Assyrian people: Difference between revisions

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**adherents of the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] & [[Ancient Church of the East]], also called '''East Syrians''' or '''Assyrians'''.
**adherents of the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] & [[Ancient Church of the East]], also called '''East Syrians''' or '''Assyrians'''.
**adherents of the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]], also called '''Chaldeans''' or '''Chaldo-Assyrians'''.
**adherents of the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]], also called '''Chaldeans''' or '''Chaldo-Assyrians'''.
*adherents of the [[West Syrian Rite]], also called '''Syriacs''', and formerly also '''Jacobites'''.
*adherents of the [[West Syrian Rite]], formerly also called '''Jacobites'''.
**adherents of the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], also called '''West Syrians''' or '''Syriacs'''
**adherents of the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], also called '''West Syrians''', '''West Assyrians''' or '''Syriacs'''
**adherents of the [[Syriac Catholic Church]], also called '''West Syrians''' or '''Syriacs'''
**adherents of the [[Syriac Catholic Church]], also called '''West Syrians''', '''West Assyrians''' or '''Syriacs'''


A small minority of Assyrians accepted the [[Protestant Reformation]] in the 20th century, possibly due to British influences, and is now organized in the [[Assyrian Evangelical Church]], the [[Assyrian Pentecostal Church]] and other Protestant Assyrian groups.
A small minority of Assyrians accepted the [[Protestant Reformation]] in the 20th century, possibly due to British influences, and is now organized in the [[Assyrian Evangelical Church]], the [[Assyrian Pentecostal Church]] and other Protestant Assyrian groups.

Revision as of 02:37, 21 February 2009

"Assyrian people" redirects here. For other uses, see Assyrian people (disambiguation).

[neutrality is disputed]

Template:Assyrian/Syriac infobox The Assyrian/Chaldean/Syriac people (known as Assyrians, Assyrian Christians, Syriacs, Syrian Christians, Syriac Christians, Aramaeans,[dubious – discuss] Suroye/Suryoye[1] ܐ݇܏ܣܘܪܝܐ, Āṯūrāyē/Oṯhūroyē ܐܬܘܪܝܐ and other variants, see names of Syriac Christians) are an ethnic group whose origins lie in the Fertile Crescent, their homeland today being divided between Northern Iraq, Syria, Western Iran, and Turkey's Southeastern Anatolia.[2] Many have migrated to the Caucasus, North America and Europe during the past century. The major sub-ethnic division is between an Eastern group ("Syrian Nestorians" and "Chaldean Christians") and a Western one ("Syrian Jacobites").

There are diaspora and refugee communities in Europe, the former Soviet Union, North America, Australia, New Zealand, Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon. Emigration was triggered by such events as the Assyrian genocide in the wake of the First World War and the breakup of the Ottoman Empire, the Simele massacre in Iraq (1933) and the Islamic revolution in Iran (1979).[3]

The latest event to affect the Assyrian community is the war in Iraq; of the one million or more Iraqis reported by the United Nations to have fled, nearly forty percent (40%) are Assyrian, although Assyrians comprise only three percent of the Iraqi population.[4][5][6]

The Syrian Malabar Nasrani, also known as the Saint Thomas Christians of Malabar, are another Syriac Christian group, but are ethnically distinct from the Assyrian/Syriac people of the Middle East.

History

Main article: History of the Assyrian/Chaldean/Syriac people

The Assyrian people trace their origins to the population of the pre-Islamic Mesopotamia, since the time of the Akkadian Empire. It was not until the Neo-Assyrian Empire that the Assyrians began to speak Aramaic, the language of the Aramaean tribes who had been assimilated into the Assyrian empire in the 8th century BC.[7] due in part to the mass relocations enforced by Assyrian kings of the Neo-Assyrian period.[8]

They were Christianized in the 1st to 3rd centuries,[9] in Roman Syria and Persian Assyria.[10] They were divided by the Nestorian Schism in the 5th century, and from the 8th century, they became a religious minority following the Islamic conquest of Mesopotamia.

Celebration at a Syriac Orthodox monastery in Mosul, Ottoman Syria, early 20th century.

Culturally and linguistically distinct from, although quite influenced by, their neighbours in the Middle East - the Arabs, Persians, Kurds, Turks, and Armenians - the Assyrians have endured much hardship throughout their recent history as a result of religious and ethnic persecution.[11][12]

The most significant recent persecution against the Assyrian population was the Assyrian genocide, which occurred at the onset of the First World War. This led to a large-scale resettlement of the Assyrian people in countries such as Syria, Iran and Iraq, as well as other neighbouring countries in and around the Middle East.[13][14][15][16]

Iraq War

Main article: Assyrians in Post-Saddam Iraq

Since the Iraq War starting in 2003, there has been a massive persecution of Assyrians in Iraq, mostly by Islamic extremists. In places like Dora, an estimated 90% of Iraq's Assyrian population has either fled or been murdered.

The Assyrian people are and have been the indigenous people of the land framed by the Tigris and Euphrates.[17] Incidents such as the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons and the Pope Benedict XVI Islam controversy have hit the Assyrian communities directly. Since the start of the Iraq war, there have been at least 46 churches and monasteries bombed. [18]

Demographics

Homeland

The Assyrians/Syriacs are considered to be one of the indigenous people in the Middle East. Their homeland was thought to be located in the area around the Tigris and Euphrates. There is a significant Assyrian/Syriac population in Syria where an estimated 877,000 Assyrians/Syriacs live. In Tur Abdin, known as the homeland for Syriacs, there are only 3,000 left,[19] and an estimated 15,000 in all of Turkey.[20] After the 1915 Assyrian genocide many Assyrians/Syriacs also fled into Lebanon, Jordan, Iran, Iraq and into the Western world.

the Euphrates-Tigris watershed

The Assyrian/Syriac people can be divided along geographic, linguistic, and denominational lines, the three main groups being:

Diaspora

Ever since the Assyrian Genocide many Assyrians have fled their homelands for a more safe and comfortable life in the west. Since the beginning of the 20th century the Assyrian population in the Middle East has decreased dramatically. As of today there are more Assyrians in the Western World then there are in their homeland.

A total of 550,000 Assyrians are currently living in Europe.[21] Large Assyrian/syriac diaspora communities can be found in Germany, Sweden, the USA, and Australia. The largest Assyrian/syriac diaspora communities are those of Södertälje, Chicago, and Detroit.

Identity

Further information: Assyrianism, Aramaeanism, Arabization, and Turkification
Assyrian flag (since 1968)[22]
File:Chaldean flag.jpg
Chaldean flag (since 1997)
Syriac flag [23]

Assyrians are divided among several churches (see below). They speak and many can read and write modern Assyrian, a dialect of Neo-Aramaic.[24]

In certain areas of the Assyrian homeland, identity within a community depends on a person's village of origin (see List of Assyrian villages) or Christian denomination, for instance Chaldean Catholic.[25]

Today, Assyrians and other minority ethnic groups in the Middle East, feel pressure to identify as "Arabs",[26][27] and "Kurds".[28] Assyrians in Syria are disappearing as an ethnic group, due to assimilation.[29]

Neo-Aramaic (sometimes also called "Modern Assyrian"[30]) exhibits remarkably conservative features compared with Imperial Aramaic,[31] and the earliest European visitors to northern Mesopotamia in modern times encountered a people called "Assyrians" and men with ancient Assyrian names such as Sargon and Sennacherib.[32][33][34] The Assyrians manifested a remarkable degree of linguistic, religious, and cultural continuity from the time of the ancient Greeks, Persians, and Parthians through periods of medieval Byzantine, Arab, Persian, and Ottoman rule.[35]

Assyrian nationalism emphatically connects Modern Assyrians to the population of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. A historical basis of this sentiment has been disputed by a few early historians,[36] but receives support from modern Assyriologists like H.W.F. Saggs, Robert D. Biggs and Simo Parpola,[37][38][39] and Iranologists like Richard Nelson Frye.[10][40]

Self-designation

Main article: Names of Syriac Christians

The various communities of Syriac Christians and speakers of Neo-Aramaic advocate different terms for ethnic self-designation:

The terminological problem goes back to colonial times, but it became more acute in 1946, when with the independence of Syria, the adjective Syrian referred to an independent state. The controversy isn't restricted to exonyms like English "Assyrian" vs. "Aramaean", but also applies to self-designation in Neo-Aramaic, the "Aramaean" faction endorses both Sūryāyē ܣܘܪܝܝܐ and Ārāmayē ܐܪܡܝܐ, while the "Assyrian" faction insists on Āṯūrāyē ܐܬܘܪܝܐ but also accepts Sūryāyē ܣܘܪܝܝܐ.

Alqosh, located in the midst of Assyrian contemporary civilization.

The question of ethnic identity and self-designation is sometimes connected to the scholarly debate on the etymology of "Syria". The question has a long history of academic controversy, but mainstream opinion currently favours that Syria is indeed ultimately derived from the Assyrian term Aššūrāyu.[42][40][43]

Rudolf Macuch points out that the Eastern Neo-Aramaic press initially used the term "Syrian" (suryêta) and only much later, with the rise of nationalism, switched to "Assyrian" (atorêta).[44] According to Tsereteli, however, a Georgian equivalent of "Assyrians" appears in ancient Georgian and Armenian documents.[45] This correlates with the theory of the nations to the East of Mesopotamia knew the group as Assyrians, while to the West, beginning with Greek influence, the group was known as Syrians.

Culture

Assyrian child dressed in traditional clothes.
Main article: Assyrian culture

Assyrian culture is largely influenced by religion.[46] The language is tied to the church as well for it uses the Syriac language in liturgy.[clarification needed] Festivals occur during religious holidays such as Easter and Christmas. There are also secular holidays such as Akitu (the Assyrian New Year).[47]

People often greet and bid relatives farewell with a kiss on each cheek and by saying "Peace be upon you." Others are greeted with a handshake with the right hand only; according to Middle Eastern customs, the left hand is associated with evil. Similarly, shoes may not be left facing up, one may not have their feet facing anyone directly, whistling at night is thought to waken evil spirits, etc.[48]

There are many Assyrian customs that are common in other Middle Eastern cultures. A parent will often place an eye pendant on their baby to prevent "an evil eye being cast upon it".[49] Spitting on anyone or their belongings is seen as a grave insult.

There are Assyrians that are not very religious yet they may be very nationalistic. Assyrians are proud of their heritage, their Christianity, and of speaking the language of Christ. Children are often given Christian or Assyrian names such as Ashur, Sargon, Shamiram, Nineveh, Ninos, Nimrod, etc. Baptism and First Communion are heavily celebrated events similar to how a Bris and a Bar Mitzvah are in Judaism. When an Assyrian person dies, three days after they are buried they gather to celebrate them rising to heaven (as did Jesus), after seven days they again gather to commemorate their passing. A close family member wears only black clothes for forty days and forty nights, or sometimes one year, as a sign of respect.[50]

Language

Main article: Neo-Aramaic languages
Syriac alphabet
(200 BCE–present)
ܐ    ܒ    ܓ    ܕ    ܗ    ܘ
ܙ    ܚ    ܛ    ܝ    ܟܟ    ܠ
ܡܡ    ܢܢ    ܣ    ܥ    ܦ
ܨ    ܩ    ܪ    ܫ    ܬ

The ancient Assyrian tongue was referred to as the Akkadian language (also called Assyro-Babylonian),[51] an East Semitic language written in cuneiform script. After the Assyrian empire expanded westward, Aramaic gradually became the dominant tongue.[51] Around 1000-800 BC, Assyrians adopted the Aramaic alphabet and language and it became the lingua franca throughout the Mesopotamian area. It was the language of commerce, trade and communication and became the vernacular language of Assyria.[52] Akkadian-influenced Aramaic was declared an auxiliary language by King Ashur-nirari V in 752 BC[53] and became a lingua franca under Achaemenid Dynasty of Persia.[54] By the first century AD, Akkadian was extinct. Modern Syriac, however, shares some of its vocabulary, as both are Semitic languages,[55] and a result of vocabulary remnants from the Akkadian language still being preserved in the modern Syriac language.[56]

Most Assyrians speak a modern form of Syriac,[57] an Eastern Aramaic language whose dialects include Chaldean and Turoyo as well as Assyrian. All are classified as Neo-Aramaic languages and are written using Syriac script, a derivative of the ancient Aramaic script. Assyrians also may speak one or more languages of their country of residence.

To the native speaker, "Syriac" is usually called Soureth or Suryoyo. A wide variety of dialects exist, including Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, and Turoyo. Being stateless, Assyrians also learn the language or languages of their adopted country, usually Arabic, Armenian, Persian or Turkish. In northern Iraq and western Iran, Kurdish is widely spoken.

Recent archaeological evidence includes a statue from Syria with Assyrian and Aramaic inscriptions.[58] It is the oldest known Aramaic text.

Religion

Main article: Syriac Christianity

Assyrians belong to various Christian denominations, some of which are the Church of the East, with an estimated 300,000 members [59], the Chaldean Catholic Church, with about 900,000 members [60], and the Syriac Orthodox Church (ʿIdto Suryoyto Triṣaṯ Šuḇḥo) which has 100,000 to 4,000,000 members around the world[61], and various Protestant churches. Mar Dinkha IV, who resides in Chicago Illinois, and Mar Addai II, whose headquarters are in Baghdad, are Patriarchs of the Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East respectively. Mar Emmanuel III Cardinal Delly, the Patriarch of the Chaldean Catholic Church, has become the first Patriarch to have been elevated to Cardinal when he joined the college of cardinals in November 2007. The current Patriarch of the Syriac Orthodox Church is Ignatius Zakka I Iwas. The Syriac Orthodox Church's headquarters are located in Damascus.

Nearly all Assyrians became Christians during the first century AD,[37] Many Assyrians are able to trace their Christian ancestry back to the lifetime of Jesus.[62] Jesus spoke of "Men of Nineveh", repenting from their old sins; this refers to when the prophet Jonah visited the Assyrian capital Nineveh:

The men of Nineveh shall rise up in the judgment with this generation, and shall condemn it: for they repented at the preaching of Jonas; and, behold, a greater than Jonas is here.

— Luke 11:32, King James Version

Many members of the following churches consider themselves Assyrian/Syriac. Ethnic identities are deeply intertwined with religion, a legacy of the Ottoman Millet system. The group is traditionally characterized as adhering to various churches of Syriac Christianity and speaking Neo-Aramaic languages. It is subdivided into:

A small minority of Assyrians accepted the Protestant Reformation in the 20th century, possibly due to British influences, and is now organized in the Assyrian Evangelical Church, the Assyrian Pentecostal Church and other Protestant Assyrian groups.

Music

Assyrian/Syriacs playing Zoorna and Dahola
Main articles: Assyrian/Syriac folk music and Syriac sacral music

Zoorna (basic flute) and dahola (large two-sided drum) became the most common musical instruments for tribal music. Some well known Assyrian/Syriac singers in modern times are Habib Mousa, Josef Özer, Jacob Dinc, Janan Sawa and Linda George.

The first International Aramaic Music Festival was held in Lebanon from 1 August until 4 August, 2008 for Assyrian/Syriac people internationally.[63]

Festivals

Assyrian/Syriac festivals tend to be closely associated with their Christian faith, of which Easter is the most prominent of the celebrations. Assyrian/Syriac members of the Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church and Syriac Catholic Church follow the Gregorian calendar and as a result celebrate Easter on a Sunday between March 22 and April 25 inclusively.[64] While Assyrian/Syriac members of the Syriac Orthodox Church and Ancient Church of the East celebrate Easter on a Sunday between April 4 and May 8 inclusively on the Gregorian calendar (March 22 and April 25 on the Julian calender). During Lent Assyrian/Syriacs are encouraged to fast for 50 days from meat and any other foods which are animal based.

Of all the Assyrian/Syriac festivals, Akitu (Assyrian New Year) remains one event still followed from their pre-Christian celebrations. The festival is called Kha B'nissan (first of Spring) in Assyrian Neo-Aramaic. [65] Kha B'nissan has become an important festival on the Assyrian/Syriac calender and as many as 50 000 Assyrian/Syriacs parade through the streets of Dohuk (Nuhadra), 10 000 in Australia, and similar celebrations all over the world. [66][67]

Names

Distinctively Assyrian language names are attested into the Sassanid period before they are replaced by Christian names.[68] Biblical names in English/Arabic/Syriac variants are Syriac tradition. Names like Daniel, David, Gabriel, George, Jacob, Josef, Thomas, Peter, James, John, Elias and Maria are of clear religious origin. Names of Arabic origin like Yasmine, Tariq, Charbel[69] and Armenian origin like Arman, Bedros, and Aram[70][71][72][73] are also used.

French and Italian names are also given; Jean, Pierre, Lawrence. Names of Turkish and Arab origin are also prominent, for instance, in Turkey (ex. Tur Abdin, Midyat) have predominantly Turkish surnames.

The usage of names dating back to Assyrian and Akkadian Empire such as Sargon, Ashur, Ramsen, Ninos, Sanharib, Ninurta are also used by Assyrian/Syriacs.[74]

Genetics

Further information: Genetic history of the Near East

Late 20th century DNA analysis conducted by Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi and Alberto Piazza, "shows that Assyrians have a distinct genetic profile that distinguishes their population from any other population."[75] Genetic analysis of the Assyrians of Persia demonstrated that they were "closed" with little "intermixture" with the Muslim Persian population and that an individual Assyrian's genetic makeup is relatively close to that of the Assyrian population as a whole.[76] Cavalli-Sforza et al. state in addition, "[T]he Assyrians are a fairly homogeneous group of people, believed to originate from the land of old Assyria in northern Iraq", and "they are Christians and are possibly bona fide descendants of their namesakes."[77] Regarding the homogeneity of the Assyrian people, according to a recent study by Kevin MacDonald, the Assyrians tend to encourage endogamy.[2] "The genetic data are compatible with historical data that religion played a major role in maintaining the Assyrian population's separate identity during the Christian era".[75]

See also

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References

  1. ^ an anglicization of the Aramaic name, also as Suraye/Suryaye; e.g. in Al-Ali et al., New Approaches to Migration? (Routledge 2002, p. 20) used synonymously with "Syriac Christians".
  2. ^ a b *MacDonald, Kevin (2004-07-29). "Socialization for Ingroup Identity among Assyrians in the United States". Paper presented at a symposium on socialization for ingroup identity at the meetings of the International Society for Human Ethology, Ghent Belgium. Based on interviews with community informants, this paper explores socialization for ingroup identity and endogamy among Assyrians in the United States. The Assyrians have lived as a linguistic, political, religious, and ethnic minority in Iran, Iraq, and Turkey since the fall of the Assyrian Empire in 612 B.C. Practices that maintain ethnic continuity in the United States include language and residential patterns, ethnically based Christian churches characterized by unique holidays and rites, and culturally specific practices related to life-cycle events and food preparation. The interviews probe parental attitudes and practices related to ethnic identity and encouragement of endogamy. Results are presently being analyzed. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |quotes= and |month= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  3. ^ Dr. Eden Naby. "Documenting The Crisis In The Assyrian Iranian Community". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessdaymonth=, |month=, |accessyear=, |accessmonthday=, and |coauthors= (help)
  4. ^ "Assyrian Christians 'Most Vulnerable Population' in Iraq". The Christian Post. Retrieved 2006-12-05. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  5. ^ "Iraq's Christian community, fights for its survival". Christian World News. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  6. ^ "U.S. Gov't Watchdog Urges Protection for Iraq's Assyrian Christians". The Christian Post. Retrieved 2007-12-31. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  7. ^ Parpola, National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times. pp. 8-9
  8. ^ Hooker, Richard. "Mesopotamia, the Assyrians, 1170-612, The Assyrian Period". Washington State University. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  9. ^ Parpola, Simo (2004). "National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times" (PDF). Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies. Vol. 18 (No. 2). JAAS: pp. 21. From the third century AD on, the Assyrians embraced Christianity in increasing numbers {{cite journal}}: |issue= has extra text (help); |pages= has extra text (help); |volume= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laysource=, |laydate=, |month=, |laysummary=, and |quotes= (help)
  10. ^ a b Frye, Richard N. (1992). "Assyria and Syria: Synonyms" (HTML). PhD., Harvard University. Journal of Near Eastern Studies. The ancient Greek historian, Herodotus, wrote that the Greeks called the Assyrians, by the name Syrian, dropping the A. And that's the first instance we know of, of the distinction in the name, of the same people. Then the Romans, when they conquered the western part of the former Assyrian Empire, they gave the name Syria, to the province, they created, which is today Damascus and Aleppo. So, that is the distinction between Syria, and Assyria. They are the same people, of course. And the ancient Assyrian empire, was the first real, empire in history. What do I mean, it had many different peoples included in the empire, all speaking Aramaic, and becoming what may be called, "Assyrian citizens." That was the first time in history, that we have this. For example, Elamite musicians, were brought to Nineveh, and they were 'made Assyrians' which means, that Assyria, was more than a small country, it was the empire, the whole Fertile Crescent. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  11. ^ Parpola, National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times, pp. 21
  12. ^ "Assyrians". World Culture Encyclopedia.
  13. ^ The Plight of Religious Minorities: Can Religious Pluralism Survive? - Page 51 by United States Congress
  14. ^ The Armenian Genocide: Wartime Radicalization Or Premeditated Continuum - Page 272 edited by Richard Hovannisian
  15. ^ Not Even My Name: A True Story - Page 131 by Thea Halo
  16. ^ The Political Dictionary of Modern Middle East by Agnes G. Korbani
  17. ^ "Vicar: Dire Times For Iraq's Christians". CBS News. Retrieved 2007-12-04. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  18. ^ "Church Bombings in Iraq Since 2004". Aina.org. Retrieved 2008-11-16.
  19. ^ *SOC News report , He was documenting life in the Tur Abdin, where about 3,000 members of the Aramean minority still live.'
  20. ^ Statement on Assyrians/Syriacs in Turkey/Iraq
  21. ^ http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=70134
  22. ^ "Assyria". Crwflags.com. Retrieved 2008-11-16.
  23. ^ "Syriac-Aramaic People (Syria)". Crwflags.com. Retrieved 2008-11-16.
  24. ^ Florian Coulmas, The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems 23 (1996)
  25. ^ Note on the Modern Assyrians
  26. ^ Iraqi Assyrians: A Barometer of Pluralism
  27. ^ "Arab American Institute Still Deliberately Claiming Assyrians Are Arabs". Aina.org. Retrieved 2008-11-16.
  28. ^ "In Court, Saddam Criticizes Kurdish Treatment of Assyrians". Aina.org. Retrieved 2008-11-16.
  29. ^ Britannica Online: Syria :: Ethnic groups
  30. ^ "Assyrians". so called by e.g. Andrew Dalby, Dictionary of Languages: The definitive reference to more than 400 languages (2004): 32; Dr. J. F. Coakley, "The First Modern Assyrian Printed Book", Journal of the Assyrian Academic Society, vol. 9 (1995), Eden Naby & Michael E. Hopper eds., The Assyrian Experience: Sources for the study of the 19th and 20th centuries: from the holdings of the Harvard University Libraries (with a selected bibliography) (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard College Library, 1999)
  31. ^ J.G. Browne, "The Assyrians", Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 85 (1937)
  32. ^ George Percy Badger, The Christians of Assyria Commonly Called Nestorians (London: W.H. Bartlett, 1869)
  33. ^ J.F. Coakley, The Church of the East and the Church of England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), pp. 5, 89, 99, 149, 366–67, 382, 411
  34. ^ Michael D. Coogan, ed., The Oxford History of the Biblical World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 279
  35. ^ "Parthia", in The Cambridge Ancient History: The Roman Republic, 2nd ed., vol. 3, pt. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 597–98; Patricia Crone and Michael Cook, Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 55–60; "Ashurbanipal and the Fall of Assyria", in The Cambridge Ancient History: The Assyrian Empire, vol. 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1954), 130–31; A.T. Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), 168; Albert Hourani, Minorities in the Arab World (London: Oxford University Press, 1947), 99; Aubrey Vine, The Nestorian Churches (London: Independent Press, 1937); Flavius Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews, trans. William Whiston (1737), bk. 13, ch. 6, http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/ant-13.htm; Simo Parpola, "National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in the Post-Empire Times", Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies 18, 2 (2004): 16–17; Simo Parpola, "Assyrians after Assyria", Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies 12, 2 (2000): 1–13; R.N. Frye, "A Postscript to My Article [Assyria and Syria: Synonyms]", Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies 11 (1997): 35–36; R.N. Frye, "Assyria and Syria: Synonyms", Journal of the Near East Society 51 (1992): 281–85; Michael G. Morony, Iraq after the Muslim Conquest (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1984), 336, 345; J.G. Browne, "The Assyrians", Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 85 (1937)
  36. ^ Smith, Sidney (1925). "Early History of Assyria to 1000 B.C." The disappearance of the Assyrian people will always remain a unique and striking phenomenon in ancient history. Other, similar kingdoms and empires have indeed passed away but the people have lived on... No other land seems to have been sacked and pillaged so completely as was Assyria. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  37. ^ a b Saggs, The Might That Was Assyria, pp. 290, “The destruction of the Assyrian empire did not wipe out its population. They were predominantly peasant farmers, and since Assyria contains some of the best wheat land in the Near East, descendants of the Assyrian peasants would, as opportunity permitted, build new villages over the old cities and carry on with agricultural life, remembering traditions of the former cities. After seven or eight centuries and various vicissitudes, these people became Christians.”
  38. ^ Biggs, Robert (2005). "My Career in Assyriology and Near Eastern Archaeology" (PDF). Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies. Vol. 19 (No. 1). {{cite journal}}: |issue= has extra text (help); |volume= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month=, |laydate=, |laysource=, |quotes=, and |laysummary= (help) pp. 10, “Especially in view of the very early establishment of Christianity in Assyria and its continuity to the present and the continuity of the population, I think there is every likelihood that ancient Assyrians are among the ancestors of modern Assyrians of the area.”
  39. ^ Parpola, National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times, pp. 22
  40. ^ a b Frye, R. N. (1992). "Assyria and Syria: Synonyms" (PDF). Journal of Near Eastern Studies. Vol. 51 (No. 4): 281–285. {{cite journal}}: |issue= has extra text (help); |volume= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laydate=, |laysource=, |quotes=, and |laysummary= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) pp. 281-285
  41. ^ "Eastern Churches", Catholic Encyclopedia, see "Eastern Syrians" and "Western Syrians" respectively. Modern terminology within the group is Western Assyrians and Eastern Assyrians respectively, while those who reject the Assyrian identity opt for Syriacs rather than Assyrian or Syrian.
  42. ^ Rollinger, Robert (2006). "The terms "Assyria" and "Syria" again" (PDF). Journal of Near Eastern Studies. Vol. 65 (No. 4): 283–287. {{cite journal}}: |issue= has extra text (help); |volume= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month=, |laydate=, |laysource=, |quotes=, and |laysummary= (help)
  43. ^ Parpola, National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times, pp. 16
  44. ^ Rudolf Macuch, Geschichte der spät- und neusyrischen Literatur, New York: de Gruyter, 1976.
  45. ^ Tsereteli, Sovremennyj assirijskij jazyk, Moscow: Nauka, 1964.
  46. ^ http://www.aina.org/articles/chicago.pdf
  47. ^ The Assyrian New Year
  48. ^ Chamberlain, AF. "Notes on Some Aspects of the Folk-Psychology of Night". American Journal of Psychology, 1908 - JSTOR.
  49. ^ Gansell, AR. FROM MESOPOTAMIA TO MODERN SYRIA: ETHNOARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON FEMALE ADORNMENT DURING RITES. Ancient Near Eastern Art in Context. 2007 - Brill Academic Publishers.
  50. ^ Chambers, C. End-of-Life Rituals. 2006. Cherrytree Books. pp 76-81.
  51. ^ a b Britannica Online: Akkadian language
  52. ^ "Microsoft Word - PeshittaNewTestament.doc" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-11-16.
  53. ^ Bae, C. Aramaic as a Lingua Franca During the Persian Empire (538-333 BCE). Journal of Universal Language. March 2004, 1-20.
  54. ^ Aramaic Documents of the Fifth Century B. C. by G. R. Driver
  55. ^ Akkadian Words in Modern Assyrian
  56. ^ Kaufman, Stephen A. (1974),The Akkadian influences on Aramaic. University of Chicago Press
  57. ^ The British Survey, By British Society for International Understanding, 1968, page 3
  58. ^ A Statue from Syria with Assyrian and Aramaic Inscriptions
  59. ^ [1]
  60. ^ [J. Martin Bailey, Betty Jane Bailey, Who Are the Christians in the Middle East? p. 163: "more than two thirds" out of "nearly a million" Christians in Iraq.]
  61. ^ Adherents.com
  62. ^ "The Religion Report - 30 May 2007 - Christian Minorities in the Islamic Middle East : Rosie Malek-Yonan on the Assyrians". Abc.net.au. Retrieved 2008-11-16.
  63. ^ ankawa.com » Blog Archive » The First Aramaic International Music Festival in the Open Air
  64. ^ The Date of Easter. Article from United States Naval Observatory (March 27, 2007).
  65. ^ http://www.aina.org/articles/akituandnuroz.pdf
  66. ^ http://www.aina.org/ata/20070403123130.htm
  67. ^ http://www.aina.org/ata/20080402003130.htm
  68. ^ Parpola, Simo (1999). "Assyrians after Assyria". Assyriologist. Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies, Vol. XIII No. 2,. Distinctively Assyrians names are also found in later Aramaic and Greek texts from Assur, Hatra, Dura-Europus and Palmyra, and continue to be attested until the beginning of the Sasanian period. These names are recognizable from the Assyrian divine names invoked in them; but whereas earlier the other name elements were predominantly Akkadian, they now are exclusively Aramaic. This coupled with the Aramaic script and language of the texts shows that the Assyrians of these later times no longer spoke Akkadian as their mother tongue. ... It is also worth pointing out that many of the Aramaic names occurring in the post-empire inscriptions and graffiti from Assur are already attested in imperial texts from the same site that are 800 years older. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  69. ^ http://www.anamezing.com/namedetail-charbel_8780.html
  70. ^ http://www.babynames.com/name/ARAM
  71. ^ http://www.weddingvendors.com/baby-names/meaning/aram/
  72. ^ http://feefhs.org/am/am-male.html
  73. ^ http://armenian.name/index.php?a=list&d=1&p=5
  74. ^ Minorities in the Middle East: A History of Struggle and Self-expression" By Mordechai Nisan. Page 181.[unreliable source?]
  75. ^ a b Dr. Joel J. Elias, Emeritus, University of California, The Genetics of Modern Assyrians and their Relationship to Other People of the Middle East
  76. ^ M.T. Akbari, Sunder S. Papiha, D.F. Roberts, and Daryoush D. Farhud, ‘‘Genetic Differentiation among Iranian Christian Communities,’’ American Journal of Human Genetics 38 (1986): 84–98
  77. ^ Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi, Alberto Piazza, The History and Geography of Human Genes, p. 243 [2]

Further reading

  • Ephrem I Barsaum, Ignatius (2006). De spridda pärlorna - En historia om syriansk litteratur och vetenskap (in Swedish). Sweden: Anastasis Media AB. ISBN 9197575143. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessyear=, |origmonth=, |accessmonth=, |month=, |chapterurl=, |origdate=, and |coauthors= (help); External link in |ref= (help)
  • Gaunt, David (2006). Massacres, resistance, protectors: Muslim-Christian relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I. Gorgias Press LLC. ISBN 1593333013. OCLC 85766950. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessdaymonth=, |month=, |accessyear=, and |accessmonthday= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Aphram I Barsoum, Patriarch (1943). The Scattered Pearls. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessyear=, |origmonth=, |accessmonth=, |month=, |chapterurl=, |origdate=, and |coauthors= (help)
  • De Courtis, Sėbastien (2004). The Forgotten Genocide: Eastern Christians, the Last Arameans (1st Gorgias Press ed ed.). Piscataway, NJ : Gorgias Press. ISBN 1593330774 9781593330774. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); Check |isbn= value: length (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessyear=, |origmonth=, |accessmonth=, |month=, |chapterurl=, |origdate=, and |coauthors= (help); External link in |ref= (help)
  • Henrich, Joseph (2007). Why Humans Cooperate: A Cultural and Evolutionary Explanation. OUP. ISBN 0195314239. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Taylor, David (2002). Vol. I: The Ancient Aramaic Heritage. Trans World Film. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessyear=, |origmonth=, |accessmonth=, |chapterurl=, and |origdate= (help); External link in |ref= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Taylor, David (2002). Vol. II: The Heirs of the Ancient Aramaic Heritage. Trans World Film. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessyear=, |origmonth=, |accessmonth=, |chapterurl=, and |origdate= (help); External link in |ref= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Taylor, David (2002). Vol. III: At the Turn of the Third Millennium; The Syrian Orthodox Witness. Trans World Film. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessyear=, |origmonth=, |accessmonth=, |chapterurl=, and |origdate= (help); External link in |ref= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Hollerweger, Hans (1999). Tur Abdin - A Homeland of Ancient Syro-Aramaean Culture (in English, German, and Turkish). Österreich. ISBN 3-9501039-0-2. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessyear=, |origmonth=, |accessmonth=, |month=, |chapterurl=, |origdate=, and |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

External links

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