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Gjirokastër

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Gjirokastër
Gjirokastër, seen from the Citadel
Gjirokastër, seen from the Citadel
Country Albania
CountyGjirokastër County
DistrictGjirokastër District
Government
 • MayorFlamur Bime
Elevation
300 m (1,000 ft)
Population
 (2009)[1]
 • Total43,095
Time zoneUTC+1 (Central European Time)
 • Summer (DST)UTC+2 (CEST)
Postal code
6001–6003
Area code084
Car PlatesGJ
Websitewww.gjirokastra.org
Historic Centres of Berat and Gjirokastra
UNESCO World Heritage Site
CriteriaCultural: iii, iv
Reference569
Inscription2005 (29th Session)
Extensions2008

Gjirokastër (known also by several alternative names) is a city in southern Albania with a population of 43,000. Lying in the historical region of Epirus, it is the capital of both the Gjirokastër District and the larger Gjirokastër County. Its old town is inscribed on the World Heritage List as "a rare example of a well-preserved Ottoman town, built by farmers of large estate." Gjirokastër is situated in a valley between the Gjerë mountains and the Drino River, at 300 meters above sea level. The city is overlooked by the Gjirokastër Castle.

The city appears in the historical record in 1336 as Argyrokastro,[2] under the Byzantine administration of the Despotate of Epirus, when it was a center of the Albanian families of Zenebishi and Bua-Shpata.[3] From 1386 to 1418 it was the capital of the Principality of Gjirokastër under Gjon Zenebishi, before falling under Ottoman Empire rule for the next five centuries. Taken in 1912 by the Greek Army during the Balkan Wars, it was eventually incorporated into the newly independent state of Albania in 1913. The city briefly became a capital once again in 1914, this time of the short-lived Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus.

Alongside Albanians, the city is home to an ethnic Greek community, as well as to communities of Vlachs and Roma.[4] Gjirokastër is considered the center of the Greek community in Albania.[5] Gjirokastër is the birthplace of former Albanian communist leader Enver Hoxha and notable writer Ismail Kadare. It hosts the Eqerem Çabej University.

Name

The city appeared for the first time in historical records under its medieval Greek name of Argyrocastron (Greek: Αργυρόκαστρον), as mentioned by John VI Kantakouzenos in 1336.[6] The name comes from the Greek Αργυρό ("Αrgyro"), meaning "silver", and Κάστρον ("Kastro"), meaning castle, thus "Silver castle". The theory that the city took the name of the Princess Argjiro, a legendary figure about whom Ismail Kadare wrote a poem in the 1960s, is considered a folk etymology, since the princess is said to have lived later, in the 15th century.[7] The definite Albanian form of the name of city is Gjirokastra, while in the Gheg Albanian dialect it is known as Gjinokastër, both of which derive from the Greek name.[8] In Aromanian the city is known as Ljurocastru, while in modern Greek it is known Αργυρόκαστρο (Argyrokastro). During the Ottoman era the town was known in Turkish as Ergiri.

History

Archaeologists have found pottery objects of the early Iron Age in Gjirokastër, which first appeared in the late Bronze Age in Pazhok, Elbasan District, and are found throughout Albania.[9] The earliest recorded inhabitants of the area around Gjirokastër were the Greek tribe of the Chaonians.

The city's walls date from the 3rd century AD. The high stone walls of the Citadel were built from the 6th to the 12th century.[10] During this period, Gjirokastër developed into a major commercial center known as Argyropolis (Ancient Greek: Αργυρόπολις, meaning "Silver City") or Argyrokastron (Ancient Greek: Αργυρόκαστρον, meaning "Silver Castle").[11]

The city was part of the Byzantine Despotate of Epirus, and it was first mentioned, by the name of Argyrokastro, by the Byzantine Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos in 1336.[2] During 1386–1418 it became the capital of the Principality of Gjirokastër under Gjon Zenebishi. In 1417 it became part of the Ottoman Empire.

According to Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi, who visited the city in 1670, at that time there were 200 houses within the castle, 200 in the Christian eastern neighborhood of Kyçyk Varosh (meaning small neighborhood outside the castle), 150 houses in the Byjyk Varosh (meaning big neighborhood outside the castle), and six additional neighborhoods: Palorto, Vutosh, Dunavat, Manalat, Haxhi Bey, and Memi Bey, extending on eight hills around the castle.[12] According to the traveller, the city had at that time around 2000 houses, eight mosques, three churches, 280 shops, five fountains, and five inns.[12]

In 1811, Gjirokastër became part of the Pashalik of Yanina, then led by the Albanian-born Ali Pasha, and was transformed into a semi-autonomous fiefdom in the southwestern Balkans until his death in 1822. After the fall of the pashalik in 1868, the city was the capital of the sandjak of Ergiri (the Turkish name for Gjirokastër). On 23 July 1880, southern Albanian committees of the League of Prizren held a congress in the city, in which was decided that if Albanian-populated areas of the Ottoman Empire were ceded to neighbouring countries, they would revolt.[13] During the Albanian National Awakening (1831–1912), the city was a major centre of the movement, and some groups in the city were reported to carry portraits of Skanderbeg, the national hero of the Albanians during this period.[13]

Given its large Greek population, the city was claimed and taken by Greece during the First Balkan War of 1912–1913, following the retreat of the Ottomans from the region.[14] However, it was awarded to Albania under the terms of the Treaty of London of 1913 and the Protocol of Florence of 17 December 1913.[15]

The official declaration of the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus (1 March 1914). The River Drino is in the background.

This turn of events proved highly unpopular with the local Greek population, and their representatives under Georgios Christakis-Zografos formed the Panepirotic Assembly in Gjirokastër in protest.[16] The Assembly, short of incorporation with Greece, demanded either local autonomy or an international occupation by forces of the Great Powers for the districts of Gjirokastër, Saranda, and Korçë.[17] In March 1914, the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was declared in Gjirokastër and was confirmed by the Great Powers with the Protocol of Corfu.[18] The Republic, however, was short-lived, as Albania collapsed at the beginning of the First World War.[19] The Greek military returned in October–November 1914, and again captured Gjirokastër, along with Saranda and Korçë. In April 1916, the territory referred to by Greeks as Northern Epirus, including Gjirokastër, was annexed to Greece. The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 restored the pre-war status quo, essentially upholding the border line decided in the 1913 Protocol of Florence, and the city was again returned to Albanian control.[20]

In April 1939, Gjirokastër was occupied by Italy following the Italian invasion of Albania. In December 1940, during the Greco-Italian War, the Greek Army entered the city and stayed for a four month period before capitulating to the Germans in April 1941 and returning the city to Italian command. After the Italy's capitulation in September 1943, the city was taken by German forces, and eventually returned to Albanian control in 1944.

The postwar Communist regime developed the city as an industrial and commercial centre. It was elevated to the status of a museum town,[21] as it was the birthplace of the Communist leader of Albania, Enver Hoxha, who had been born there in 1908. His house was converted into a museum.[22]

Gjirokastër suffered severe economic problems following the end of communist rule in 1991. In the spring of 1993, the region of Gjirokastër became a center of open conflict between Greek minority members and the Albanian police.[23] The city was particularly affected by the 1997 collapse of a massive pyramid scheme which destabilised the entire Albanian economy. The city became the focus of a rebellion against the government of Sali Berisha; violent anti-government protests took place which eventually forced Berisha's resignation. On 16 December 1997, Hoxha's house was damaged by unknown attackers, but subsequently restored.[24]

Climate

Main article: Geography_of_Albania § Climate

Gjirokastër is situated between the lowlands of western Albania and the highlands of the interior, and has thus a continental Mediterranean climate. The following are the temperatures and precipitation in Albania:

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Avg low
(°C/°F)		 2 °C (35.6 °F)* 2 °C (35.6 °F)* 5 °C (41 °F)* 8 °C (46.4 °F)* 12 °C (53.6 °F)* 16 °C (60.8 °F)* 17 °C (62.6 °F)* 17 °C (62.6 °F)* 14 °C (57.2 °F)* 10 °C (50 °F)* 8 °C (46.4 °F)* 5.0 °C (41.0 °F)*
Avg high
(°C/°F)		 12 °C (53.6 °F)* 12 °C (53.6 °F)* 15 °C (59 °F)* 18 °C (64.4 °F)* 23 °C (73.4 °F)* 28 °C (82.4 °F)* 31 °C (87.8 °F)* 31 °C (87.8 °F)* 27 °C (80.6 °F)* 23 °C (73.4 °F)* 17 °C (62.6 °F)* 14 °C (57.2 °F)*
Humidity in % 71 69 68 69 70 62 57 57 64 67 75 73
Sunshine (h/day) 4 4 5 7 8 10 12 11 9 7 3 3
Precipitation in days 13 13 14 13 12 7 5 4 6 9 16 17
Spring: Climate data

Economy

Gjirokastër is principally a commercial center with some industries, notably the production of foodstuffs, leather, and textiles.[25] Recently a regional agricultural market that trades locally produced groceries has been built in the city.[26] Given the potential of southern Albania to supply organically-grown products, and its relationship with Greek counterparts of the nearby city of Ioannina, it is likely that the market will dedicate itself to organic food in the future. However, currently trademarking and marketing of such products are far from European standards.[26] The Chamber of Commerce of the city, created in 1988, promotes trade with the Greek border areas.[27]

In 2010, following the Greek economic crisis, the city was one of the first areas in Albania to suffer, since many Albanian emigrants in Greece are becoming unemployed and thus are returning home.[28]

Landmarks

The clock tower of the Citadel

The city is built on the slope surrounding the citadel, located on a dominating plateau.[21] Although the city's walls were built in the third century and the city itself was first mentioned in the 12th century, the majority of the existing buildings date from 17th and 18th centuries. Typical houses consist of a tall stone block structure which can be up to five stories high. There are external and internal staircases that surround the house. It is thought that such design stems from fortified country houses typical in southern Albania. The lower storey of the building contains a cistern and the stable. The upper storey is composed of a guest room and a family room containing a fireplace. Further upper stories are to accommodate extended families and are connected by internal stairs.[21]

Many houses in Gjirokastër have a distinctive local style that has earned the city the nickname "City of Stone", because most of the old houses have roofs covered with stones. The city, along with Berat, was among the few Albanian cities preserved in the 1960s and 1970s from modernizing building programs. Both cities gained the status of "museum town" and are UNESCO World Heritage sites.[21]

Traditional Gjirokastër houses

The Gjirokastër Castle dominates the town and overlooks the strategically important route along the river valley. It is open to visitors and contains a military museum featuring captured artillery and memorabilia of the Communist resistance against German occupation, as well as a captured United States Air Force plane to commemorate the Communist regime's struggle against the imperialist powers. Additions were built during the 19th and 20th centuries by Ali Pasha of Tepelene and the Government of King Zog. Today it possesses five towers and houses a clock tower, a church, water fountains, horse stables, and many more amenities. The northern part of the castle was turned into a prison by Zog's government and housed political prisoners during the communist regime.

Gjirokastër features an old Ottoman bazaar which was originally built in the 17th century; it was rebuilt in the 19th century after a fire. There are more than 200 homes preserved as "cultural monuments" in Gjirokastër today. The Gjirokastër Mosque, built in 1757, dominates the bazaar.[29]

When the town was first proposed for inscription on the World Heritage list in 1988, International Council on Monuments and Sites experts were nonplussed by a number of modern constructions which detracted from the old town's appearance. The historic core of Gjirokastër was finally inscribed in 2005, 15 years after its original nomination.

Religion and culture

The city's only remaining mosque, Gjirokastër Mosque, built in 1757
File:Old Orthodox Church in Gjirokastra Albania.jpg
Holy Transfiguration Church in Gjirokastër

In 1925, Albania became the world center of Bektashism, a Muslim sect. The sect was headquartered in Tirana, and Gjirokastër was one of six districts of the Bektashism in Albania, with its center at the tekke of Asim Baba.[30] The city retains a large Bektashi and Sunni Muslim population. Historically there were 15 and tekkes and mosques, of which 13 were functional in 1945.[29] Only Gjirokastër Mosque has survived; the remaining 12 were destroyed or closed during the Cultural Revolution of the communist government in 1967.[29]

The city is home to an Eastern Orthodox diocese, part of the Orthodox Church of Albania.[31]

17th-century Ottoman traveller Evliya Çelebi, who visited the city in 1670, described the city in detail. One Sunday, Çelebi heard the sound of a vajtim, the traditional Albanian lament for the dead, performed by a professional mourner. The traveller found the city so noisy that he dubbed Gjirokastër the "city of wailing".[32]

The novel Chronicle in Stone by Albanian writer Ismail Kadare tells the history of this city during the Italian and Greek occupation in World War I and II, and expands on the customs of the people of Gjirokastër. At the age of twenty-four, Albanian writer Musine Kokalari wrote an 80-page collection of ten youthful prose tales in her native Gjirokastrian dialect: As my old mother tells me (Albanian: Siç me thotë nënua plakë), Tirana, 1941. The book tells the day-by-day struggles of women of Gjirokastër, and describes the prevailing mores of the region.[33]

Gjirokastër, home to both Albanian and Greek polyphonic singing, is also home to the National Folklore Festival (Albanian: Festivali Folklorik Kombëtar) that has held every five years. The festival started in 1968[34] and was most recently held in 2009, its ninth season.[35] It is also where the Greek language newspaper Laiko Vima is published. Founded in 1945, it was the only Greek-language printed media allowed during the Socialist People's Republic of Albania.[36]

Education

The first school in the city, a Greek language school, was erected in the city in 1663. It was sponsored by local merchants and functioned under the supervision of the local bishop. In 1821, when the Greek War of Independence broke out, it was destroyed, but it was reopened in 1830.[37][38] In 1727 a madrasah started to function in the city, and it worked uninterruptedly for 240 years until 1967, when it was closed due to the Cultural Revolution applied in communist Albania.[29] In 1861–1862 a Greek language school for girls was founded, financially supported by the local Greek benefactor Christakis Zografos.[39] The first Albanian school in Gjirokastër was Drita School, which opened in 1908.[citation needed] Today Gjirokastër has seven grammar schools, two general high schools (of which one is the Gjirokastër Gymnasium), and two professional ones.

The city is home to the Eqerem Çabej University, which opened its doors in 1968. The university has recently been experiencing low enrollments, and as a result the departments of Physics, Mathematics, Biochemistry, and Kindergarten Education did not function during the 2008–2009 academic year.[40] In 2006, the establishment of a second university in Gjirokastër, a Greek-language one, was agreed upon after discussions between the Albanian and Greek governments.[41] The program had an attendance of 35 students as of 2010, but was abruptly suspended when the University of Ioannina in Greece refused to provide teachers for the 2010 school year and the Greek government and the Latsis foundation withdrew funding.[40]

Sports

Main article: Luftëtari Gjirokastër

Football (soccer) is popular in Gjirokastër: the city hosts Luftëtari Gjirokastër, a club founded in 1929. The club has competed in international tournaments and played in the Albanian Superliga until 2006–2007. Currently the team plays in the Albanian First Division. The soccer matches are played in the Subi Bakiri Stadium, which can hold up to 8,500 spectators.[42]

Demographics

The town has 43,000 inhabitants.[1] Gjirokastër is home to an ethnic Greek community that numbered about 4000 in 1989, as well as of communities of Vlachs and Roma.[43][44] Gjirokastër is considered the center of the Greek community in Albania.[5]

Notable people

Novelist Ismail Kadare was born in Gjirokastër.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Instat of Albania (2009). "Population by towns" (in Albanian). Institute of Statistics of Albania. Retrieved 19 August 2010.
  2. ^ a b Kiel, Machiel. Ottoman Architecture in Albania, 1385–1912. Beşiktaş, Istanbul: Research Centre for Islamic History, Art and Culture. p. 138. ISBN 9789290633303. Retrieved 2 October 2010.
  3. ^ "Fortress of Gjirokastra" (PDF). Ministry of Culture of Albania. 2006. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
  4. ^ Guillemin, Jeanne (1 January 1980). Anthropological Realities: Readings in the Science of Culture. New Brunswick, N.J: Transaction Publishers. p. 387. ISBN 9780878557837. Retrieved 30 September 2010.
  5. ^ a b James Pettifer. "The Greek Minority in Albania in the Aftermath of Communism" (PDF). Camberley, Surrey: Conflict Studies Research Centre, Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. pp. 11–12. Retrieved 20 December 2010. The concentration of ethnic Greeks in and around centres of Hellenism such as Saranda and Gjirokastra...
  6. ^ GCDO History part. "History of Gjirokaster" (in Albanian). Organizata për Ruajtjen dhe Zhvillimin e Gjirokastrës (GCDO). Retrieved 1 September 2010.
  7. ^ Sinani, Shaban; Kadare, Ismail; Courtois, Stéphane (2006). Le dossier Kadaré (in French). Paris: O. Jacob. p. 37. ISBN 9782738117403.
  8. ^ The New Encyclopaedia Britannica: Micropaedia. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1993. p. 289. ISBN 0852295715.
  9. ^ Boardman, John (1982-08-05). The Prehistory of the Balkans and the Middle East and the Aegean World, Tenth to Eighth centuries B.C. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 223. ISBN 9780521224963. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
  10. ^ Wilson, Wesley (1997). Countries & Cultures of the World: The Pacific, Former Soviet Union, & Europe. Chapel Hill, N.C: Professional Press. p. 149. OCLC 1570873038. Retrieved 13 June 2010.
  11. ^ Dvornik, Francis (1958). The Idea of Apostolicity in Byzantium and the Legend of the Apostle Andrew. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 219. OCLC 1196640.
  12. ^ a b Elsie, Robert (2007). "GJIROKASTRA nga udhëpërshkrimi i Evlija Çelebiut" (PDF). Albanica ekskluzive (66): 73–76. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  13. ^ a b Gawrych, George Walter (2006). The Crescent and the Eagle: Ottoman Rule, Islam and the Albanians, 1874–1913. London: I.B. Tauris. pp. 23–64. ISBN 9781845112875. Retrieved 30 September 2010.
  14. ^ James Pettifer. "The Greek Minority in Albania in the Aftermath of Communism" (PDF). Camberley, Surrey: Conflict Studies Research Centre, Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. p. 4. Retrieved 20 December 2010.
  15. ^ Pentzopoulos, Dimitri (2002). The Balkan Exchange of Minorities and Its Impact on Greece. London: C. Hurst & Co. p. 28. ISBN 1850656746.
  16. ^ Heuberger, Valeria; Suppan, Arnold; Vyslonzil, Elisabeth (1996). Brennpunkt Osteuropa: Minderheiten im Kreuzfeuer des Nationalismus (in German). Vienna: Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag. p. 68. ISBN 9783486561821.
  17. ^ Ference, Gregory Curtis (1994). Chronology of 20th-Century Eastern European History. Gale Research. p. 9. ISBN 9780810388796.
  18. ^ Winnifrith, Tom (2002). Badlands-Borderlands: a History of Northern Epirus/Southern Albania. London: Duckworth. p. 130. ISBN 0715632019.
  19. ^ Bon, Nataša Gregorič (2008). "Formation of the Albanian Nation-State and the Protocol of Corfu (1914)". Nova Gorica. p. 140 Contested Spaces and Negotiated Identities in Dhermi/Drimades of Himare/Himara area, Southern Albania http://www.p-ng.si/~vanesa/doktorati/interkulturni/3GregoricBon.pdf Contested Spaces and Negotiated Identities in Dhermi/Drimades of Himare/Himara area, Southern Albania. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  20. ^ Nitsiakos, Vassilis; Mantzos, Constantinos (2003). "Negotiating Culture: Political Uses of Polyphonic Folk Songs in Greece and Albania". In Tziovas, Demetres (ed.). Greece and the Balkans: Identities, Perceptions and Cultural Encounters. Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing. p. 197. ISBN 0754609987.
  21. ^ a b c d Petersen, Andrew (1994). Dictionary of Islamic architecture. Routledge. p. 10. ISBN 0415060842. Retrieved 2010-06-13. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  22. ^ Murati, Violeta. "Tourism with the Dictator". Standard (in Albanian). Retrieved 19 August 2010.
  23. ^ Petiffer, James (2001). "The Greek Minority in Albania – In the Aftermath of Communism" (PDF). Surrey, UK: Conflict Studies Research Centre. p. 13. ISBN 1-903584-35-3.
  24. ^ Lajmi (22 March 2010). "Tourism with the Communist Symbols". Gazeta Lajmi (in Albanian). Retrieved 19 August 2010.
  25. ^ "Një histori e shkurtër e Gjirokastrës". Gjirokaster.org. Retrieved 15 December 2010.
  26. ^ a b Kote, Odise (16 March 2010). "Tregu rajonal në jug të Shqipërisë dhe prodhimet bio" (in Albanian). Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 15 December 2010.
  27. ^ Taylor & Francis Group (2004). Europa World Year, Book 1. London; New York. ISBN 9781857432541. Retrieved 15 December 2010.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  28. ^ Kote, Odise (2010-03-02). "Kriza greke zbret dhe në Shqipëri" (in Albanian). Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 2010-12-15.
  29. ^ a b c d GCDO. "Regjimi komunist në Shqipëri" (in Albanian). Organizata për Ruajtjen dhe Zhvillimin e Gjirokastrës (GCDO). Retrieved 1 September 2010.
  30. ^ Elsie, Robert (2000). A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology, and Folk Culture. New York: New York University Press. p. 28. ISBN 9780814722145.
  31. ^ Orthodox Church of Albania. "Building and Restorations" (in Albanian). Retrieved 15 December 2010. ... selitë e Mitropolive të Beratit, Korçës dhe Gjirokastrës...
  32. ^ Elsie, Robert (2000). A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology, and Folk Culture. New York: New York University Press. pp. 95–96. ISBN 0814722148. Retrieved 9 June 2010.
  33. ^ Wilson, Katharina M. (March 1991). An Encyclopedia of Continental Women Writers. Vol. 2. New York: Garland. p. 646. ISBN 0824085477.
  34. ^ Ahmedaja, Ardian; Haid, Gerlinde (2008). European Voices: Multipart Singing in the Balkans and the Mediterranean. Vol. 1. Vienna: Böhlau. ISBN 9783205780908.
  35. ^ Top Channel (25 September 2009). "Gjirokaster, starton Festivali Folklorik Kombetar". Top Channel (in Albanian). Retrieved 31 August 2010.
  36. ^ Valeria Heuberger, Arnold Suppan, Elisabeth Vyslonzil (1996). Brennpunkt Osteuropa: Minderheiten im Kreuzfeuer des Nationalismus (in German). Vienna: Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag. p. 71. ISBN 9783486561821.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  37. ^ Sakellariou, Michaïl V (1997). Epirus: 4000 Years of Greek History and Civilization. Athens: Ekdotike Athenon. p. 308. ISBN 9789602133712.
  38. ^ Ruches,Pyrrhus J (1965). Albania's Captives. Chicago: Argonaut. p. 33. At a time of almost universal ignorance in Greece, in 1633, it opened the doors of its first Greek school. Sponsored by Argyrocastran merchants in Venice, it was under the supervision of Metropolitan Callistus of Dryinoupolis.
  39. ^ Sakellariou, Michaïl V (1997). Epirus: 4000 Years of Greek History and Civilization. Athens: Ekdotike Athenon. p. 308. ISBN 9789602133712.
  40. ^ a b Μπρεγκάση Αλέξανδρος. "Πάρτε πτυχίο... Αργυροκάστρου". Ηπειρωτικός Αγών. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
  41. ^ "Albania: Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 2006". U.S. Department of State. 6 March 2007. Retrieved 20 December 2010.
  42. ^ Worldstadiums. "Stadia in Albania". Retrieved 3 August 2010.
  43. ^ Abrahams, Fred. Human Rights in Post-Communist Albania. Human Rights Watch. p. 119. About 4,000 Greeks live in Gjirokastër out of a population of 30,000.
  44. ^ "Gjirokastra, Albania". gjirokastra.org. Retrieved 20 December 2010.
  45. ^ Ruches,Pyrrhus J (1965). Albania's Captives. Chicago: Argonaut. p. 33.
  46. ^ Özdalga, Elisabeth. "Late Ottoman Society: the Intellectual Legacy". Middle East Studies Association bulletin. 40, no. 2, (2006): 268. New York: Middle East Studies Association of North America. p. 322. OCLC 208655391.

Sources

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