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}}</ref> At the same time, the reverse may also take place when states perpetrate or are accused of perpetrating [[state terrorism]].<ref>{{Cite book | last1= Nairn | first1= Tom | last2= James | first2= Paul | authorlink= Paul James (academic) | title= Global Matrix: Nationalism, Globalism and State-Terrorism | url= http://www.academia.edu/1642325/Global_Matrix_Nationalism_Globalism_and_Terrorism_author_with_Tom_Nairn_Pluto_Press_London_2005 | year= 2005 | publisher= Pluto Press | location= London and New York}}</ref> The usage of the term has a controversial history, with individuals such as ANC leader [[Nelson Mandela]] at one point also branded a terrorist.<ref>http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/12/05/nelson-mandela-terrorist_n_4394392.html</ref>
}}</ref> At the same time, the reverse may also take place when states perpetrate or are accused of perpetrating [[state terrorism]].<ref>{{Cite book | last1= Nairn | first1= Tom | last2= James | first2= Paul | authorlink= Paul James (academic) | title= Global Matrix: Nationalism, Globalism and State-Terrorism | url= http://www.academia.edu/1642325/Global_Matrix_Nationalism_Globalism_and_Terrorism_author_with_Tom_Nairn_Pluto_Press_London_2005 | year= 2005 | publisher= Pluto Press | location= London and New York}}</ref> The usage of the term has a controversial history, with individuals such as ANC leader [[Nelson Mandela]] at one point also branded a terrorist.<ref>http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/12/05/nelson-mandela-terrorist_n_4394392.html</ref>


Terrorism has been practiced by a broad array of political organizations to further their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political parties, [[nationalism|nationalistic]] groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments.<ref name="britannica">{{cite web |url= http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9071797 |title=Terrorism |accessdate= 2006-08-11 |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica |page=3}}{{dead link|date=October 2014}}</ref> The [[symbolism of terrorism]] can exploit human fear to help achieve these goals.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asap-spssi.org/pdf/asap019.pdf |title=The Definition of Terrorism |format=PDF |year=2002 |first=Charles L. |last=Ruby |accessdate=2010-02-22}}</ref>
Terrorism has been practiced by a broad array of political organizations to further their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political parties, [[nationalism|nationalistic]] groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments.<ref name="britannica">{{cite web |url= http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/588371/terrorism |title=Terrorism |accessdate= 2015-01-07 |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica |page=3}}</ref> The [[symbolism of terrorism]] can exploit human fear to help achieve these goals.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asap-spssi.org/pdf/asap019.pdf |title=The Definition of Terrorism |format=PDF |year=2002 |first=Charles L. |last=Ruby |accessdate=2010-02-22}}</ref>


==Origin of term==
==Origin of term==

Revision as of 09:04, 8 January 2015

"Terrorist" redirects here. For other uses, see Terrorist (disambiguation).
"Terrorising" and "Terrorize" redirect here. For other uses, see Terror (disambiguation).
United Airlines Flight 175, which had been taken over by hijackers, hits the South Tower of the former World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, in New York City, United States of America.
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State terrorism
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Response to terrorism

In the international community, terrorism has no legally binding, criminal law definition.[1][2] Common definitions of terrorism refer only to those violent acts that are intended to create fear (terror); are perpetrated for a religious, political, or ideological goal; and deliberately target or disregard the safety of non-combatants (e.g., neutral military personnel or civilians). Some definitions now include acts of unlawful violence and war. The use of similar tactics by criminal organizations for protection rackets or to enforce a code of silence is usually not labeled terrorism, though these same actions may be labeled terrorism when done by a politically motivated group. Usage of the term has also been criticized for its frequent undue equating with Islamism or jihadism, while ignoring non-Islamic organizations or individuals.[3][4]

The word "terrorism" is politically loaded and emotionally charged,[5] and this greatly compounds the difficulty of providing a precise definition. A study on political terrorism examining over 100 definitions of "terrorism" found 22 separate definitional elements (e.g. Violence, force, fear, threat, victim-target differentiation).[6][7] In some cases, the same group may be described as "freedom fighters" by its supporters and considered to be terrorists by its opponents.[8] The concept of terrorism may be controversial as it is often used by state authorities (and individuals with access to state support) to delegitimize political or other opponents,[9] and potentially legitimize the state's own use of armed force against opponents (such use of force may be described as "terror" by opponents of the state).[9][10] At the same time, the reverse may also take place when states perpetrate or are accused of perpetrating state terrorism.[11] The usage of the term has a controversial history, with individuals such as ANC leader Nelson Mandela at one point also branded a terrorist.[12]

Terrorism has been practiced by a broad array of political organizations to further their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political parties, nationalistic groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments.[13] The symbolism of terrorism can exploit human fear to help achieve these goals.[14]

Origin of term

See also: Terror and State terrorism
Mass killings in the Vendée during the Reign of Terror in France, 1793

"Terrorism" comes from the French word terrorisme,[15] and originally referred specifically to state terrorism as practiced by the French government during the 1793–1794 Reign of terror. The French word terrorisme in turn derives from the Latin verb terreō meaning "I frighten".[16] The terror cimbricus was a panic and state of emergency in Rome in response to the approach of warriors of the Cimbri tribe in 105 BC. The Jacobins cited this precedent when imposing a Reign of Terror during the French Revolution.[17][18] After the Jacobins lost power, the word "terrorist" became a term of abuse.[9] Although "terrorism" originally referred to acts committed by a government, currently it usually refers to the killing of innocent people[19] for political purposes in such a way as to create a media spectacle. This meaning can be traced back to Sergey Nechayev, who described himself as a "terrorist".[20] Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group "People's Retribution" (Народная расправа) in 1869.[21]

In November 2004, a United Nations Secretary General report described terrorism as any act "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act".[22]

Definition

Attack at the Bologna railway station on 2 August 1980 by the neo-fascist group Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari. With 85 deaths, it is the deadliest massacre in the history of Italy as a Republic.

The definition of terrorism has proved controversial. Various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their national legislation. Moreover, the international community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed, legally binding definition of this crime. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term "terrorism" is politically and emotionally charged.[23] In this regard, Angus Martyn, briefing the Australian Parliament, stated,

The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. During the 1970s and 1980s, the United Nations attempts to define the term floundered mainly due to differences of opinion between various members about the use of violence in the context of conflicts over national liberation and self-determination.[1]

These divergences have made it impossible for the United Nations to conclude a Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism that incorporates a single, all-encompassing, legally binding, criminal law definition of terrorism.[24] The international community has adopted a series of sectoral conventions that define and criminalize various types of terrorist activities.

Since 1994, the United Nations General Assembly has repeatedly condemned terrorist acts using the following political description of terrorism:

Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them.[25]

Bruce Hoffman, a scholar, has noted:

It is not only individual agencies within the same governmental apparatus that cannot agree on a single definition of terrorism. Experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus. In the first edition of his magisterial survey, 'Political Terrorism: A Research Guide,' Alex Schmid devoted more than a hundred pages to examining more than a hundred different definitions of terrorism in an effort to discover a broadly acceptable, reasonably comprehensive explication of the word. Four years and a second edition later, Schmid was no closer to the goal of his quest, conceding in the first sentence of the revised volume that the "search for an adequate definition is still on". Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his monumental work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt.[26]

Hoffman believes it is possible to identify some key characteristics of terrorism. He proposes that:

The Baghdad bus station was the scene of a triple car bombing in August 2005 that killed 43 people.

By distinguishing terrorists from other types of criminals and terrorism from other forms of crime, we come to appreciate that terrorism is :

  • ineluctably political in aims and motives
  • violent – or, equally important, threatens violence
  • designed to have far-reaching psychological repercussions beyond the immediate victim or target
  • conducted by an organization with an identifiable chain of command or conspiratorial cell structure (whose members wear no uniform or identifying insignia) and
  • perpetrated by a subnational group or non-state entity.[27]

A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C. Marshall Center for European Security Studies, underlines the psychological and tactical aspects of terrorism:

Terrorism is defined as political violence in an asymmetrical conflict that is designed to induce terror and psychic fear (sometimes indiscriminate) through the violent victimization and destruction of noncombatant targets (sometimes iconic symbols). Such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization. The purpose of terrorism is to exploit the media in order to achieve maximum attainable publicity as an amplifying force multiplier in order to influence the targeted audience(s) in order to reach short- and midterm political goals and/or desired long-term end states.[28]

Oslo, Norway immediately after the 2011 terrorist attack in Norway perpetrated by Anders Behring Breivik.

Eco-terrorism has described property destruction by the Earth Liberation Front[29] and Animal Liberation Front[30] as violence and terrorism and terrorist attacks are usually carried out in such a way as to maximize the severity and length of the psychological impact.[31] Each act of terrorism is a "performance" devised to have an impact on many large audiences. Terrorists also attack national symbols,[32] to show power and to attempt to shake the foundation of the country or society they are opposed to. This may negatively affect a government, while increasing the prestige of the given terrorist organization and/or ideology behind a terrorist act.[33]

Terrorist acts frequently have a political purpose.[34] This is often where the inter-relationship between terrorism and religion occurs. When a political struggle is integrated into the framework of a religious or "cosmic"[35] struggle, such as over the control of an ancestral homeland or holy site such as Israel and Jerusalem, failing in the political goal (nationalism) becomes equated with spiritual failure, which, for the highly committed, is worse than their own death or the deaths of innocent civilians.[36]

Their suffering accomplishes the terrorists' goals of instilling fear, getting their message out to an audience or otherwise satisfying the demands of their often radical religious and political agendas.[37]

A collection of photographs of those killed during the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001.

Some official, governmental definitions of terrorism use the criterion of the illegitimacy or unlawfulness of the act.[38][better source needed] to distinguish between actions authorized by a government (and thus "lawful") and those of other actors, including individuals and small groups. For example, firebombing a city, which is designed to affect civilian support for a cause, would not be considered terrorism if it were authorized by a government.[original research?] This criterion is inherently problematic and is not universally accepted,[attribution needed] because: it denies the existence of state terrorism;[39] the same act may or may not be classed as terrorism depending on whether its sponsorship is traced to a "legitimate" government; "legitimacy" and "lawfulness" are subjective, depending on the perspective of one government or another; and it diverges from the historically accepted meaning and origin of the term.[15][40][41][42]

According to Ali Khan, the distinction lies ultimately in a political judgment.[43]

An associated, and arguably more easily definable, but not equivalent term is violent non-state actor.[44] The semantic scope of this term includes not only "terrorists", but while excluding some individuals or groups who have previously been described as "terrorists", and also explicitly excludes state terrorism.

Barack Obama, commenting on the Boston Marathon bombings of April 2013, declared "Anytime bombs are used to target innocent civilians, it is an act of terror."[45] Various commentators have pointed out the distinction between "act of terror" and "terrorism", particularly when used by the White House.[46][47][48]

Pejorative use

The terms "terrorism" and "terrorist" (someone who engages in terrorism) carry strong negative connotations.[49] These terms are often used as political labels, to condemn violence or the threat of violence by certain actors as immoral, indiscriminate, unjustified or to condemn an entire segment of a population.[50] Those labeled "terrorists" by their opponents rarely identify themselves as such, and typically use other terms or terms specific to their situation, such as separatist, freedom fighter, liberator, revolutionary, vigilante, militant, paramilitary, guerrilla, rebel, patriot, or any similar-meaning word in other languages and cultures. Jihadi, mujaheddin, and fedayeen are similar Arabic words that have entered the English lexicon. It is common for both parties in a conflict to describe each other as terrorists.[51]

On the question of whether particular terrorist acts, such as killing civilians, can be justified as the lesser evil in a particular circumstance, philosophers have expressed different views: while, according to David Rodin, utilitarian philosophers can (in theory) conceive of cases in which the evil of terrorism is outweighed by the good that could not be achieved in a less morally costly way, in practice the "harmful effects of undermining the convention of non-combatant immunity is thought to outweigh the goods that may be achieved by particular acts of terrorism".[52] Among the non-utilitarian philosophers, Michael Walzer argued that terrorism can be morally justified in only one specific case: when "a nation or community faces the extreme threat of complete destruction and the only way it can preserve itself is by intentionally targeting non-combatants, then it is morally entitled to do so".[52][53]

In his book Inside Terrorism Bruce Hoffman offered an explanation of why the term terrorism becomes distorted:

On one point, at least, everyone agrees: terrorism is a pejorative term. It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. 'What is called terrorism,' Brian Jenkins has written, 'thus seems to depend on one's point of view. Use of the term implies a moral judgment; and if one party can successfully attach the label terrorist to its opponent, then it has indirectly persuaded others to adopt its moral viewpoint.' Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization terrorist becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism.[54][55][56]

President Reagan meeting with Afghan Mujahideen leaders in the Oval Office in 1983

The pejorative connotations of the word can be summed up in the aphorism, "One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter".[51] This is exemplified when a group using irregular military methods is an ally of a state against a mutual enemy, but later falls out with the state and starts to use those methods against its former ally. During World War II, the Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army was allied with the British, but during the Malayan Emergency, members of its successor (the Malayan Races Liberation Army), were branded "terrorists" by the British.[57][58] More recently, Ronald Reagan and others in the American administration frequently called the Afghan Mujahideen "freedom fighters" during their war against the Soviet Union,[59] yet twenty years later, when a new generation of Afghan men are fighting against what they perceive to be a regime installed by foreign powers, their attacks were labelled "terrorism" by George W. Bush.[60][61][62] Groups accused of terrorism understandably prefer terms reflecting legitimate military or ideological action.[63][64][65] Leading terrorism researcher Professor Martin Rudner, director of the Canadian Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa's Carleton University, defines "terrorist acts" as attacks against civilians for political or other ideological goals, and said:

There is the famous statement: 'One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter.' But that is grossly misleading. It assesses the validity of the cause when terrorism is an act. One can have a perfectly beautiful cause and yet if one commits terrorist acts, it is terrorism regardless.[66]

Some groups, when involved in a "liberation" struggle, have been called "terrorists" by the Western governments or media. Later, these same persons, as leaders of the liberated nations, are called "statesmen" by similar organizations. Two examples of this phenomenon are the Nobel Peace Prize laureates Menachem Begin and Nelson Mandela.[67][68][69][70][71][72] WikiLeaks editor Julian Assange has been called a "terrorist" by Sarah Palin and Joe Biden.[73][74]

Sometimes, states that are close allies, for reasons of history, culture and politics, can disagree over whether or not members of a certain organization are terrorists. For instance, for many years, some branches of the United States government refused to label members of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) as terrorists while the IRA was using methods against one of the United States' closest allies (the United Kingdom) that the UK branded as terrorism. This was highlighted by the Quinn v. Robinson case.[75][76]

For these and other reasons, media outlets wishing to preserve a reputation for impartiality try to be careful in their use of the term.[77][78]

Types

Depending on the country, the political system, and the time in history, the types of terrorism is varying.

Number of failed, foiled or successful terrorist attacks by year and type within the European Union. Source: Europol.[79][80][81] 1 person died in terrorist attacks from separatist groups in 2010.[79]
King David Hotel after being bombed by the Zionist terrorist group Irgun, July 1946
A view of damages to the U.S. Embassy in Beirut caused by a terrorist bomb attack, April 1983
File:SbarroAfter1.jpg
Sbarro pizza restaurant bombing in Jerusalem, in which 15 Israeli civilians were killed and 130 were wounded by a Hamas suicide bomber.

In early 1975, the Law Enforcement Assistant Administration in the United States formed the National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. One of the five volumes that the committee wrote was titled Disorders and Terrorism, produced by the Task Force on Disorders and Terrorism under the direction of H. H. A. Cooper, Director of the Task Force staff.[82] The Task Force classified terrorism into six categories.

  • Civil disorder – A form of collective violence interfering with the peace, security, and normal functioning of the community.
  • Political terrorism – Violent criminal behaviour designed primarily to generate fear in the community, or substantial segment of it, for political purposes.
  • Limited political terrorism – Genuine political terrorism is characterized by a revolutionary approach; limited political terrorism refers to "acts of terrorism which are committed for ideological or political motives but which are not part of a concerted campaign to capture control of the state.
  • Official or state terrorism – "referring to nations whose rule is based upon fear and oppression that reach similar to terrorism or such proportions". It may also be referred to as Structural Terrorism defined broadly as terrorist acts carried out by governments in pursuit of political objectives, often as part of their foreign policy.
  • Passive Terrorism - (Passive + Terrorism) is an , inert or quiescent behavior towards terrorism; an inaction, non-reaction, non-participation, non-involvement in countering terrorism. Passive terrorism describes a behavior of general public or government which silently allows the spread or promotion of terrorism by turning a blind eye or tolerating terrorism. Passive terrorism prevails when there is no deliberate effort or decision to either counter it or raise voice against it.

The term hasn’t been widely defined or discussed openly as yet and has just been recently emerging in the wake of recent ongoing terrorism activities against or in the countries like Pakistan. The word “Passive” has its origin from 1350 – 1400; Middle English Latin passīvus literally means submissive or to submit. “Terrorism” originated in 1795 from French terrorisme, from Latin terror; used as government intimidation during the reign of terror in France in 1795. Professor Daniel L Byman, in his article "Passive Sponsorship of Terrorism," (published in Journal "Survival" 2005), in the MIT Security Studies Seminar in 2004 defined the term "Passive Sponsorship of Terrorism" as the individuals assistance of terrorists without their permission. A regime is guilty of passive sponsorship if it knowingly allows a terrorist group to raise money, enjoy a sanctuary, recruit, or otherwise flourish but does not directly aid the group itself. Professor Byman define the following characteristics of Passive support of terrorism:

The regime in question itself does not provide assistance but knowingly allows other actors in the country to aid a terrorist group; The regime has the capacity to stop this assistance or has chosen not to develop this capacity, and Often passive support is given by political parties, wealthy merchants, or other actors in society that have no formal affiliation with the government.

Several sources[83][84][85] have further defined the typology of terrorism:

Russia in the Stalin Era

Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code) was the base of putting people in Russian Gulags. It contained terms like:

  • Damage of transport, communication, water supply, warehouses and other buildings or state and communal property
  • Terrorist acts against representatives of Soviet power or of workers and peasants organisations
  • Counter-revolutionary sabotage
  • Counter-revolutionary action is any action aimed at overthrowing, undermining or weakening of the power of workers' and peasants' Soviets
  • Armed uprising or intervention with the goal to seize the power
  • Undermining of state industry, transport, monetary circulation or credit system, as well as of cooperative societies and organizations

Motivation of terrorists

Attacks on 'collaborators' are used to intimidate people from cooperating with the state in order to undermine state control. This strategy was used in Ireland, in Kenya, in Algeria and in Cyprus during their independence struggles.

Attacks on high profile symbolic targets are used to incite counter-terrorism by the state to polarize the population. This strategy was used by Al Qaeda in its attacks on the United States in September 2001. These attacks are also used to draw international attention to struggles that are otherwise unreported, such as the Palestinian airplane hijackings in 1970 and the South Moluccan hostage crisis in the Netherlands in 1975.

Abrahm suggests that terrorist organizations do not select terrorism for its political effectiveness.[86] Individual terrorists tend to be motivated more by a desire for social solidarity with other members of their organization than by political platforms or strategic objectives, which are often murky and undefined.[86]

Some terrorists like Timothy McVeigh were motivated by revenge against a state for its actions.

Democracy and domestic terrorism

Demonstration in Madrid against ETA, January 2000. Roughly a million people met there.

The relationship between domestic terrorism and democracy is very complex. Terrorism is most common in nations with intermediate political freedom, and is least common in the most democratic nations.[87][88][89][90] However, one study suggests that suicide terrorism may be an exception to this general rule. Evidence regarding this particular method of terrorism reveals that every modern suicide campaign has targeted a democracy–a state with a considerable degree of political freedom.[91] The study suggests that concessions awarded to terrorists during the 1980s and 1990s for suicide attacks increased their frequency.[92]

Some examples of "terrorism" in non-democracies include ETA in Spain under Francisco Franco (although the group's terrorist activities increased sharply after Franco's death),[93] the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists in pre-war Poland,[94] the Shining Path in Peru under Alberto Fujimori,[95] the Kurdistan Workers Party when Turkey was ruled by military leaders and the ANC in South Africa.[96] Democracies, such as the United Kingdom, United States, Israel, Indonesia, India, Spain and the Philippines, have also experienced domestic terrorism.

While a democratic nation espousing civil liberties may claim a sense of higher moral ground than other regimes, an act of terrorism within such a state may cause a dilemma: whether to maintain its civil liberties and thus risk being perceived as ineffective in dealing with the problem; or alternatively to restrict its civil liberties and thus risk delegitimizing its claim of supporting civil liberties.[97] For this reason, homegrown terrorism has started to be seen as a greater threat, as stated by former CIA Director Michael Hayden.[98] This dilemma, some social theorists would conclude, may very well play into the initial plans of the acting terrorist(s); namely, to delegitimize the state.[99]

Religious terrorism

Main article: Religious terrorism
Civilians trapped in a London Underground train after a bomb exploded further down the train at Russell Square Tube station on 7th July 2005
Islamabad Marriott Hotel bombing. Some 35,000 Pakistanis have died from terrorist attacks in recent years.[100]

Religious terrorism is terrorism performed by groups or individuals, the motivation of which is typically rooted in faith-based tenets. Terrorist acts throughout the centuries have been performed on religious grounds with the hope to either spread or enforce a system of belief, viewpoint or opinion.[101] Religious terrorism does not in itself necessarily define a specific religious standpoint or view, but instead usually defines an individual or a group view or interpretation of that belief system's teachings.

Intimate terrorism

Main article: Intimate partner violence

Intimate terrorism (IT) may also involve emotional and psychological abuse. Intimate terrorism is one element in a general pattern of control by one partner over the other. Intimate terrorism is more likely to escalate over time, not as likely to be mutual, and more likely to involve serious injury.[102] IT batterers include two types: "Generally-violent-antisocial" and "dysphoric-borderline". The first type includes people with general psychopathic and violent tendencies. The second type are people who are emotionally dependent on the relationship.[103] Violence by a person against their intimate partner is often done as a way for controlling their partner, even if this kind of violence is not the most frequent.[104][105] Support for this typology has been found in subsequent evaluations.[106][107]

Perpetrators

The perpetrators of acts of terrorism can be individuals, groups, or states. According to some definitions, clandestine or semi-clandestine state actors may also carry out terrorist acts outside the framework of a state of war. However, the most common image of terrorism is that it is carried out by small and secretive cells, highly motivated to serve a particular cause and many of the most deadly operations in recent times, such as the September 11 attacks, the London underground bombing, 2008 Mumbai attacks and the 2002 Bali bombing were planned and carried out by a close clique, composed of close friends, family members and other strong social networks. These groups benefited from the free flow of information and efficient telecommunications to succeed where others had failed.[108]

Over the years, many people have attempted to come up with a terrorist profile to attempt to explain these individuals' actions through their psychology and social circumstances. Others, like Roderick Hindery, have sought to discern profiles in the propaganda tactics used by terrorists. Some security organizations designate these groups as violent non-state actors.[109] A 2007 study by economist Alan B. Krueger found that terrorists were less likely to come from an impoverished background (28% vs. 33%) and more likely to have at least a high-school education (47% vs. 38%). Another analysis found only 16% of terrorists came from impoverished families, vs. 30% of male Palestinians, and over 60% had gone beyond high school, vs. 15% of the populace.[110]

To avoid detection, a terrorist will look, dress, and behave normally until executing the assigned mission. Some claim that attempts to profile terrorists based on personality, physical, or sociological traits are not useful.[111] The physical and behavioral description of the terrorist could describe almost any normal person.[112] However, the majority of terrorist attacks are carried out by military age men, aged 16–40.[112]

Non-state groups

Picture of the front of an addressed envelope to Senator Daschle.
There is speculation that anthrax mailed inside letters to U.S. politicians was the work of a lone wolf.
Main articles: List of designated terrorist organizations and Lone wolf (terrorism)

Groups not part of the state apparatus of in opposition to the state are most commonly referred to as a "terrorist" in the media.

State sponsors

Main article: State-sponsored terrorism

A state can sponsor terrorism by funding or harboring a terrorist organization. Opinions as to which acts of violence by states consist of state-sponsored terrorism vary widely. When states provide funding for groups considered by some to be terrorist, they rarely acknowledge them as such.

State terrorism

Main article: State terrorism

Civilization is based on a clearly defined and widely accepted yet often unarticulated hierarchy. Violence done by those higher on the hierarchy to those lower is nearly always invisible, that is, unnoticed. When it is noticed, it is fully rationalized. Violence done by those lower on the hierarchy to those higher is unthinkable, and when it does occur is regarded with shock, horror, and the fetishization of the victims.

— Derrick Jensen[113]
Infant crying in Shanghai's South Station after the Japanese bombing, August 28, 1937.

As with "terrorism" the concept of "state terrorism" is controversial.[114] The Chairman of the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee has stated that the Committee was conscious of 12 international Conventions on the subject, and none of them referred to State terrorism, which was not an international legal concept. If States abused their power, they should be judged against international conventions dealing with war crimes, international human rights law, and international humanitarian law.[115] Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan has said that it is "time to set aside debates on so-called 'state terrorism'. The use of force by states is already thoroughly regulated under international law".[116] However, he also made clear that, "regardless of the differences between governments on the question of definition of terrorism, what is clear and what we can all agree on is any deliberate attack on innocent civilians, regardless of one's cause, is unacceptable and fits into the definition of terrorism."[117]

USS Arizona (BB-39) burning during the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941.

State terrorism has been used to refer to terrorist acts by governmental agents or forces. This involves the use of state resources employed by a state's foreign policies, such as using its military to directly perform acts of terrorism. Professor of Political Science Michael Stohl cites the examples that include the German bombing of London, the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, the British firebombing of Dresden, and the U.S. atomic bombing of Hiroshima during World War II. He argues that "the use of terror tactics is common in international relations and the state has been and remains a more likely employer of terrorism within the international system than insurgents." They also cite the First strike option as an example of the "terror of coercive diplomacy" as a form of this, which holds the world hostage with the implied threat of using nuclear weapons in "crisis management". They argue that the institutionalized form of terrorism has occurred as a result of changes that took place following World War II. In this analysis, state terrorism exhibited as a form of foreign policy was shaped by the presence and use of weapons of mass destruction, and that the legitimizing of such violent behavior led to an increasingly accepted form of this state behavior.[118][119][119]

File:View from St Paul's Cathedral after the Blitz.jpg
St Paul's Cathedral after the German bombing of London, c. 1940.

State terrorism has also been used to describe peacetime actions by governmental agents such as the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103.[120] Charles Stewart Parnell described William Ewart Gladstone's Irish Coercion Act as terrorism in his "no-Rent manifesto" in 1881, during the Irish Land War.[121] The concept is also used to describe political repressions by governments against their own civilian population with the purpose to incite fear. For example, taking and executing civilian hostages or extrajudicial elimination campaigns are commonly considered "terror" or terrorism, for example during the Red Terror or Great Terror.[122] Such actions are often also described as democide or genocide, which has been argued to be equivalent to state terrorism.[123] Empirical studies on this have found that democracies have little democide.[124][125]

Funding

Main article: Terrorist financing

State sponsors have constituted a major form of funding; for example, Palestine Liberation Organization, Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine and some other terrorist groups were funded by the Soviet Union.[126][127] The Stern Gang received funding from Italian Fascist officers in Beirut to undermine the British Mandate for Palestine.[128] Pakistan has created and nurtured terrorist groups as policy for achieving tactical objectives against its neighbours, especially India.[129]

"Revolutionary tax" is another major form of funding, and essentially a euphemism for "protection money".[126] Revolutionary taxes are typically extorted from businesses (including farms cultivating illicit drugs (such as Papaver somniferum)[130] and they also "play a secondary role as one other means of intimidating the target population".[126]

Other major sources of funding include kidnapping for ransoms, smuggling (including wildlife smuggling),[131] fraud, and robbery.[126] The Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant received funding "via private donations from the Gulf states".[132]

The Financial Action Task Force is an inter-governmental body whose mandate, since October 2001, has included combatting terrorist financing.[133]

Tactics

Main article: Tactics of terrorism
The Wall Street bombing at noon on September 16, 1920 killed thirty-eight people and injured several hundred. The perpetrators were never caught.

Terrorism is a form of asymmetric warfare, and is more common when direct conventional warfare will not be effective because forces vary greatly in power.[134]

The context in which terrorist tactics are used is often a large-scale, unresolved political conflict. The type of conflict varies widely; historical examples include:

  • Secession of a territory to form a new sovereign state or become part of a different state
  • Dominance of territory or resources by various ethnic groups
  • Imposition of a particular form of government
  • Economic deprivation of a population
  • Opposition to a domestic government or occupying army
  • Religious fanaticism

Terrorist attacks are often targeted to maximize fear and publicity, usually using explosives or poison.[135] There is concern about terrorist attacks employing weapons of mass destruction. Terrorist organizations usually methodically plan attacks in advance, and may train participants, plant undercover agents, and raise money from supporters or through organized crime. Communications occur through modern telecommunications, or through old-fashioned methods such as couriers.

Responses

X-ray backscatter technology (AIT) machine used by the TSA to screen passengers. According to the TSA, this is what the remote TSA agent would see on their screen.

Responses to terrorism are broad in scope. They can include re-alignments of the political spectrum and reassessments of fundamental values.

Specific types of responses include:

The term "counter-terrorism" has a narrower connotation, implying that it is directed at terrorist actors.

According to a report by Dana Priest and William M. Arkin in The Washington Post, "Some 1,271 government organizations and 1,931 private companies work on programs related to counterterrorism, homeland security and intelligence in about 10,000 locations across the United States."[136]

Mass media

Mass media exposure may be a primary goal of those carrying out terrorism, to expose issues that would otherwise be ignored by the media. Some consider this to be manipulation and exploitation of the media.[137]

The Internet has created a new channel for groups to spread their messages. This has created a cycle of measures and counter measures by groups in support of and in opposition to terrorist movements. The United Nations has created its own online counter-terrorism resource.[138]

The mass media will, on occasion, censor organizations involved in terrorism (through self-restraint or regulation) to discourage further terrorism. However, this may encourage organizations to perform more extreme acts of terrorism to be shown in the mass media. Conversely James F. Pastor explains the significant relationship between terrorism and the media, and the underlying benefit each receives from the other.[139]

There is always a point at which the terrorist ceases to manipulate the media gestalt. A point at which the violence may well escalate, but beyond which the terrorist has become symptomatic of the media gestalt itself. Terrorism as we ordinarily understand it is innately media-related.

— Novelist William Gibson[140]

History

Main article: History of terrorism
The Irish Republican Brotherhood was one of the earliest organizations to use modern terrorist techniques. Pictured, "The Fenian Guy Fawkes" by John Tenniel (1867).

The history of terrorism goes back to the Sicarii Zealots, a Jewish extremist group active in Judaea Province at the beginning of the 1st century AD. After Zealotry rebellion in the 1st century AD, when some prominent collaborators with Roman rule were killed,[141][142] according to contemporary historian Josephus, in 6 AD Judas of Galilee formed a small and more extreme offshoot of the Zealots, the Sicarii.[143] Their terror also was directed against Jewish "collaborators", including temple priests, Sadducees, Herodians, and other wealthy elites.[144]

The term "terrorism" itself was originally used to describe the actions of the Jacobin Club during the "Reign of Terror" in the French Revolution. "Terror is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible," said Jacobin leader Maximilien Robespierre. In 1795, Edmund Burke denounced the Jacobins for letting "thousands of those hell-hounds called Terrorists ... loose on the people" of France.[145]

In January 1858, Italian patriot Felice Orsini threw three bombs in an attempt to assassinate French Emperor Napoleon III.[146] Eight bystanders were killed and 142 injured.[146] The incident played a crucial role as an inspiration for the development of the early terrorist groups.[146]

Arguably the first organization to utilize modern terrorist techniques was the Irish Republican Brotherhood,[147] founded in 1858 as a revolutionary Irish nationalist group[148] that carried out attacks in England.[149] The group initiated the Fenian dynamite campaign in 1881, one of the first modern terror campaigns.[150] Instead of earlier forms of terrorism based on political assassination, this campaign used modern, timed explosives with the express aim of sowing fear in the very heart of metropolitan Britain, in order to achieve political gains.[151]

Another early terrorist organisation was Narodnaya Volya, founded in Russia in 1878 as a revolutionary anarchist group inspired by Sergei Nechayev and "propaganda by the deed" theorist Pisacane.[152][153] The group developed ideas—such as targeted killing of the 'leaders of oppression'—that were to become the hallmark of subsequent violence by small non-state groups, and they were convinced that the developing technologies of the age—such as the invention of dynamite, which they were the first anarchist group to make widespread use of[154]—enabled them to strike directly and with discrimination.[155] Modern terrorism had largely taken shape by the turn of the 20th century.

Databases

The following terrorism databases are or were made publicly available for research purposes, and track specific acts of terrorism:

The following publicly available resource indexes electronic and bibliographic resources on the subject of terrorism:

The following terrorism databases are maintained in secrecy by the United State Government for intelligence and counter-terrorism purposes:

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Angus Martyn, The Right of Self-Defence under International Law-the Response to the Terrorist Attacks of 11 September[dead link], Australian Law and Bills Digest Group, Parliament of Australia Web Site, 12 February 2002.
  2. ^ Thalif Deen. "Politics: U.N. Member States Struggle to Define Terrorism", Inter Press Service, 25 July 2005.
  3. ^ Spring Fever: The Illusion of Islamic Democracy, Andrew C. McCarthy - 2013
  4. ^ African Politics: Beyond the Third Wave of Democratisation, Joelien Pretorius - 2008, page 7
  5. ^ Hoffman, Bruce (1998). Inside Terrorism. Columbia University Press. p. 32. ISBN 0-231-11468-0. See review in "Inside Terrorism". The New York Times.
  6. ^ Record, Jeffrey (December 2003). "Bounding the Global War on Terrorism" (PDF). Strategic Studies Institute (SSI). Retrieved 2009-11-11. The views expressed in this report are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Department of the Army, the Department of Defense, or the U.S. Government. This report is cleared for public release; distribution is unlimited.
  7. ^ Schmid, Alex, and Jongman, Albert. Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors, Authors, Concepts, Data bases, Theories and Literature, Amsterdam ; New York : North-Holland ; New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1988.
  8. ^ The IRA, for example, called its members "freedom fighters", while the British government categorized the IRA under its 2000 Terrorism Act
  9. ^ a b c Geoffrey Nunberg (October 28, 2001). "Head Games / It All Started with Robespierre / "Terrorism": The history of a very frightening word". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2010-01-11. For the next 150 years the word "terrorism" led a double life – a justifiable political strategy to some an abomination to others
  10. ^ Elysa Gardner (2008-12-25). "Harold Pinter: Theater's singular voice falls silent". USA Today. Retrieved 2010-01-11. In 2004, he earned the prestigious Wilfred Owen prize for a series of poems opposing the war in Iraq. In his acceptance speech, Pinter described the war as "a bandit act, an act of blatant state terrorism, demonstrating absolute contempt for the concept of international law".
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  17. ^ |quote= The French were the first to coin the term, he says.
  18. ^ Geoffrey Nunberg (October 28, 2001). "Head Games / It All Started with Robespierre / "Terrorism": The history of a very frightening word". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2010-01-11. In 1792 the Jacobins came to power in France and initiated what we call the Reign of Terror and what the French call simply La Terreur.
  19. ^ Robert Mackey (November 20, 2009). "Can Soldiers Be Victims of Terrorism?". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. Terrorism is the deliberate killing of innocent people, at random, in order to spread fear through a whole population and force the hand of its political leaders.
  20. ^ Crenshaw, Martha, Terrorism in Context, p. 77.
  21. ^ Arnold, Kathleen R., ed. (September 23, 2011). Anti-Immigration in the United States: A Historical Encyclopedia. Vol. II. ABC-CLIO, LLC. p. 461. ISBN 978-0-313-37521-7.
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  25. ^ 1994 United Nations Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism annex to UN General Assembly resolution 49/60, "Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism", of December 9, 1994, UN Doc. A/Res/60/49.
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  29. ^ Ronald Bailey (February 6, 2009). "Earth Liberation Front Terrorist Gets 22 Years in Prison for Anti-Biotech Arson". Reason Magazine. Retrieved 2010-01-11. Marie Mason decided to "elevate her grievances beyond the norms of civilized society" through fire and destruction, U.S. District Judge Paul Maloney said. The case, which was prosecuted as domestic terrorism ...
  30. ^ Daniel Schorn (June 18, 2006). "Ed Bradley Reports On Extremists Now Deemed Biggest Domestic Terror Threat". 60 Minutes. Retrieved 2010-01-11. The biggest act of eco-terrorism in U.S. history was a fire ... Animal Liberation Front, whose masked members have been known to videotape themselves breaking into research labs, ...
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  32. ^ Rick Hampson (2009-07-06). "Statue of Liberty gets her view back". USA Today. Retrieved 2010-01-11. On Saturday, the statue, closed above its base since the terror attacks, will reopen to visitors — a relative few, in small groups, specially ticketed, carefully screened and escorted by a park ranger.
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  103. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00948.x, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00948.x instead.
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  106. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 9210273, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=9210273 instead.
  107. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 11142534, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=11142534 instead.
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  125. ^ No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust?[dead link], Barbara Harff, 2003.
  126. ^ a b c d Detection of Terrorist Financing, U.S. National Credit Union Administration (NCUA), 2002.
  127. ^ Jeremy Lott (October 6, 2004). "Tripped Up". Reason Magazine. Retrieved 2010-01-11. and before the Soviet Union fell, terrorist organizations were funding themselves through subsidies from Communist governments
  128. ^ "Aims and activities of the Stern Group in Palestine". Research and Analysis Branch. 2717 (R & N). Washington: National Archives. 1944-12-01.
  129. ^ Nelson, Dean (2009-07-08). "Pakistani president Asif Zardari admits creating terrorist groups". The Daily Telegraph.
  130. ^ Mujahideen guerrillas in the 1980's asking revolutionary tax from poppy farmers
  131. ^ Gerben Jan Gerbrandy claiming that terrorist networks hunt wildlife for funding themselves[dead link]
  132. ^ "Syria's top Islamist and jihadist groups". France 24.
  133. ^ "Terrorist Financing". The Financial Action Task Force. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
  134. ^ "Hackers warn high street chains". BBC News. 25 April 2008. Retrieved 2010-01-11. That's the beauty of asymmetric warfare. You don't need a lot of money, or an army of people.
  135. ^ Suicide bombings are the most effective terrorist act in this regard. See the following works: Cited in Richardson, Louise (2006). What Terrorists Want: Understanding the Terrorist Threat. London, UK: John Murray. p. 33. ISBN 0-7195-6306-2.
  136. ^ Priest, Dana; Arkin, William (July 19, 2010). "A hidden world, growing beyond control". The Washington Post.
  137. ^ The Media and Terrorism: A Reassessment Paul Wilkinson. Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol. 9, No. 2 (Summer 1997), pp. 51–64 Published by Frank Cass, London.
  138. ^ "Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee". Retrieved 2009-06-17.
  139. ^ Pastor, James F. (2009). Terrorism & Public Safety Policing: Implications of the Obama Presidency. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-4398-1580-9.
  140. ^ William Gibson's blog, October 31, 2004. Retrieved April 26, 2007.
  141. ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 83
  142. ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.56
  143. ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.68
  144. ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 167
  145. ^ Edmund Burke (1795). "Letter No. IV. To the Earl Fitzwilliam". Library of Economics and Liberty. pp. 308–76, 371. Retrieved 2010-01-11. Thousands of those Hell-hounds called Terrorists, whom they had shut up in Prison on their last Revolution, as the Satellites of Tyranny, are let loose on the people.
  146. ^ a b c Crenshaw, Martha, Terrorism in Context, p. 38.
  147. ^ "Terrorism: From the Fenians to Al Qaeda". Retrieved 2012-12-17.[dead link]
  148. ^ Irish Freedom, by Richard English Publisher: Pan Books (2 November 2007), ISBN 0-330-42759-8 p179
  149. ^ Irish Freedom, by Richard English Publisher: Pan Books (2 November 2007), ISBN 0-330-42759-8 p. 180
  150. ^ Whelehan, Niall (2012). The Dynamiters: Irish Nationalism and Political Violence in the Wider World 1867-1900. Cambridge.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  151. ^ "The Fenian Dynamite campaign 1881-85". Retrieved 2012-12-17.
  152. ^ History of Terrorism article by Mark Burgess[dead link]
  153. ^ Hoffman 1998, p. 5
  154. ^ A History of Terrorism’’, by Walter Laqueur, Transaction Publishers, 2000, ISBN 0-7658-0799-8, p. 92 [4]
  155. ^ Adam Roberts on new weapon technologies available to anarchists

Further reading

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