curling". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  119. ^ "Figure Skating". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  120. ^ "Freestyle skiing". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  121. ^ "Ice Hockey". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  122. ^ "Luge". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  123. ^ "Nordic Combined". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  124. ^ "Short Track Speed Sskating". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  125. ^ "Skeleton". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  126. ^ "Ski Jumping". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  127. ^ "Snowboard". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  128. ^ "Speed Skating". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  129. ^ "Biathlon history". USBiathlon.org. Retrieved 2009-03-26.
  130. ^ "Figure Skating at the 1908 London Summer Games". Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved 2009-03-26.
  131. ^ a b c d O'Donnell, Sarah (2009-01-20). "Some sports fizzle, some sizzle at Winter Olympics". Canwest Publishing Co. Retrieved 2009-03-26.
  132. ^ Janofsky, Michael (1991-12-18). "Hitting the slopes in the fast lane". The New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 2009-03-26.
  133. ^ "Squaw Valley 1960". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  134. ^ "Sapporo 1972". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  135. ^ "Lake Placid 1980". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  136. ^ "Vancouver Olympics – Athletes". The Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games. Retrieved 2010-02-24.

Bibliography

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