Umayyad Caliphate

Umayyad Caliphate بنو أمية
660–750
Flag
Umayyad Empire at its greatest extent
Capital	Damascus
Capital-in-exile	Córdoba
Common languages	Arabic
Religion	Islam
Government	Monarchy
History
• Established	660
• Disestablished	750
Preceded by Succeeded by Rashidun Caliphate Abbasid Caliphate

The Umayyad Caliphate (Arabic: بنو أمية, Banu Umayyah) was the second of the four Arab caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. It was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty, whose name derives from Umayya ibn Abd Shams, the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph. The Umayyad Arab Caliphate is historically the fifth largest empire, the third largest contiguous empire and the third largest empire by percentage of world population (29.5%). Damascus was the capital.

Islamic Caliphate Flags

A caliphate is the Islamic form of government representing the political unity and leadership of the Muslim world. The Caliph's position is based on the notion of a successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad's political authority. According to Sunnis, a Caliph is ideally a member of the Quraysh tribe elected by Muslims or their representatives; and according to Shia Islam, an Imam descended in a line from the Ahl al-Bayt.

From the time of Muhammad until 1924, successive and contemporary caliphates were held by various dynasties, including the Rashidun (the first four caliphs after Muhammad), the Umayyads (Damascus & Córdoba), the Abbasids (Baghdad), the Fatimids (Cairo), and finally the Turkish Ottomans (Istanbul).

Umayyad Caliphate : Origins

According to tradition, the Umayyad family (also known as the Banu Abd-Shams) and the Islamic Prophet Muhammad both descended from a common ancestor, Abd Manaf ibn Qusai. Muhammad descended from Abd Munaf via his son Hashim, while the Umayyads descended from Abd Munaf via a different son, Abd-Shams, whose son was Umayya. The two families are therefore considered to be different clans (those of Hashim and of Umayya, respectively) of the same tribe (that of the Quraish). However Shia historians points out that Umayya is an adopted son of Abd Shams so he didn't have blood relation with Abd Manaf ibn Qusai. Umayya was later discarded from the noble family.

The Umayyads and the Hashimites were bitter rivals. The rivalry stemmed from the initial opposition of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, the grandson of Umayya, to Muhammad and to Islam. Abu Sufyan sought to exterminate the adherents of the new religion by waging a series of battles. However, he eventually embraced Islam, as did his son (the future caliph Muawiyah I), and the two provided much-needed political and diplomatic skills for the management of the quickly expanding Islamic empire.

Most historians consider Caliph Muawiyah I (661-80) to have been the second ruler of the Umayyad dynasty, as he was the first to assert the Umayyads' right to rule on a dynastic principle. Caliph Uthman (644-56) was also descended from Umayya, and during his time had been criticized for placing members of his family within political positions. However, since Uthman never named an heir, he cannot be considered the founder of a dynasty.

Entry to the prayer hall of the Great Mosque of Damascus, built by caliph Al-Walid I.

The origins of Umayyad rule date back to the assassination of Uthman in 656. At this time Ali, a member of the Hashim clan and a cousin of Prophet Muhammad, became the caliph. He soon met with resistance from several factions, and moved his capital from Medina to Kufa. The resulting conflict, which lasted from 656 until 661, is known as the First Fitna ("time of trial").

Ali was first opposed by an alliance led by Aisha, the widow of Muhammad, and Talhah and Al-Zubayr, two of the Companions of the Prophet. The two sides clashed at the Battle of the Camel in 656, where Ali won a decisive victory.

Following the Battle of the Camel, Muawiyah, who had become governor of Syria, accused Ali of harboring the assassins of Uthman and demanded that they be handed over. The armies of Muawiyah and Ali met at the Battle of Siffin in 657. For reasons that remain obscure, the battle was stopped before either side had achieved victory, and the two parties agreed to arbitrate their dispute. Both the terms and the result of the arbitration, however, are subjects of contradictory and sometimes confused reports.

Following the battle, a large group of Ali's soldiers, who resented his decision to submit the dispute to arbitration, broke away from Ali's force, rallying under the slogan, "arbitration belongs to God alone." This group came to be known as the Kharijites ("those who leave").

In 659 Ali's forces and the Kharijites met in the Battle of Nahrawan. Although Ali won the battle, the constant conflict had begun to affect his standing, and in the following years some Syrians seem to have acclaimed Muawiyah as a rival caliph.

Ali was assassinated in 661, apparently by a Kharijite partisan. Muawiyah marched to Kufa, where he persuaded a number of Ali's supporters to acclaim him as caliph instead of Ali's son, Hasan. Following his elevation, Muawiyah moved the capital of the caliphate to Damascus. Syria would remain the base of Umayyad power until the end of the dynasty in 750 AD. However, this Dinasty reborn in Cordoba (Al Andalus, today's Portugal and Spain) and lasted there for another 800 years in several forms (Emirate, Caliphate, Taifas, and as Kingdom of Granada till the 17th century AD, within Portuguese and Spanish borders).

Abdul Rahman Al Ummayd, the surviving grand-son of the last Caliph of Damascus (the 10th Caliph of the Islamic Empire) flew six years to Mauritania, where he stayed away from his enemies. He was then taken from there to Al Andalus (Iberian Peninsula, today's Portugal an Spain), by his relatives from Northern Yemen (now Asir Region of Saudi Arabia, from today's Yemeni border to At'Taif, just South of Mecca), whom had moved to Southern Al Andalus during the Muslim Emmigration to the West. In 756 AD, Abdul Rahman was made the 1st "Emir of Cordoba", after the battle of Wadi Kabeer (today's Gualdalquivir) aginst Yusuf, the 22rd Berber Wally of Al Andalus. The Berbers then retreated to North Africa, but later created movements such as the Al-Moravids and the Al-Mohads, who tried to recover the Southern parts of Al Andalus, several times during the the 14th and 15th centuries AD, but were shortly after expelled.

Just after the assassination of the 10th Caliph of Islam ruling from Damascus (in 750 AD), a new Caliphate was established in Bagdadh by Shia Sect followers whom had invaded the Palace in Damascus. Later, a descendent of the Emir of Cordoba, separated Al Andalus (todays' Portugal and Spain) from Bagdadh and changed its title to "Caliph of Cordoba". Despite the attemps of the Fatimids, Abbassyds, Al-Moravids and Al-Mohads to kill the Arabs from Al Asir Region of Yemen and their neigbouring relatives of Hijaz, Al Ummayd Disnasty in Al Andalus (including the Era when the "taifa-system" was introduced from 1031 AD)lasted 800 years, till Al Andalus was divided into three countries (around 1200 AD): Emirate/Sultanate of Granada (today's regions of Algarve in Portugal; and Andalucia and Granada in Spain); Kingdom of Portugal; and Kingdom of Espana (Spain). In fact, a small enclosure in Northern Iberian Peninsula always remained Hispania and Catholic, reason for today's existence of the Basque Country in today's Northern Espana, and the separatist movement ETA.

During its existence period, the Emirate/Sultanate of Granada was secretly independent and worked in collaboration with both Kings of Portugal and Espana (Spain), till in the 17th century, when the Region of Algarve (from Al Garbh)was handed to the King of Portugal, who changed its title to "King of Portugal and Algarves" (title maintained till the end of the Portuguese monarchy in 1910 AD), and the regions of Andalucia (from Al Andalus) and Granada (from Granata) were handed to the King of Spain. The King of Portugal intentionaly used "Algarve" in its plural form "Algarves" because by then it was considered two Algarves: "Algarve D'Aquem Mar" ("Algarve before the sea" in Latin), which is todays' the administratively independent region of Algarve in Portugal; and "Algarve D'Alem Mar" ("Algarve after the sea" in Latin) which included the overseas territories. These overseas territories where then recognized as either Portuguese or Spanish colonies, according to the Tordesillas Treaty signed in 1495 AD by the Kings of Portugal and Spain in the Vatican.

The Emirate/Sultanate of Granada had two official languages: Arabic and Latin. When the territories were handed over, the Arabic language and many Islamic signs (the Holy Qur'an, prayers turning to Mecca, and Adhan) were banned by a Royal Decree, which provoked the Alpujarras Revolution (or better said, it was indeed a two-year civil war), but the revolt was controlled by the Kings and the classic Latin became the only acceptable language. Today each region had adapted the classic Latin to its own background and four new languages are now considered: Castellano, Catalan, Gallego, and Portuguese. Two other non-Latin indigenous languages are still in use: Basque on Northen Spain; and recently the United Nations also recognized Mirandes in Northen Portugal as a separated and legitimate language.

The 10 tribes of Israel brought to Al Andalus by their Muslims cousins (back to Ibrahim/Abraham) from Asir Region of Saudi Arabia (the Jews had moved there after Jerusalem was invaded by the Babylons around 600 BC, when also the Torah was last seen) were expelled by the Spanish Inquisition because by then they had been "revealed" a new book - the Kabala - and iniciated a new movemnt - the Sepharditc Sect of Judaism. Therefore, they were no longer following the books of the prophets, but they left these ancient books (including copies of the Torah) with their Arab cousins, and even without the Qur'an, many could still following the laws of Allah. In 2005 AD, Adhan was again allowed in Spain through a Royal Decree, and copies of the Qur'an are now available in any bookshop either in Portugal or in Spain. Many who had been following the Torah and refused to follow the rules of the Vatican, just could not resist to read the Qur'an as soon as they had access to it. First, they were just moved by curiosity as this was the Holy Book of their ancestors, but as soon as they read it, they recognized it as the latest Holy Book and just "reverted to Islam" (as King D. Carlos of Spain put it recently). In 2005 AD, the government of Spain registered 26,000 new Muslims in Southern Spain. The Government of Portugal is not interested in making any studies on the number of Mulims in its country (probably because it could surprise the rest of its European Union counterparts), but Islam had spread not only in the South (Algarve), but also in its largest cities (Lisboa and Porto) due to the input from refugees from former Islamic colonies (especially Mozambique/East Africa and Guinea Bissau/West Africa). Likewise, in Northen Spain many mosques started to be built by Muslims from South America, whom had flew to there during the Civil War at iniciated at Alpujarras and because of the tough persecusion by the Spanish Inquisition (in Spain) and the Order of Christ (the new name of the surviving Templars, thought to be extinguished in Europe since 1200 AD, but which were still active in Portugal and Spain)and whom chaninated many peoples (especially in South America, but also in Africa and Gulf of Oman) in the name of Christ (most known as "Cruzaders"), giving bad fame to the descends of Al Asir and Hijaz peoples.

Till today, the movements having no sympathy towards the Ummayd Dinasty and its descendents have descrided them as "the cursed ones", "the cursed tree mentioned in the Qur'an", and "the red dragon with many horns mentioned in the Book of Revelation". However, Ummayd is a branch of the Quraysh tribe of Hijaz (old name for the area near Mecca) and their ancestors and relatives were the prophets from both sons of Ibrahim: Ismael (father of the semitic Arabs, from whom Prophet Mohamed is a descendent); and Isaac (father of Yacoob/Jacob, father of 12 Semitic Jew tribes). However not all Arabs as well as all Jews are of descendents of Ibrahim. The Arabian Peninsula had since the origin of the Human race many other ethnic groups (from fair to dark-colour skin), which are still living both in the Arabian Peninsula and elsewhere. According to the message in the Holy Books sent by Allah throughout history, through His messangers (prophets), these books were guiding lights sent to mankind of all ethnic groups whom would belive in Allah and accept His messangers and Message. Independently of his/her etchnic origin, anyone may become a Muslim/Muslima (beliver)and everyone will be judged by their own acts/decisions independently from their ancestrors bad or good example (e.g. Prophet Mohamed's father went astray). Therefore, real Muslims (from whichever ethnic origin) should control their "envious tendencies" and "jealousy-driven actions", and follow the Message from Allah instead of spending their time and energy (and condemning their soul) trying to exterminate any descent from the prophets (because of envy), disrespect the rulers(because of envy - is it better Anarchy? Would Anarchy be Allah's wish for humans?, and making Sects within Islam (because of envy or influence of pagan cultural habits before they were exposed to the Books of Allah). One also has to use his/her brains and not use arguments outside Holy Books, not to make extra sentences, and silly interpretations to suit their our tendencies. Every Muslim/Muslima (believer)knowing the message from Allah should try to follow it (only! Not to follow philosophies), fight against our common enemy - Shaytan - and try not to go astray, driven by dark feelings! In fact, anyone from any ethnic origin who knows the rules of Allah but let bad feelings rule his/her own head will become a "cursed one", a "cursed tree", "a horned-dragon", and will be "rewarded" (with "Hell") on the Judgement Day, and will be considered as "the one who went astray'.

History of the Umayyad Caliphate

The Sufyanids

The expansion of the caliphate under the Umayyads.

  Expansion under the Prophet Mohammad, 622-632

  Expansion during the Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661

  Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750

Muawiyah's personal dynasty, the "Sufyanids" (descendants of Abu Sufyan), reigned from 661 to 684, until his grandson Muawiya II. The reign of Muawiyah I was marked by internal security and external expansion. On the internal front, only one major rebellion is recorded, that of Hujr ibn Adi in Kufa. Hujr ibn Adi supported the claims of the descendants of Ali to the caliphate, but his movement was easily suppressed by the governor of Iraq, Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan.

Muawiyah also encouraged peaceful coexistence with the Christian communities of Syria, and one of his closest advisers was Sarjun, the father of John of Damascus. At the same time, he waged unceasing war against the Byzantine Empire. During his reign, Rhodes and Crete were occupied, and several assaults were launched against Constantinople. Muawiyah also oversaw military expansion in North Africa (the foundation of Kairouan) and in Central Asia (the conquest of Kabul, Bukhara, and Samarkand).

Following Muawiyah's death in 680, he was succeeded by his son, Yazid I. The hereditary accession of Yazid was opposed by a number of prominent Muslims, most notably Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr, son of one of the Companions of the Prophet, and Husayn ibn Ali, grandson of the Prophet and younger son of Ali. The resulting conflict is known as the Second Fitna.

In 680 Ibn al-Zubayr and Husayn fled Medina for Mecca. While Ibn al-Zubayr would stay in Mecca until his death, Husayn decided to travel on to Kufa to rally support. However, an Umayyad army intercepted and routed his party at the Battle of Karbala.

Following the death of Husayn, Ibn al-Zubayr, although remaining in Mecca, was associated with two opposition movements, one centered in Medina and the other around Kharijites in Basra and Arabia. In 683, Yazid dispatched an army to subdue both. This army suppressed the Medinese opposition at the Battle of al-Harra, and continued on to lay siege to Mecca. At some point during the siege, the Kaaba was badly damaged in a fire. The destruction of the Kaaba became a major cause for censure of the Umayyads in later histories of the period.

Yazid died while the siege was still in progress, and the Umayyad army returned to Damascus, leaving Ibn al-Zubayr in control of Mecca. Yazid was succeeded at first by his son, Muawiya II (683-84), but he seems never to have been recognized as caliph outside of Syria. Two factions developed within Syria: the Confederation of Qays, who supported Ibn al-Zubayr, and the Quda'a, who supported Marwan, a descendant of Umayya via Wa'il ibn Umayyah. The partisans of Marwan triumphed at a battle at Marj Rahit, near Damascus, in 684, and Marwan became caliph shortly thereafter.

The First Marwanids

Marwan's first task was to assert his authority against the rival claims of Ibn al-Zubayr, who was at this time recognized as caliph throughout most of the Islamic world. Marwan recaptured Egypt for the Umayyads, but died in 685, having reigned for only nine months.

Marwan was succeeded by his son, Abd al-Malik (685-705), who reconsolidated Umayyad control of the caliphate. The early reign of Abd al-Malik was marked by the revolt of Al-Mukhtar, which was based in Kufa. Al-Mukhtar hoped to elevate Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah, another son of Ali, to the caliphate, although Ibn al-Hanafiyyah himself may have had no connection to the revolt. The troops of al-Mukhtar engaged in battles both with the Umayyads (in 686, at the river Khazir near Mosul: an Umayyad defeat) and with Ibn al-Zubayr (in 687, at which time the revolt of al-Mukhtar was crushed). In 691 Umayyad troops reconquered Iraq, and in 692 the same army captured Mecca. Ibn al-Zubayr was killed in the attack.

The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, built during the reign of Abd al-Malik.

The second major event of the early reign of Abd al-Malik was the construction of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Although the chronology remains somewhat uncertain, the building seems to have been completed in 692, which means that it was under construction during the conflict with Ibn al-Zubayr. This had led some historians, both medieval and modern, to suggest that the Dome of the Rock was built to rival the Kaaba, which was under the control of Ibn al-Zubayr, as a destination for pilgrimage.

Abd al-Malik is credited with centralizing the administration of the caliphate, and with establishing Arabic as its official language. He also introduced a uniquely Muslim coinage, marked by its aniconic decoration, which supplanted the Byzantine and Sasanian coins that had previously been in use.

Following Abd al-Malik's death, his son, Al-Walid I (705-15) became caliph. Al-Walid was also active as a builder, sponsoring the construction of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina and the Great Mosque of Damascus.

A major figure during the reigns of both al-Walid and Abd al-Malik was the Umayyad governor of Iraq, Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef. Many Iraqis remained resistant to Umayyad rule, and al-Hajjaj imported Syrian troops to maintain order, whom he housed in a new garrison town, Wasit. These troops became crucial in the suppression of a revolt led by an Iraqi general, Ibn al-Ash'ath, in the early eighth century.

Al-Walid was succeeded by his brother, Sulayman (715-17), whose reign was dominated by a protracted siege of Constantinople. The failure of the siege marked the end of serious Arab ambitions against the Byzantine capital. However, the first two decades of the eighth century witnessed the continuing expansion of the caliphate, which pushed into Spain in the west, and into Central Asia and northern India in the east.

Sulyaman was succeeded by his cousin, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (717-20), whose position among the Umayyad caliphs is somewhat unique. He is the only Umayyad ruler to have been recognized by subsequent Islamic tradition as a genuine caliph (khalifa) and not merely as a worldly king (malik).

Umar is honored for his attempt to resolve the fiscal problems attendant upon conversion to Islam. During the Umayyad period, the majority of people living within the caliphate were not Muslim, but Christian, Jewish, Zoroastrian, or otherwise. These religious communities were not forced to convert to Islam, but were subject to a higher tax burden. This situation may actually have made widespread conversion to Islam undesirable from the point of view of state revenue, and there are reports that provincial governors actively discouraged such conversions. It is not clear how Umar attempted to resolve this situation, but the sources portray him as having insisted on like treatment of Arab and non-Arab (mawali) Muslims, and on the removal of obstacles to the conversion of non-Arabs to Islam.

After the death of Umar, another son of Abd al-Malik, Yazid II (720-24) became caliph. Yazid is best known for his "iconoclastic edict," which ordered the destruction of Christian images within the territory of the caliphate. In 720, another major revolt arose in Iraq, this time led by Yazid ibn al-Muhallab.

Hisham and the limits of military expansion

The final son of Abd al-Malik to become caliph was Hisham (723-43), whose long and eventful reign was above all marked by the curtailment of military expansion.

North gate of the city of Resafa, site of Hisham's palace and court.

Hisham established his court at Resafa in northern Syria, which was closer to the Byzantine border than Damascus, and resumed hostilities against the Byzantines, which had lapsed following the failure of the last siege of Constantinople. The new campaigns resulted in a number of successful raids into Anatolia, but also in a major defeat (the Battle of Akroinon), and did not lead to any significant territorial expansion.

Hisham's reign furthermore witnessed the end of expansion in the west, following the defeat of the Arab army by the Franks at the Battle of Tours in 732. In 739 a major Berber Revolt broke out in North Africa, which was subdued only with difficulty.

Hisham suffered still worse defeats in the east, where his armies attempted to subdue both Tokharistan, with its center at Balkh, and Transoxiana, with its center at Samarkand. Both areas had already been partially conquered, but remained difficult to govern.

Once again, a particular difficulty concerned the question of the conversion of non-Arabs, especially the Sogdians of Transoxiana. Ashras ibn 'Abd Allah al-Sulami, governor of Khorasan, promised tax relief to those Sogdians who converted to Islam, but went back on his offer when it proved too popular and threatened to reduce tax revenues. In 734, al-Harith ibn Surayj led a revolt on behalf of the Sogdians, capturing Balkh but failing to take Merv. After this defeat, al-Harith's movement seems to have been dissolved, but the problem of the rights of non-Arab Muslims would continue to plague the Umayyads.

The Third Fitna

File:Qusayr amra dancer.jpg

Fresco from the palace of Qusayr Amra, possibly built by Al-Walid II, depicting a dancer.

Hisham was succeeded by Al-Walid II (743-44), the son of Yazid II. Al-Walid is reported to have been more interested in earthly pleasures than in religion, a reputation that may be confirmed by the decoration of the so-called "desert palaces" (including Qusayr Amra and Khirbat al-Mafjar) that have been attributed to him. He quickly attracted the enmity of many, both by executing a number of those who had opposed his accession, and by persecuting the Qadariyya.

In 744, Yazid III, a son of al-Walid I, was proclaimed caliph in Damascus, and his army tracked down and killed al-Walid II. Yazid III has received a certain reputation for piety, and may have been sympathetic to the Qadariyya. He died a mere six months into his reign.

Yazid had appointed his brother, Ibrahim, as his successor, but Marwan II (744-50), the grandson of Marwan I, led an army from the northern frontier and entered Damascus in December of 744, where he was proclaimed caliph. Marwan immediately moved the capital north to Harran, in present-day Turkey. A rebellion soon broke out in Syria, perhaps due to resentment over the relocation of the capital, and in 746 Marwan razed the walls of Hims and Damascus in retaliation.

Marwan also faced significant opposition from Kharijites in Iraq and Iran, who put forth first Dahhak ibn Qays and then Abu Dulaf as rival caliphs. In 747 Marwan managed to reestablish control of Iraq, but by this time a more serious threat had arisen in Khurasan.

Insurrection

Ivory (eighth century?) discovered in the Abbasid homestead in Humeima, Jordan. The style indicates an origin in north-eastern Iran, the base of Hashimiyya military power.

The movement that overthrew the Umayyad caliphate was known as the Hashimiyya, and led by the Abbasid family. The Abbasids were themselves members of the Hashim clan, the ancient rivals of the Umayyads, but the word "Hashimiyya" seems to refer specifically to Abu Hashim, a grandson of Ali and son of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya. According to certain traditions, Abu Hashim died in 717 in Humeima in the house of Muhammad ibn Ali, the head of the Abbasid family, and before dying named Muhammad ibn Ali as his successor. This tradition allowed the Abbasids to rally the supporters of the failed revolt of Mukhtar, who had represented themselves as the supporters of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya.

Beginning around 719, Hashimiyya missions began to seek adherents in Khurasan. Their campaign was framed as one of invitation (dawah), and was rather vaguely worded: they sought support for a "member of the family" of the Prophet, without making explicit mention of the Abbasids. These missions met with success both among Arabs and non-Arabs (mawali), although the latter may have played a particularly important role in the growth of the movement.

Map of the world in 750 AD before the Battle of the Zab, which caused the fall of the dynasty.

Around 746, Abu Muslim assumed leadership of the Hashimiyya in Khurasan. In 747 he successfully initiated an open revolt against Umayyad rule, which was carried out under the sign of the black flag. He soon established control of Khurasan, and dispatched an army westwards. Kufa fell to the Hashimiyya in 749, and in November of the same year Abu al-Abbas was recognized as the new caliph in the mosque at Kufa.

Map of the beginning of Abassid revolt before the Battle of the Zab, which caused the fall of the dynasty.

At this point Marwan mobilized his troops from Harran and advanced toward Iraq. In January of 750 the two forces met in the Battle of the Zab, and the Umayyads were defeated. Damascus fell to the Abbasids in April, and in August Marwan was killed in Egypt.

The victors dishonored the tombs of the Umayyads in Syria, sparing only that of Umar II, and most of the remaining members of the Umayyad family were tracked down and killed. One grandson of Hisham, 'Abd al-Rahman, survived and established a kingdom in Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia), proclaiming his family to be the Umayyad Caliphate revived.

Previté-Orton argues that the reasons for the decline of the Ummayads was the rapid expansion of Islam. During Ummayad period, mass conversions brought Persians, Berbers, Copts, and Aramaics to Islam. These mawalis (clients) were often better educated and more civilised than their Arab masters. The new converts, on the basis of equality of all Muslims, transformed the political landscape. Previté-Orton also argues that the feud between Syria and Iraq, further weakened the empire.

Legacy

Historical significance

The Umayyad caliphate was marked both by territorial expansion and by the administrative and cultural problems that such expansion created. Despite some notable exceptions, the Umayyads tended to favor the rights of the old Arab families, and in particular their own, over those of newly converted Muslims (mawali). Therefore they held to a less universalist conception of Islam than did many of their rivals. As G.R. Hawting has written, "Islam was in fact regarded as the property of the conquering aristocracy."

According to one common view, the Umayyads transformed the caliphate from a religious institution (during the rashidun) to a dynastic one. However, the Umayyad caliphs do seem to have understood themselves as the representatives of God on earth, and to have been responsible for the "definition and elaboration of God's ordinances, or in other words the definition or elaboration of Islamic law."

During the period of the Umayyads, Arabic became the administrative language. State documents and currency was issued in the language. Mass conversions brought a large influx of Muslims to the caliphate. The Umayyads also constructed famous buildings such as the Dome of the Rock at Jerusalem, and the Umayyad Mosque at Damascus.

The Umayyads have met with a largely negative reception from later Islamic historians, who have accused them of promoting a kingship (mulk, a term with connotations of tyranny) instead of a true caliphate (khilafa). In this respect it is notable that the Umayyad caliphs referred to themselves, not as khalifat rasul Allah ("successor of the messenger of God," the title preferred by the tradition) but rather as khalifat Allah ("deputy of God"). The distinction seems to indicate that the Umayyads "regarded themselves as God's representatives at the head of the community and saw no need to share their religious power with, or delegate it to, the emergent class of religious scholars."

In fact, it was precisely this class of scholars, based largely in Iraq, that was responsible for collecting and recording the traditions that form the primary source material for the history of the Umayyad period. In reconstructing this history, therefore, it is necessary to rely mainly on sources, such as the histories of Tabari and Baladhuri, that were written in the Abbasid court at Baghdad.

Modern Arab nationalism regards the period of the Umayyads as part of the Arab Golden Age which it sought to emulate and restore. This is particularly true of Syrian nationalists and the present-day state of Syria, centered like that of the Umayyads on Damascus. White, one of the four Pan-Arab colors which appear in various combinations on the flags of most Arab countries, is considered as representing the Umayyads.

Theological disputes concerning the Ummayads

Sunni opinions

Sunni opinions of the Umayyad dynasty after Muawiyah are typically dim, viewing many of the rulers as sinners and the cause of great tribulation in the Ummah. For example, in the section concerning Quran 60:17 in the exegesis by al-Suyuti entitled Dur al-Manthur, the author writes that there exist traditions which describe the Umayyads as "the cursed tree". There are some exceptions to this -- Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz is commonly praised as one of the greatest Muslim rulers after the four Rightly Guided Caliphs.

Shi'a opinions

The negative view of the Umayyads of Shiites is briefly expressed in the Shi'a book "Sulh al-Hasan" According to some sources Ali described them as the worst Fitna.

Bahá'í standpoint

In Some Answered Questions, `Abdu'l-Bahá asserts that the Umayyad dynasty was the "great red dragon, having seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads" referred to in the Book of Revelation and that the Umayyads "rose against the religion of Muhammad and against the reality of Ali".

Leaders

Political

Umayyad Caliphs at Damascus

• Muawiyah I ibn Abi Sufyan, 661–680
• Yazid I ibn Muawiyah, 680–683
• Muawiyah II ibn Yazid, 683–684
• Marwan I ibn al-Ḥakam, 684–685
• Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, 685–705
• al-Walid I ibn Abd al-Malik, 705–715
• Suleiman ibn Abd al-Malik, 715–717
• Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, 717–720
• Yazid II ibn Abd al-Malik, 720–724
• Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, 724–743
• al-Walid II ibn Yazid II, 743–744
• Yazid III ibn al-Walid, 744
• Ibrahim ibn al-Walid, 744
• Marwan II ibn Muhammad (ruled from Harran in the Jazira) 744–750

Umayyad Emirs of Córdoba

• Abd ar-Rahman I, 756–788
• Hisham I, 788–796
• al-Hakam I, 796–822
• Abd ar-Rahman II, 822–852
• Muhammad I of Córdoba, 852-886
• Al-Mundhir, 886 - 888
• Abdallah ibn Muhammad, 888–912
• Abd ar-Rahman III, 912–929

Umayyad Caliphs at Córdoba

• Abd ar-Rahman III, as caliph, 929–961
• Al-Hakam II, 961–976
• Hisham II, 976–1008
• Mohammed II, 1008–1009
• Suleiman, 1009–1010
• Hisham II, restored, 1010–1012
• Suleiman, restored, 1012–1017
• Abd ar-Rahman IV, 1021–1022
• Abd ar-Rahman V, 1022–1023
• Muhammad III, 1023–1024
• Hisham III, 1027–1031

Religious

Umayyad Sahaba

• Marwan ibn al-Hakam
• Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan
• Abu Sufiyan ibn Harb

Umayyad Taba'een

• Yazid bin Muawiyah
• Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan

See also

• Umayya ibn Abd Shams
• History of Islam
• Caliphate

References

• Previté-Orton, C. W (1971). The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Further reading

• A. Bewley, Mu'awiya, Restorer of the Islamic Faith (London, 2002)
• P. Crone, Slaves on horses (Cambridge, 1980).
• P. Crone and M.A. Cook, Hagarism (Cambridge, 1977).
• F.M. Donner, The early Islamic conquests (Princeton, 1981).
• G.R. Hawting, The first dynasty of Islam: the Umayyad caliphate, AD 661-750 (London, 2000).
• H. Kennedy, The Prophet and the age of the caliphates: the Islamic Near East from the sixth to the eleventh century (London, 1986).
• J. Wellhausen, The Arab Kingdom and its fall (London, 2000).

External links

• Ummayad Lineage Chart
• Ummayads
• Umayyads - First caliphate dynasty