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Decolonisation of Asia

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The decolonisation of Asia was the gradual growth of independence movements in Asia, leading ultimately to the retreat of foreign powers and the creation of several nation-states in the region.

Background

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See also: Western imperialism in Asia

The decline of Spain and Portugal in the 17th century paved the way for other European powers, namely the Netherlands, France and England. Portugal would lose influence in all but three of its colonies, Portuguese India, Macau and Timor.

By the end of the 17th century, the Dutch had taken over much of the old Portuguese colonies, and had established a strong presence in present-day Indonesia, with colonies in Aceh, Bantam, Makassar and Jakarta. The Dutch also had trade links with Siam, Japan, China and Bengal.

The British had competed with Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch for their interests in Asia since the early 17th century and by the mid-19th century held much of India (via the British East India Company), as well as Burma, Ceylon, Malaya and Singapore. After The Indian Rebellion of 1857, Queen Victoria was declared Empress of India, thus solidifying the British rule on the subcontinent. The last British acquisition in Asia was the New Territories of Hong Kong, which was leased from the Qing emperor in 1897, expanding the British colony originally ceded in the Treaty of Nanking in 1842.

The French had little success in India following defeats against the British in the 17th century, though they held onto possessions on the east coast of India (such as Pondicherry and Mahar) until decolonisation. The French established their most lucrative and substantial colony in Indochina in 1862, eventually occupying the present-day areas of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia by 1887.

Japan's first colony was the island of Taiwan, occupied in 1874 and officially ceded by the Qing emperor in 1894. Japan continued its early imperialism with the annexation of Korea in 1910.

The United States entered the region in 1898 during the Spanish–American War, taking the Philippines as its sole colony after a mock battle in the capital and the later formal acquisition of the Philippines from Spain through the 1898 Treaty of Paris.

Asian colonies from the 17th century to the end of World War II

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The following list shows the colonial powers following the end of World War II in 1945, their colonial or administrative possessions and the date of decolonization.[1]

Individual countries

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Country Date of acquisition of sovereignty Acquisition of sovereignty
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan/ Afghanistan 1919 Treaty of Rawalpindi ends British control of foreign policy
 Bahrain 15 August 1971 End of treaties with the United Kingdom
 Bangladesh 26 March 1971 Independence from Pakistan declared
 Bhutan 1885 Ugyen Wangchuck ends a period of civil war and unites Bhutan
 Brunei 1 January 1984 Brunei regains its independence after an agreement with the British on 4 January 1979
 Cambodia 9 September 1953 France grants Cambodia independence
26 September 1989 Becomes free from Vietnamese occupation; it gets back its name instead of the People's Republic of Kampuchea
Taiwan 1 January 1912 On the first day of January of 1912 The Republic of China unilaterally declared their independence.
China 7 December 1949 On the 1st of October of 1949 the Chinese Communist Party wins against the Kuomintang which then retreats to the island of Taiwan.
 India 15 August 1947 Independence from the British Empire
 Indonesia 27 December 1949 Independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands following their unilateral Proclamation of Indonesian Independence on 17 August 1945 and subsequent Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference in The Hague.
 Iran 609 BC After the fall of Assyria between 616 BC and 609 BC, a unified Median state was formed, which together with Babylonia, Lydia, and ancient Egypt became one of the four major powers of the ancient Near East.
 Iraq 762 The Abbasid Caliphate built the city of Baghdad along the Tigris in the 8th century as its capital, and the city became the leading metropolis of the Arab and Muslim world for five centuries
3 October 1932 Kingdom of Iraq
 Israel 14 May 1948 Upon the end of the British Mandate, Jews declared independence, forming the State of Israel; the remainder of Palestine came under control of Egypt (Gaza Strip) and Transjordan (West Bank)
 Japan 4th century CE During the subsequent Kofun period, most of Japan gradually unified under a single kingdom
 Jordan 25 May 1946 End of the British Mandate for Palestine
 Kuwait 1752 Establishment of the Sheikhdom of Kuwait
 Kyrgyzstan 31 August 1991 Independence from the Soviet Union
 Laos 22 October 1953 Independence from France
 Lebanon 26 November 1941 Independence from France declared
22 November 1943 Independence from France recognised
 Malaysia 31 August 1957 Malayan independence from the United Kingdom was declared in Dataran Merdeka (Independence Square)
16 September 1963 Malaysia was formed by the federation of North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore with the existing States of the Federation of Malaya.
 Maldives 26 July 1965 Independence from the United Kingdom
 Mongolia 1206 Mongol Empire formed
29 December 1911 Proclamation of Mongolian independence from Manchu's Qing dynasty
 Myanmar 4 January 1948 Myanmar (Burma) declares independence from the British Empire
   Nepal 25 September 1768 Nepali unification
 Oman 26 January 1650 Expulsion of the Portuguese Army from Oman
 Pakistan 14 August 1947 Independence from British India in the Partition
 Palestine 15 November 1988 Palestinian Declaration of Independence
 Philippines 12 June 1898 The evolving revolutionary movement in Philippine revolutionaries declared independence from the Spanish Empire but sovereignty remained with Spain, which ceded the country to the United States.
4 July 1946 The United States recognises independence under the provisions of the Treaty of Manila (1946). The 1935 Constitution remained in effect until 1973, when the Marcos regime promulgated a newer one, in turn, replaced by the present 1987 Constitution.
 Qatar 18 December 1878 Independence from the Ottoman Empire
 Saudi Arabia 1744 Establishment of the First Saudi State
 Singapore 3 June 1959 Self-government under the United Kingdom
9 August 1965 Malaysia unilaterally expels Singapore from the federation of Malaysian states, creating an independent Singaporean state
 Sri Lanka 4 February 1948 Independence from the United Kingdom
 Syria 28 September 1961 End of the United Arab Republic
 Tajikistan 9 September 1991 Independence from the Soviet Union
 Thailand 6 November 1767 King Taksin the Great reunifies Thailand, establishing a new kingdom and repelling Burmese invasions
 Timor-Leste 28 November 1975 East Timor declares its independence but was occupied by Indonesia
20 May 2002 Independence was recognised by the international community following the UN-sponsored act of self-determination of 1999
 Turkmenistan 27 October 1991 Independence from the Soviet Union
 United Arab Emirates 2 December 1971 End of a treaty relationship with the United Kingdom
 Uzbekistan 31 August 1991 Independence from the Soviet Union declared
 Vietnam 2524 BC Hùng king established Van Lang, the first kingdom of Vietnam
 Yemen 1 November 1918 Independence of North Yemen from the Turkish Empire
30 November 1967 Independence of South Yemen from the United Kingdom

Notes

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Burma

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Main article: Burma § Colonial era (1886–1948)

Burma was almost completely occupied by the Imperial Japanese Army during the Second World War. Many Burmese fought alongside Japan in the initial stages of the war, though the Burmese Army and most Burmese switched sides in 1945.

A transitional government sponsored by the British government was formed in the years following the Second World War, ultimately leading to Burma's independence in January 1948.

Cambodia

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Main article: Cambodia § Independence and Vietnam War

Following the capitulation of France and the formation of the Vichy regime, France's Indochinese possessions were given to Japan. While there was some argument that Indochina should not be returned to France, particularly from the United States, Cambodia nevertheless remained under French rule after the end of hostilities.

France had placed Norodom Sihanouk on the throne in 1941 and was hoping for a puppet monarch. They were mistaken. However, the King led the way to Cambodian independence in 1953, taking advantage of the background of the First Indochina War being fought in Vietnam.

Ceylon

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Main article: Sri Lanka § Independence

Ceylon was an important base of operations for the Western Allies during the Second World War. The British gave in to popular pressure for independence and in February 1948, the country won its independence as the Dominion of Ceylon.

China

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For some clarification and more detail including the sovereignty status of the Republic of China, see the following articles: History of China, Cross-Strait relations, One-China policy and Political status of Taiwan. Hong Kong was returned to the United Kingdom following its occupation by the Japanese during the Second World War.[2] It was controlled directly by a British governor until the expiry of the ninety-nine-year lease of the New Territories, which occurred in 1997. From that date, the territory was returned to People's Republic of China and controlled as a Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China.

Philippines

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Main article: Sovereignty of the Philippines

Philippine revolutionaries unilaterraly declared independence from Spain in 1898, during the Spanish–American War, but sovereignty remained with Spain. Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris that concluded that war. In 1899, Philippine revolutionaries established the insurgent First Philippine Republic. Shortly thereafter, the Philippine–American War began, ending in 1901 with a U.S. victory, though isolated fighting continued for several years thereafter.

In 1902, the Philippines became a U.S. territory with the passage of the Philippine Organic Act, later becoming a U.S. Commonwealth in 1936. It was occupied by the Japanese during the Second World War. In 1943, with Japan granting it a short-lived nominal independence. In 1944, the Allied invasion of the Philippines by combined U.S. and Filipino troops began, which resulted in Americans and Filipinos regaining full control of the nation. In 1946, the United States recognised Philippine independence in the 1946 Treaty of Manila.

Timeline

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The "colonial power" and "colonial name" columns are merged when required to denote territories, where current countries are established, that have not been decolonised but achieved independence in different ways.

Country/ region[a] Colonial name Colonial power[b] Independence declared and/or achieved[c] First head of state[d] Independence won through
 Philippines Spanish East Indies  Spain 12 June 1898 declared Emilio Aguinaldo Philippine Revolution [e]
 Philippines  Empire of Japan
 United States 		4 July 1946 Manuel Roxas World War II
Republic of the Philippines  United States 4 July 1946 achieved Manuel Roxas Treaty of Manila (1946)
 Yemen[f]  Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen  Ottoman Empire 1 November 1918 Yahya I World War I
 Colony and Protectorate of Aden  British Empire 30 November 1967 Qahtan Mohammed al-Shaabi Aden Emergency
 Afghanistan  Emirate of Afghanistan  British Empire 19 August 1919 Amanullah Khan Third Anglo-Afghan War
 Egypt[g] Sultanate of Egypt 28 February 1922[h] Fuad I[i] Egyptian revolution of 1919
 Iraq Mandatory Iraq 3 October 1932[j] Faisal I of Iraq -[k]
 Lebanon Greater Lebanon  France 22 November 1943 Bechara El Khoury[l] –
 Syria Mandate of Syria 30 November 1943 Shukri al-Quwatli Syrian Revolution
 Indonesia[m]  Dutch East Indies  Netherlands 17 August 1945 Sukarno Indonesian National Revolution
 Empire of Japan  Japan 27 December 1949[n]
 Vietnam[o]  French Indochina  Empire of Japan  France
 Japan 		2 September 1945 Hồ Chí Minh August Revolution
 Jordan Emirate of Transjordan  British Empire 25 May 1946 Abdullah I
 Pakistan[p]  India  British Empire 14 August 1947 Liaquat Ali Khan[q] -[r]
 Bangladesh
as part of  Pakistan 		14 August 1947[s] Liaquat Ali Khan[t]
 India[u] 15 August 1947[v] Jawaharlal Nehru[w] Indian independence movement
 Myanmar[x]  Japan 1 August 1943 U Nu
 British Burma 4 January 1948
 Sri Lanka[y]  British Ceylon 4 February 1948 Don Senanayake -
22 February 1972
 Israel  Mandatory Palestine  British Empire
 Arab League 		14 May 1948[z] David Ben-Gurion[aa] 1948 Palestine war
 South Vietnam[ab]  French Indochina  France 28 May 1948 Ngo Dinh Diem 1955 State of Vietnam referendum
23 October 1955
 South Korea Japanese Korea  Empire of Japan 15 August 1945 Syngman Rhee[ac] Korean independence movement
15 August 1948[ad]
 North Korea 15 August 1945 Kim Il Sung[ae]
9 September 1948[af]
 China[ag]  Manchukuo 9 August 1945 Chiang kai shek[ah] Second Sino-Japanese War
China Nationalist government on Mainland China  Republic of China 1 October 1949[ai] Chinese Civil War
Taiwan and Penghu[aj] Taiwan  Japan 15 August 1945 Chen Yi Second Sino-Japanese War
25 October 1945[ak]
28 April 1952[al]
 Laos[am]  French Indochina  France 22 October 1953[an] Sisavang Vong[ao] -[ap]
 Cambodia 9 November 1953 Norodom Sihanouk
 Malaysia  Malaya
Colony of North Borneo
Colony of Sarawak 		 British Empire 31 August 1957 Tuanku Abdul Rahman Malayan Emergency[aq]
16 September 1963
 Cyprus British Cyprus 16 August 1960[ar] Makarios III -[as]
 Kuwait Sheikhdom of Kuwait 19 June 1961[at] Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah –
 Oman  Muscat and Oman[au] 9 August 1970 Qaboos bin Said Night attack on Muscat
-[av]
 Singapore  Straits Settlements 31 August 1963 Yusof Ishak –
9 August 1965[aw]
 Maldives Maldives 26 July 1965 Muhammad Fareed Didi –
 Qatar Qatar 3 September 1971 Ahmad bin Ali Al Thani –
 United Arab Emirates  Trucial States 2 December 1971[ax] Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan –
 Bahrain  Bahrain 15 August 1971[4][ay] Isa ibn Salman Al Khalifa[az] -[ba]
 East Timor  Dutch East Indies  Dutch East Indies
 German Empire 		Under colonial occupation.[bb]
 Portuguese Timor  Portugal
 United Kingdom
 Empire of Japan  Japan
 Portuguese Timor  Portugal 28 November 1975[bc] Francisco Xavier do Amaral Xanana Gusmão
 Timor Timur  Indonesia 1999[bd] Xanana Gusmão
 United Nations United Nations East Timor 20 May 2002 UNTAIET
 Brunei  Brunei  British Empire 1 January 1984 Hassanal Bolkiah -[be]
 Hong Kong  British Hong Kong 1 July 1997[bf] Tung Chee-hwa –
 Macau  Portuguese Macau  Portugal 20 December 1999[bf] Edmund Ho –
 Palestine[bg][bh][bj]  Mandatory Palestine
 West Bank
 British Empire
 Arab League
 Jordan
14 May 1948
10 June 1967;
15 November 1988;[bk]
independence pending due to territorial dispute with Israel 		N/A;
Yasser Arafat;
Mahmoud Abbas 		Six-Day War;
Egypt–Israel peace treaty;
Jordanian disengagement from the West Bank;
Israeli–Palestinian conflict

Soviet Union

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The 9 states may be divided into the following five regional categories. The distinguishing traits of each region result from geographic and cultural factors as well as their respective historical relations with Russia. Not included in these categories are the several de facto independent states presently lacking international recognition (read below: Separatist conflicts).

Region Country name First flag Current flag Capital Independence
Asia Russia (Russian Federation) Moscow 12 December 1991
Central Asia Uzbekistan (Republic of Uzbekistan) Tashkent 31 August 1991
Kazakhstan (Republic of Kazakhstan) Nur-Sultan 16 December 1991
Kyrgyzstan (Kyrgyz Republic) Bishkek 31 August 1991
Tajikistan (Republic of Tajikistan) Dushanbe 9 September 1991
Turkmenistan Ashgabat 27 October 1991
Transcaucasia Georgia (formerly the Republic of Georgia) Tbilisi 9 April 1991
Azerbaijan (Republic of Azerbaijan) Baku 30 August 1991
Armenia (Republic of Armenia) Yerevan 21 September 1991
Total former Soviet Union

British colonies, protectorates and mandates

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Country Pre-independence
name
(different)		 Date Year of
independence
or first stage		 Notes
 Afghanistan Northern Persia 19 August 1919 Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919
 Bahrain 15 August 1971
 Brunei 1 January 1984
 Cyprus 16 August 1960 Cyprus Independence Day is commonly celebrated on 1 October.
 Egypt 28 February 1922 Control over the Suez Canal Zone was maintained until 1952.
 India British India 15 August 1947 Independence Day (India)
 Iraq 3 October 1932
 Israel Mandatory Palestine 14 May 1948 End of British mandate
Independence Day (Israel)
 Palestine declared independence from Israel on 15 November 1988.
 Jordan Transjordan 25 May 1946
 Kuwait 19 June 1961
 Malaysia Four parts:
Malaya
North Borneo
Singapore
Sarawak 		31 August 1957 As the Federation of Malaya (Federation of Malaya Independence Act 1957). North Borneo (now Sabah), Sarawak and Singapore gained full independence and joined Malaysia on 16 September 1963 under the Malaysia Agreement (Malaysia Act 1963).
 Singapore gained independence from Malaysia on 9 August 1965.
 Maldives 26 July 1965
 Mauritius 12 March 1968
 Myanmar British Burma 4 January 1948 Gained independence as Burma. Renamed Myanmar in 1989, but still officially known by the United Kingdom government as Burma.
 Oman Sultanate of Muscat and Oman 20 December 1951
 Pakistan British India 14 August 1947 Partition of India
 Bangladesh gained independence from Pakistan on 26 March 1971.
 Qatar British Qatari Protectorate 3 September 1971
 Seychelles 29 June 1976
 Singapore 3 June 1959 Became self-governing on 3 June 1959 and gained independence from Malaysia on 9 August 1965.
 Sri Lanka Ceylon 4 February 1948 Gained independence as the Dominion of Ceylon. Renamed Sri Lanka in 1972.
 United Arab Emirates Trucial States 2 December 1971 National Day (United Arab Emirates)
 Yemen Protectorate of South Arabia
Federation of South Arabia 		30 November 1967 South Yemen 1967

List of European colonies in Asia

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British colonies in South Asia, East Asia, And Southeast Asia:

Danish India Danish India (1696–1869)
Sweden Swedish Parangipettai (1733)
British Raj British India (1613–1947)
East India Company British East India Company (1757–1858)
British Raj British Raj (1858–1947)

French colonies in South and Southeast Asia:

Dutch, British, Portuguese colonies and Russian territories in Asia:

Portuguese Empire Portuguese Malacca (1511–1641)
Dutch Empire Dutch Malacca (1641–1824)
British Empire British Malaya, included:
Federation of Malaya Federation of Malaya (under British rule, 1948–1963)
Spanish Empire Spanish Philippines (1565–1898, 3rd longest European colony in Asia, 333 years),
Spanish Empire Spanish Formosa (1626–1642)
Dutch Formosa (1624–1662)

Independent states

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  • Taiwan China China – independent, but within European cultures of influence which were largely limited to the colonised ports except for Manchuria.
  • Bhutan Bhutan – in British sphere of influence
  • Iran – in the Russian sphere of influence in the north and British in the south
  • Empire of Japan Japan – a Great power that had its own colonial empire (including Korea and Taiwan)
  • Mongolia – in the Russian sphere of influence and later Soviet controlled
  • Nepal Nepal – in British sphere of influence
  • Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia - most of Saudi Arabia has always been independent, including the Sharifate of Mecca in Hejaz which was under the Ottomans but with a dual system of government shared between the Sharif and the Ottoman Wali or governor.
  • Thailand Thailand – the only independent state in Southeast Asia, but bordered by a British sphere of influence in the north and south and French influence in the northeast and east
  • Turkey Turkey – successor to the Ottoman Empire in 1923; the Ottoman Empire itself could be considered a colonial empire
  • First Philippine Republic Philippines – newly independent state who fought against the United States from 1899-1902. The nation was dissolved after the American victory. It was led by President Emilio Aguinaldo who struggled to keep the nation's independence. On April 19, 1901, Aguinaldo took an oath of allegiance to the United States. This marked the formal end of the Republic as he recognized the sovereignty of the United States over the Philippines.

Asian colonies from the 17th century to the end of the Second World War (Japanese)

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The following list shows the colonial powers following the end of World War II in 1945, their colonial or administrative possessions and the date of decolonisation.

Territory Date Notes
South Sakhalin 1905-1945
Mainland China 1931–1945 Manchukuo 50 million (1940), Jehol, Kwantung Leased Territory, Jiangsu, Shanghai, Shandong, Hebei, Beijing, Tianjin, plus parts of Guangdong, Guangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Fujian, Guizhou, Inner Mongolia
Japan prewar-1945 Present day Japan, Kuril and Ryukyu Islands
Korea 1910-1945 Both North and South
Taiwan 1895-1945
Hong Kong 12 December 1941 – 15 August 1945 Hong Kong (UK)
:: East Asia (subtotal) –
Vietnam 15 July 1940 – 29 August 1945 As French Indochina (FR)
Cambodia 15 July 1940 – 29 August 1945 As French Indochina, Japanese occupation of Cambodia
Laos 15 July 1940 – 29 August 1945 As French Indochina, Japanese occupation of Laos
Thailand 8 December 1941 – 15 August 1945 Independent State but Allied with Japan
Malaysia 27 March 1942 – 6 September 1945 (Malaya), 29 March 1942 – 9 September 1945 (Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, North Borneo) As Malaya (UK), British Borneo (UK), Brunei (UK)
Philippines 8 May 1942 – 5 July 1945 Philippines (US)
Dutch East Indies 18 January 1942 – 21 October 1945 Dutch East Indies (NL)
Singapore 15 February 1942 – 9 September 1945 Singapore (UK)
Myanmar 1942–1945 Burma (UK)
East Timor 19 February 1942 – 2 September 1945 Portuguese Timor (PT)
:: Southeast Asia (subtotal) –
New Guinea 27 December 1941 – 15 September 1945 As Papua and New Guinea (AU)
Guam 6 January 1942 – 24 October 1945 from Guam (US)
South Seas Mandate 1919–1945 from German Empire
Nauru 26 August 1942 – 13 September 1945 from the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand
Wake Island, US 27 December 1941 – 4 September 1945 US
Kiribati December 1941 – 22 January 1944 from Gilbert Islands (UK)
:: Pacific Islands (subtotal) –

Disclaimer: Not all areas were considered part of Imperial Japan but rather part of puppet states & sphere of influence, allies, included separately for demographic purposes. Sources: POPULSTAT Asia Oceania

Other occupied World War 2 islands:

Areas attacked but not conquered

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Raided without immediate intent of occupation

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Asia Territorial evolution of the British Empire

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Name of territory Dates Status Comments
Aden 1839 Colony subordinate to Bombay Presidency British India
1932 Separate province of British India
1937 Separate Crown colony
1963 Part of Federation of South Arabia
Afghanistan 1839–1842 Protectorate
1879 Protectorate
1919 Independence
Assam 1874–1905 Province of British India
1905–1912 Incorporated into the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam
1912–1947 Province of British India Now a state of the Republic of India
Bahrain 1880 Protectorate
1961–1971 Autonomous
1971 Independence Invited to join the Trucial States, but declined
Baluchistan 1877–1896 Province
1896–1947 Province of British India
1947 Part of Pakistan Now part of Balochistan and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, in Pakistan
Bantam 1603–1609 Station
1609–1617 Factory
1617–1621 Presidency
1621 Expelled by the Dutch
1630–1634 Subordinated to Surat
1634–1652 Presidency
1652–1682 Subordinated to Surat
1682 Expelled by the Dutch Now in Indonesia
Bencoolen
("Fort York", later "Fort Marlborough") 		1685–1760 Coastal settlements of southwestern Sumatra, subordinated to Madras
1760–1785 Presidency
1785–1825 Subordinated to Bengal Presidency
1825 Part of Dutch East Indies Now Bengkulu, in Indonesia
Bengal
("Fort William") 		1634–1658 Factories
1658–1681 Subordinated to Madras
1681–82 Agency
1682–1694 Presidency of Coromandel and Bengal Settlements
1694–1698 Subordinated to Madras
1698–1700 Presidency of Coromandel and Bengal Settlements
1700–1774 Presidency
1774–1905 Presidency of British India
1905–1912 Partitioned between [West] Bengal and Eastern Bengal and Assam
1912–1937 Presidency of British India
1937–1947 Province of British India
1947 Divided between India (West Bengal) and Pakistan (East Bengal) Now Bangladesh, and part of West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, and Jharkhand, in India
Brunei 1888 Protectorate
1967 Protected state
1984 Independence
Burma (now called Myanmar) 1824–1852 Arakan, Tenasserim
1852–1886 Lower Burma
1885–1886 Upper Burma
1886 Lower and Upper Burma United as a province of British India
1937 Separate Crown Colony
1948 Independence Name changed to Myanmar after a military junta in 1989.
Eastern Bengal and Assam 1905–1912 Province of British India Established upon the partition of Bengal (1905)
1912 Partition reversed Split between the re-established province of Assam and the re-constituted presidency of Bengal
Ceylon 1795 Ceded by the Dutch and subordinated to the Madras presidency of British India
1798 Separate Crown colony
1948 Independence Now the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka
Dansborg 1801–02 Occupied
1808–1815 Occupied
1845 purchased and incorporated into British India Now in Tamil Nadu state, India
Frederiksnagore 1801–02 Occupied
1808–1815 Occupied
1845 Purchased and incorporated into British India Now in West Bengal state, India
Hong Kong 1841 Hong Kong Island occupied
1843–1982 Crown colony
1860 Kowloon and Stonecutters Island ceded by China
1898 New Territories leased from China for 99 years
1942–1945 Occupied by Japan
1945–1946 Military administration
1983–1997 Dependent territory
1997 Handover to China as a special administrative region
Kuwait 1899 Protectorate
1961 Independence
Indian Empire (British Raj) 1613 Company rule in India
1858 Crown rule over the Indian Princely states, the Presidencies and provinces of British India
1947 Independent as India & Pakistan after partition
Mandatory Iraq 1920–1932 League of Nations mandate never passed, replaced by Anglo-Iraqi treaty with the Kingdom of Iraq
Java 1811–1816 Territory of the East India Company restored to the Netherlands
Malaya 1824 Transferred following Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824
1824–1867 Territory of British East India Company
1867–1946 Straits Settlements, Crown colony
1895–1946 Federated Malay States, protectorate
1885–1946 Johor, protectorate (part of Unfederated Malay States)
1909–1946 Kedah, protectorate (part of Unfederated Malay States)
1909–1946 Kelantan, protectorate (part of Unfederated Malay States)
1909–1946 Perlis, protectorate (part of Unfederated Malay States)
1909–1946 Terengganu, protectorate (part of Unfederated Malay States)
1942–1945 Japanese occupation
1945–1946 Military Administration
1946–1948 Malayan Union
1948–1957 Federation of Malaya
1957–1963 Independent state
1963 Annex North Borneo and Sarawak forming the renamed federation of Malaysia
North Borneo 1882–1946 Protectorate
1945–1946 Military administration Labuan to British N. Borneo on 15 July 1946
1946–1963 Crown colony Labuan to British N. Borneo on 15 July 1946
1963 Self-government
1963 Annexed by Malaya into Malaysia
Palestine 1920 Mandate
1948 British sovereignty relinquished; the proposed partition between a Jewish and an Arab state never fully materialised; the Jewish state – Israel – was established immediately after British withdrawal, with the short-lived All-Palestine government following six months later
1949 Two sections of the former Palestine Mandate outside Israel – the West Bank and the Gaza Strip – were occupied by Jordan and Egypt respectively following the collapse of the All-Palestine government
1956 Gaza Strip briefly falls under Israeli occupation during the Suez Crisis
1967 West Bank and Gaza Strip fall under Israeli occupation as a consequence of the Six-day War
1993 A Palestinian National Authority is declared in the West Bank and Gaza Strip; most matters regarding the day-to-day governance of these territories fell under its jurisdiction, in anticipation of a future Palestinian state
2005 Israel formally withdraws from the Gaza Strip, placing it under full PNA control; despite this, Gazan waters are still under Israeli military control
Pulo Condore Island (Côn Đảo) 1702 Possession of British East India Company
1705 Abandoned Now Côn Đảo, in Vietnam
Sarawak 1888–1946 Protected States
1945–1946 Military administration
1946–1963 Crown colony
1963 Self-government
1963 Annexed by Malaya into Malaysia
Straits Settlements 1826–1858 Possession under British East India Company
1858–1867 Subordinated to British India
1867–1946 Crown colony
1942–1945 Occupied by Japan
1946 Dissolved Now divided between Malacca and Penang, in Malaysia, and Singapore
Qatar 1916–1971 Protectorate
1971 Independence Invited to join the Trucial States, but declined
Surat 1612–1658 Factory
1658–1668 Presidency
1668–1685 Possession under British East India Company
1685–1703 Subordinated to Bombay
1703 Incorporated into Bombay Now in India
Singapore 1824 Purchased
1824 Part of Straits Settlements (as residency of the Presidency of Bengal)
1867–1946 Part of Straits Settlements (crown colony)
1946–1955 Crown colony
1955–1959 self-governing colony
1959–1963 State of Singapore
1963–1965 Part of Malaysia
1965 Independence
Transjordan 1920 Part of Palestine Mandate
1923 Formally separated from Palestine
1928 Emirate independent, except for military and financial control
1946 Formal independence Now known as Jordan
Trucial States 1892 Protectorate
1971 Formation of Federation of Arab Emirates Now part of the United Arab Emirates
Weihaiwei 1898–1930 Leased from China
1930 Returned to the Republic of China Now part of the People's Republic of China
West Bengal
("Bengal") 		1905–1912 Province of British India Established by the partition of Bengal. Abolished with the reversal of the partition and the creation of the new province of Bihar and Orissa.

Territorial evolution of the French Empire in Asia

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See also

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Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Timeline list arranged according to current countries. Explanatory notes are added in cases where decolonisation was achieved jointly or where the current state is formed by a merger of previously decolonised states. Former Soviet republics (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan), as well as Kuwait under Iraqi rule are excluded from this list, as they were not administered as colonies. Countries like Bhutan, China, Iran, and Japan are also excluded, as they were able to maintain their sovereignty despite encroachment by the Western colonial powers.
  2. ^ Some territories changed hands multiple times, so in the list is mentioned the last colonial power. In addition to it, the mandatory or trustee powers are mentioned for territories that were League of Nations mandates and United Nations trust territories.
  3. ^ A declaration of independence des not necessarily equate with achievement of independence. However, as of 2023, this date is presented as a date of decolonisation in this article even if the polity declaring independence did not achieve independence. Dates for territories annexed by or integrated into previously decolonised independent countries are given in separate notes. Subsequent mergers, secessions and civil and other wars in the period after decolonisation and the resulting states and federations are not part of this list and are only noted- see the list of sovereign states by formation date. Date when a commonwealth realm abolished its monarchy is noted. Any discrepancies between dates listed here and public holidays celebrating the country's independence (and whether the date listed is celebrated as a holiday at all) are noted, as well as the national day if the country does not have an independence day.
  4. ^ For countries that became independent either as a Commonwealth realm or as a parliamentary republic the head of government is listed instead.
  5. ^ In the 1896-19 period there were the Philippine Revolution and Philippine–American War. Before the American invasion and annexation, the country declared independence from Spain in 1898 nut sovereignty remained with Spain, which ceded the country to the United States.
  6. ^ North Yemen and South Yemen were unified into the Republic of Yemen on 22 May 1990.
  7. ^ As the Kingdom of Egypt. Transcontinental country, partially located in Africa.
  8. ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. On 28 February 1922 the British government issued the Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence. Through this declaration, the British government unilaterally ended its protectorate over Egypt and granted it nominal independence except four "reserved" areas: foreign relations, communications, the military and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.[3] The Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936 reduced British involvement, but still was not welcomed by Egyptian nationalists, who wanted full independence from Britain, which was not achieved until 23 July 1952. The last British troops left Egypt after the Suez Crisis of 1956. For this, the 23 July date, celebrated as Revolution Day, serves as Egypt's national day.
  9. ^ Although the leaders of the 1952 revolution (Mohammed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser) became the de facto leaders of Egypt, neither would assume office until 17 September of that year when Naguib became Prime Minister, succeeding Aly Maher Pasha who was sworn in on the day of the revolution. Nasser would succeed Naguib as Prime Minister on 25 February 1954.
  10. ^ Celebrated as National Day. (While Iraq does not have a holiday called Independence Day, National Day is celebrated as such).
  11. ^ The Iraqi revolt against the British was an armed uprising that failed to prevent the incoming British colonisation.
  12. ^ Riad Al Solh was Prime Minister on the date of independence.
  13. ^ Transcontinental country, partially located in Oceania.
  14. ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. Netherlands New Guinea was separated from the Dutch East Indies on 29 December 1949. Following skirmishes with Indonesia in 1961 and the New York Agreement, the Netherlands transferred the authority of Dutch New Guinea to a UN protectorate on 1 October 1962 and it was integrated into Indonesia on 1 May 1963. The date 17 August 1945 (when Sukarno formally proclaimed Indonesia's independence) is celebrated as Indonesia's date of independence.
  15. ^ The Democratic Republic of Vietnam proclaimed independence on 2 September 1945 as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. The State of Vietnam declared independence on 14 June 1949 but remained de facto under French rule until 1 August 1954. South Vietnam was the successor state to the State of Vietnam under the name of the Republic of Vietnam. Both parts of Vietnam merged into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam on 30 April 1975, after the Vietnam War.
  16. ^ As the Dominion of Pakistan.
  17. ^ Muhammad Ali Jinnah became Governor-General of Pakistan upon independence.
  18. ^ See Pakistan Movement.
  19. ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. On 16 December 1971, after months of fighting starting from 26 March of that year, Bangladesh formally seceded from Pakistan. The 26 March date is celebrated as Bangladesh's date of independence.
  20. ^ Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was the President on the date of Bangladesh's secession.
  21. ^ As the Dominion of India.
  22. ^ Subsequently, a free and sovereign India unilaterally annexed Hyderabad State from Mir Osman Ali Khan in 1948 and Goa from Portugal in 1961; Puducherry was ceded by France in 1954. On 26 January 1950, India formally abolished its Commonwealth monarchy and became a republic.
  23. ^ Remained Prime Minister when India abolished it monarchy. Rajendra Prasad became President upon abolition.
  24. ^ As the Union of Burma.
  25. ^ As the Dominion of Ceylon.
  26. ^ 5 Iyar 5708 on the Jewish calendar. As Israel based its holidays on the Jewish calendar, celebrations do not always correspond with the Georgian date. One day after Israel declared its independence, the Arab League launched an attack on Israel that would last until 20 July 1949, ending with Israel securing its sovereignty.
  27. ^ Originally as Chairman of the Provisional State Council before becoming Prime Minister three days after independence; Chaim Weizmann succeeded him on that same day. Both remained in office (this time with Weizmann as President) on the date of the armistice.
  28. ^ The Provisional Central Government of Vietnam proclaimed independence on 28 May 1948 then established State of Vietnam in 1949 with ex-emperor Bảo Đại as head of state, it was recognised by France as a part of France Union by France government. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam declared independence on 2 September 1945 but de facto a breakaway state without international recognise until Geneva Conference. Republic of Vietnam was the legal successor state to the State of Vietnam after 1955 State of Vietnam referendum. Both parts of Vietnam merged into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam on 30 April 1975, after the Vietnam War.
  29. ^ Assumed office on 24 July 1948 as President.
  30. ^ Date of Japanese surrender and the transfer of the southern half of the Korean peninsula to the United States. Celebrated as Liberation Day (or "Gwangbokjeol"). American administration lasted exactly three years. Gaecheonjeol ("National Foundation Day") celebrates the date 3 October 2333 BC, which (according to Korean mythology) was when the Gojoseon kingdom was founded.
  31. ^ Assumed office as Premier on 9 September 1948. Kim Tu-bong became Chairman of the Standing Committee of the Supreme People's Assembly upon that same date.
  32. ^ Date of Japanese surrender and the transfer of the northern half of the Korean peninsula to the Soviet Union. Celebrated as Liberation Day (or "Jogukhaebangŭi nal"). Soviet administration lasted until 9 September 1948; this date, celebrated as Day of the Foundation of the Republic, serves as North Korea's national day.
  33. ^ As the China Republic of China.
  34. ^ Chairman of the National Government of the Republic of China at "2"hat time. After the Japanese surrender, communists soon took most of North-Eastern China because of the Soviets' transfer occupation zone, then the civil war begin and both communists and nationalists began to compete for Northeast China.
  35. ^ Date of establishment of the People's Republic by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The central government of the Republic of China evacuated to Taiwan on 7 December 1949 and continued to contested its claim of the sovereignty of all of China with the People's Republic. See also One-China policy.
  36. ^ After World War II, the islands of Taiwan and Penghu were placed under the administration of the Republic of China under General Order No. 1, although they nominally remained part of Japan. Before the post-war treaties were to be signed by the ROC and Japan, the ROC government was defeated in the Chinese Civil War to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and decamped to the island of Taiwan. Japan relinquished the claims to Taiwan and Penghu in the Treaty of San Francisco on 28 April 1952, but the sovereignty of the islands remained undetermined to this day. Taiwan and Penghu are still today governed by the Republic of China in a post-war capacity recognised by a few states as the sole legitimate government of "China". See also Political status of Taiwan and Theory of the Undetermined Status of Taiwan.
  37. ^ Date when Taiwan and Penghu were returned to the Republic of China.
  38. ^ Date when the San Francisco Peace Treaty takes effect.
  39. ^ As the Kingdom of Laos.
  40. ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. National Day celebrates the date 2 December 1975, which was when the Pathet Lao established the Lao People's Democratic Republic and ended both the monarchy and the decades-long civil war.
  41. ^ Souvanna Phouma was Prime Minister on the date of independence.
  42. ^ Although the First Indochina War occurred throughout French Indochina, most of the fighting was between the Việt Minh and France with occasional resistance from Laos and Cambodia. (The Kingdoms of Laos and Cambodia were nominal allies with France.)
  43. ^ The Malayan Communist Party fought in the Malayan Emergency between June 1948 – 12 July 1960.
  44. ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. For reasons unknown, Cyprus celebrates 1 October 1960, as its date of independence.
  45. ^ Armed struggles by the EOKA (Greek) and TMT (Turkish) organisations.
  46. ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. National Day celebrates the date 25 February 1950, which was when Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah was crowned.
  47. ^ Muscat and Oman was de facto a British protectorate. On 4 June 1856, the Sultan who ruled from Stone Town, Zanzibar, died without appointing an heir. With British intervention on 6 April 1861, Zanzibar and Oman were divided into two separate principalities. Zanzibar later became a formal British protectorate, but the British influence over Muscat and Oman remained informal. In 1962 Britain declared Muscat and Oman an independent nation.
  48. ^ See the Dhofar Rebellion defeated with British help.
  49. ^ Between 16 September 1963 and 9 August 1965 Singapore was part of the Federation of Malaysia.
  50. ^ The independent UAE was joined by Ras al-Khaimah on 11 February 1972.
  51. ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. National Day celebrates the date 16 December 1961, which was when Isa ibn Salman was crowned.[5]
  52. ^ Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa was Prime Minister on the date of independence.
  53. ^ The Bahraini independence survey, 1970 was a United Nation-run survey asking Bahrainis if they would rather be independent or under Iran's control. Although a non-binding survey that makes no mention of the United Kingdom, the results (which showed an overwhelming majority supporting independence) led Iran to denounce its claims over Bahrain, which in turn led to the United Kingdom ending its protectorate.
  54. ^ The colonial history of East Timor is too complex to summarize here. See the article on that country and related detail articles.
  55. ^ Independence from Portugal declared on 28 November 1975. but not recognized.
  56. ^ The Indonesians left in 1999 and East Timor came under the administration of the United Nations.
  57. ^ The Brunei Revolt was a rebellion against the sultan suppressed with British assistance in 1966.
  58. ^ a b Date of transfer to the People's Republic of China.
  59. ^ Also referred to as Judea and Samaria Area or West Bank and Gaza Strip.
  60. ^ In the aftermath of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War the Palestinian territories were divided between Israel, Egypt and Jordan. After the Egypt–Israel peace treaty (1982) and Jordanian disengagement from the West Bank (1988), following decades of Arab–Israeli conflict, the Palestine Liberation Organisation declared independence for a State of Palestine, but its control over the West Bank and Gaza (through the Palestinian National Authority) is still limited due to continued conflict with Israel.
  61. ^ [6]Map of Gaza fishing limits, "security zones".
  62. ^ Israel allows the PNA to execute some functions in the Palestinian territories, depending on the area classification. It maintains minimal interference (retaining control of borders: air,[6] sea beyond internal waters,[bi] land[7]) in the Gaza Strip (its interior and Egypt portion of the land border are under Hamas control), and varying degrees of interference elsewhere.[8][9][10][11][12] See also Israeli-occupied territories.
  63. ^ It is unclear here how these dates relate to the other columns of is table row.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "List of former Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories | the United Nations and Decolonization". Archived from the original on 9 November 2019. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
  2. ^ "HONG KONG HARBOR IN HANDS OF BRITISH; Fleet Speeds Reoccupation-- Wedemeyer Sees U.S. Men Out of China by Spring". New York Times. Associated Press. 31 August 1945. Archived from the original on 20 March 2024. Retrieved 29 May 2017.
  3. ^ King, Joan Wucher (1989) [First published 1984]. Historical Dictionary of Egypt. Books of Lasting Value. American University in Cairo Press. pp. 259–260. ISBN 978-977-424-213-7.
  4. ^ "The World Factbook: Field Listing: Independence". Archived from the original on 27 February 2013. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
  5. ^ "National Day 2022, 2023 and 2024 in Bahrain". Archived from the original on 21 October 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
  6. ^ a b Israel's control of the airspace and the territorial waters of the Gaza Strip Archived 5 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
  7. ^ Israel's Disengagement Plan: Renewing the Peace Process Archived 2 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine: "Israel will guard the perimeter of the Gaza Strip, continue to control Gaza air space, and continue to patrol the sea off the Gaza coast. ... Israel will continue to maintain its essential military presence to prevent arms smuggling along the border between the Gaza Strip and Egypt (Philadelphi Route), until the security situation and cooperation with Egypt permit an alternative security arrangement."
  8. ^ "Israel: 'Disengagement' Will Not End Gaza Occupation". Human Rights Watch. 29 October 2004. Archived from the original on 1 November 2008. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
  9. ^ Gold, Dore; Institute for Contemporary Affairs (26 August 2005). "Legal Acrobatics: The Palestinian Claim that Gaza Is Still 'Occupied' Even After Israel Withdraws". Jerusalem Issue Brief. 5 (3). Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Archived from the original on 21 June 2010. Retrieved 16 July 2010.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Bell, Abraham (28 January 2008). "International Law and Gaza: The Assault on Israel's Right to Self-Defense". Jerusalem Issue Brief. 7 (29). Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Archived from the original on 21 June 2010. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
  11. ^ Transcript (22 January 2008). "Address by FM Livni to the 8th Herzliya Conference". Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 26 October 2011. Retrieved 26 September 2011.
  12. ^ Salih, Zak M. (17 November 2005). "Panelists Disagree Over Gaza's Occupation Status". University of Virginia School of Law. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 26 September 2011.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Panikkar, K. M. (1953) Asia and Western Dominance, 1498–1945, London: G. Allen and Unwin.
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