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Uto-Aztecan languages

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Uto-Aztecan
Geographic
distribution		Western United States, Mexico
Linguistic classificationOne of the world's primary language families
Proto-languageProto-Uto-Aztecan
Subdivisions
Language codes
ISO 639-5azc
Glottologutoa1244
Pre-contact distribution of Northern Uto-Aztecan languages (note: this map does not show the total distribution in Mexico).

Uto-Aztecan or Uto-Aztekan /ˈjuːtoʊ.æzˈtɛkən/ is a Native American language family consisting of over 30 languages. Uto-Aztecan languages are found almost entirely in the Western United States and Mexico. The name of the language family was created to show that it includes both the Ute language of Utah and the Aztecan languages of Mexico.

The Uto-Aztecan language family is one of the largest linguistic families in the Americas in terms of number of speakers, number of languages, and geographic extension.[1] The northernmost Uto-Aztecan language is Shoshoni, which is spoken as far north as Salmon, Idaho, while the southernmost is the Pipil language of El Salvador. Ethnologue gives the total number of languages in the family as 61, and the total number of speakers as 1,900,412.[2] The roughly 1.5 million speakers of Nahuatl languages account for almost four-fifths (78.9%) of these.

The internal classification of the family often divides the family into two branches: a northern branch including all the languages of the US and a Southern branch including all the languages of Mexico, although it is still being discussed whether this is best understood as a genetic classification or as a geographical one.

Below this level of classification the main branches are well accepted: Numic (including languages such as Comanche and Shoshoni); and the Californian languages (formerly known as the Takic group), including Cahuilla and Luiseño, account for most of the Northern languages. Hopi and Tübatulabal are languages outside those groups.

The Southern languages are divided into the Tepiman (including O'odham and Tepehuán); the Tarahumaran languages including Raramuri and Guarijio language; the Cahitan languages (Yaqui and Mayo language), Corachol (including Cora and Huichol) and Nahuan languages.

The homeland of the Uto-Aztecan languages is generally considered to have been in the American Southwest or possibly Northwestern Mexico. Linguistic scholars have discussed the possibility that the language family originated in southern Mexico, within the Mesoamerican language area.

Proto-language and Uto-Aztecan homeland

The Proto-Uto-Aztecan language is the hypothetical common ancestor of the Uto-Aztecan languages. Authorities on the history of the language group have usually placed the Proto-Uto-Aztecan homeland in the border region between the United States and Mexico, namely the upland regions of Arizona and New Mexico and the adjacent areas of the Mexican states of Sonora and Chihuahua, roughly corresponding to the Sonoran Desert and the western part of the Chihuahuan Desert. The proto-language would have been spoken by Mesolithic foragers in Aridoamerica, about 5,000 years ago.

Based on clues to the ecological niche inhabited by the proto-Uto-Aztecans offered reconstructions of the plant related vocabulary, Fowler placed the center of the proto-Uto-Aztecan dialect continuum in Central Arizona with Northern dialects extending into Nevada and the Mojave desert, and Southern dialects extending south through the Tepiman corridor into Mexico.[3] The homeland of the Numic languages has been placed in Southern California near Death Valley, and the homeland of the proposed Southern Uto-Aztecan group has been placed on the coast of Sonora.[4]

A contrary proposal, that suggests the homeland of Proto-Uto-Aztecan to have been much further to the south, was published in 2001 by Jane H. Hill, based on her reconstruction of maize-related vocabulary in Proto-Uto-Aztecan. By her theory, the assumed speakers of Proto-Uto-Aztecan were maize cultivators in Mesoamerica, who gradually moved north, bringing maize cultivation with them, during the period of roughly 4,500 to 3,000 years ago. The geographic diffusion of speakers corresponded to the breakup of linguistic unity.[5][6] This hypothesis has been criticized on several grounds, and it is not generally accepted by Uto-Aztecanists.[7][8][9][10][11] A survey of agriculture-related vocabulary by Merrill (2012) found that the agricultural vocabulary can only be reconstructed for Southern Uto-Aztecan. This supports a conclusion that the Proto-Uto-Aztecan speech community did not practice agriculture, but only adopted it after entering Mesoamerica from the North.[12]

A recent proposal by David L. Shaul presents evidence suggesting contact between proto-Uto-Aztecan and languages of central California such as Esselen and the Yokutsan languages. This leads Shaul to suggest that proto-Uto-Aztecan was spoken in California's Central Valley area, and formed part of an ancient Californian linguistic area.[13]

Geographic distribution

Uto-Aztecan languages are spoken in the North American mountain ranges and adjacent lowlands of the western United States (in the states of Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Utah, California, Nevada, Arizona) and of Mexico (states of Sonora, Chihuahua, Nayarit, Durango, Zacatecas, Jalisco, Michoacán, Guerrero, San Luis Potosí, Hidalgo, Puebla, Veracruz, Morelos, Estado de México, and the Federal District). Classical Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, and its modern relatives are part of the Uto-Aztecan family. The Pipil language, an offshoot of Nahuatl, spread to Central America by a wave of migration from Mexico, and formerly had many speakers there. Now it has gone extinct in Guatemala and Honduras, and it is nearly extinct in western El Salvador, all areas dominated by use of Spanish.

Present-day locations of living Uto-Aztecan languages in Mexico and Mesoamerica

Classification of Uto-Aztecan languages

History of classification

Uto-Aztecan has been accepted by linguists as a language family since the early 1900s, and six subgroups are accepted as valid by all experts: Numic, Takic, Pimic, Taracahitic, Corachol, and Aztecan. This leaves two ungrouped languages—Tübatulabal and Hopi (sometimes termed "isolates within the family"). As to higher-level groupings, disagreement has persisted since the 19th century. Presently scholars also disagree as to where to draw language boundaries within dialect continua.

The similarities among the Uto-Aztecan languages were noted as early as 1859 by J.C.E. Buschmann, but he failed to recognize the genetic affiliation between the Aztecan branch and the rest. He ascribed the similarities between the two groups to diffusion. Brinton added the Aztecan languages to the family in 1891 and coined the term Uto-Aztecan. John Wesley Powell, however, rejected the claim in his own classification of North American indigenous languages (also published in 1891). Powell recognized two language families: "Shoshonean" (encompassing Takic, Numic, Hopi, and Tübatulabal) and "Sonoran" (encompassing Pimic, Taracahitan, and Corachol). In the early 1900s Alfred L. Kroeber filled in the picture of the Shoshonean group,[14] while Edward Sapir proved the unity among Aztecan, "Sonoran", and "Shoshonean".[15][16][17] Sapir's applications of the comparative method to unwritten Native American languages are regarded as groundbreaking.[citation needed] Voegelin, Voegelin & Hale (1962) argued for a three way division of Shoshonean, Sonoran and Aztecan, following Powell.[18]

As of about 2011, there is still debate about whether to accept the proposed basic split between "Northern Uto-Aztecan" and "Southern Uto-Aztecan" languages.[1] Northern-Utoaztecan corresponds to Powell's "Shoshonean", while the latter is all the rest, i.e., Powell's "Sonoran" plus Aztecan. Northern Uto-Aztecan was proposed as a genetic grouping by Jeffrey Heath (1978) based on morphological evidence, and Manaster Ramer (1992) adduced phonological evidence in the form of a sound law. Kaufman (1981) accepted the basic division into Northern and Southern branches as valid. Other scholars have rejected the genealogical unity of either both nodes or the Northern node alone.[19][20][21][22] Miller's argument was statistical, arguing that Northern Uto-Aztecan languages displayed too few cognates to be considered a unit. On the other hands he found the number of cognates among Southern Uto-Aztecan languages to suggest a genetic relation.[21] This position was supported by subsequent lexicostatistic analyses by Cortina-Borja & Valiñas-Coalla (1989) and Cortina-Borja, Stuart-Smith & Valiñas-Coalla (2002). Reviewing the debate, Haugen (2008) considers the evidence in favor of the genetic unity of Northern Uto-Aztecan to be convincing, but remains agnostic on the validity of Southern Uto-Aztecan as a genetic grouping. Hill (2011) also considered the North/South split to be valid based on phonological evidence, confirming both groupings. Merrill (2013) adduced further evidence for the unity of Southern Uto-Aztecan as a valid grouping.

Hill (2011) also rejected the validity of the Takic grouping decomposing it into a Californian areal grouping together with Tubatulabal.

Some classifications have posited a genetic relation between Corachol and Nahuan (e.g. Merrill (2013)). Kaufman recognizes similarities between Corachol and Aztecan, but explains them by diffusion instead of genetic evolution.[23] Most scholars view the breakup of Proto-Uto-Aztecan as a case of the gradual disintegration of a dialect continuum.[24]

Present scheme

Below is a representation of the internal classification of the language family based on Shaul (2014) harvcoltxt error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFShaul2014 (help). The classification reflects the decision to split up the previous Taracahitic and Takic groups, that are no-longer considered to be valid genetic units. Whether the division between Northern and Southern languages is best understood as geographical or phylogenetic is under discussion. The table contains demographic information about number of speakers and their locations based on data from The Ethnologue. The table also contains links to a selected bibliography of grammars, dictionaries on many of the individual languages.(† = extinct)

Genealogical classification of Uto-Aztecan languages
Family Groups Languages Where spoken and approximate number of speakers Works
Uto-Aztecan languages Northern Uto-Aztecan
(possibly an areal grouping) 		Numic Western Numic Paviotso, Bannock, Northern Paiute 700 speakers in California, Oregon, Idaho and Nevada Nichols (1973)
Mono About 40 speakers in California Lamb (1958)
Central Numic
Shoshoni, Goshiute 1000 fluent speakers and 1000 learners in Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, Idaho McLaughlin (2012)
Comanche 100 speakers in Oklahoma Robinson & Armagost (1990)
Timbisha, Panamint 20 speakers in California and Nevada Dayley (1989)
Southern Numic Colorado River dialect chain: Ute, Southern Paiute, Chemehuevi 920 speakers of all dialects, in Colorado, Nevada, California, Utah, Arizona Givón (2011), Press (1979), Sapir (1992)
Kawaiisu 5 speakers in California Zigmond, Booth & Munro (1991)
Californian language area Serran Serrano, Kitanemuk (†) No native speakers currently, but learners of Serrano in Southern California Hill (1967)
Cupan Cahuilla, Cupeño 35 speakers of Cahuilla, no native speakers of Cupeño Seiler (1977), Hill (2005)
Luiseño-Juaneño 5 speakers in Southern California Kroeber & Grace (1960)
Tongva (Gabrielino-Fernandeño) (†) (extinct since ca. 1900) Sta. Catalina Island, Los Angeles, Southern California, ongoing revival efforts Munro & Gabrielino/Tongva Language Committee (2008)
Hopi Hopi 6,800 speakers in northeastern Arizona Hopi Dictionary Project (1998), Jeanne (1978)
Tübatulabal Tübatulabal 5 speakers in Kern County, California Voegelin (1935), Voegelin (1958)
Southern Uto-Aztecan
(possibly an areal grouping) 		Tepiman
Pimic O'odham (Pima-Papago) 14,000 speakers in southern Arizona, US and northern Sonora, Mexico Zepeda (1983)
Pima Bajo (O'ob No'ok) 650 speakers in Chihuahua and Sonora, Mexico Estrada-Fernández (1998)
Tepehuan Northern Tepehuan 6,200 speakers in Chihuahua, Mexico Bascom (1982)
Southern Tepehuan 10,600 speakers in Southeastern Durango Willett (1991)
Tepecano (†) Extinct since 1972, spoken in Northern Jalisco Mason (1916)
Tarahumaran Tarahumara (several varieties) 45,500 speakers of all varieties, all spoken in Chihuahua Caballero (2008)
Upriver Guarijio, Downriver Guarijio 2,840 speakers in Chihuahua and Sonora Miller (1996)
Tubar (†) Spoken in Sinaloa and Sonora Lionnet (1978)
Cahita Yaqui 11,800 in Sonora and Arizona Dedrick & Casad (1999)
Mayo 33,000 in Sinaloa and Sonora Freeze (1989)
Opatan Opata (†) Extinct since approx. 1930. Spoken in Sonora. Shaul (2001)
Eudeve (†) Spoken in Sonora, but extinct since 1940 Lionnet (1986)
Corachol Cora 13,600 speakers in northern Nayarit Casad (1984)
Huichol 17,800 speakers in Nayarit and Jalisco Iturrioz Leza, Ramírez de la Cruz & (2001)
Aztecan Pochutec (†) extinct since 1970s, spoken on the coast of Oaxaca Boas (1917)
Core Nahuan Pipil 20-40 speakers in El Salvador Campbell (1985)
Nahuatl 1,500,000 speakers in Central Mexico Launey (1986), Langacker (1979)

In addition to the above languages for which linguistic evidence exists, it is suspected that among dozens of now extinct, undocumented or poorly known languages of northern Mexico, many were Uto-Aztecan.[25]

Extinct languages

Main article: List of extinct Uto-Aztecan languages
See also: List of extinct languages of North America

A large number of languages known only from brief mentions are thought to have been Uto-Aztecan languages, that became extinct before being documented.[26]

Proto–Uto-Aztecan language

Vowels

Proto-Uto-Aztecan is reconstructed as having an unusual vowel inventory: *i *a *u *o *ɨ. Langacker (1970) demonstrated that the fifth vowel should be reconstructed as *ɨ as opposed to *e—there had been a long-running dispute over the proper reconstruction.[27][28][29]

Consonants

Bilabial Coronal Palatal Velar Labialized
velar		 Glottal
Stop *p *t *k *kʷ *ʔ
Affricate *ts
Fricative *s *h
Nasal *m *n *ŋ
Rhotic *r
Semivowel *j *w

*n and *ŋ may have actually been *l and *n, respectively.

Notes

  1. ^ a b Caballero 2011.
  2. ^ Ethnologue (2014). "Summary by language family". SIL International. Retrieved July 2, 2014.
  3. ^ Fowler 1983.
  4. ^ Campbell 1997, p. 137.
  5. ^ Hill 2001, [1].
  6. ^ Hill 2010, [2].
  7. ^ Kemp et al. 2010, [3].
  8. ^ Merrill et al. 2010, [4].
  9. ^ Brown 2010, [5].
  10. ^ Campbell 2003.
  11. ^ Campbell & Poser 2008, p. 346-350.
  12. ^ Merrill 2012.
  13. ^ Shaul 2014. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFShaul2014 (help)
  14. ^ Kroeber 1907.
  15. ^ Sapir 1913.
  16. ^ Kroeber 1934.
  17. ^ Whorf 1935.
  18. ^ Steele 1979.
  19. ^ Goddard 1996, p. 7.
  20. ^ Miller 1983, p. 118. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMiller1983 (help)
  21. ^ a b Miller 1984.
  22. ^ Mithun 1999, p. 539-540.
  23. ^ Kaufman 2001, [6].
  24. ^ Mithun 1999.
  25. ^ Campbell 1997.
  26. ^ Campbell 1997, pp. 133–135.
  27. ^ Langacker 1970, [7].
  28. ^ Dakin 1996, [8].
  29. ^ Campbell 1997, p. 136.

Bibliography

Brown, Cecil H. (2010). "Lack of linguistic support for Proto-Uto-Aztecan at 8900 BP (letter)". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 107 (15): E34. doi:10.1073/pnas.0914859107. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Caballero, G. (2011). "Behind the Mexican Mountains: Recent Developments and New Directions in Research on Uto‐Aztecan Languages". Language and Linguistics Compass. 5 (7): 485–504. doi:10.1111/j.1749-818x.2011.00287.x. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford University Press. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Campbell, Lyle (2003). "What drives linguistic diversification and language spread?". In Bellwood, Peter; Renfrew, Colin (eds.). Examining the farming/language dispersal hypothesis. Cambridge(U.K.): McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. pp. 49–63. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Campbell, Lyle; Poser, William J. (2008). Language classification, history and method. Cambridge University Press. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Cortina-Borja, M; Valiñas-Coalla, L (1989). "Some remarks on Uto-Aztecan Classification". International Journal of American Linguistics. 55: 214–239. doi:10.1086/466114. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Cortina-Borja, M.; Stuart-Smith, J.; Valiñas-Coalla, L. (2002). "Multivariate classification methods for lexical and phonological dissimilarities and their application to the Uto-Aztecan family". Journal of Quantitative Linguistics. 9 (2): 97–124. doi:10.1076/jqul.9.2.97.8485. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Dakin, Karen (1996). "Long vowels and morpheme boundaries in Nahuatl and Uto-Aztecan: comments on historical developments". Amerindia. 21. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Fowler, Catherine S. (1983). "Some lexical clues to Uto-Aztecan prehistory". International Journal of America Linguistics. 49 (3): 224–257. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Goddard, Ives (1996). "Introduction". In Goddard, Ives (ed.). Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 17. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 1–16. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Haugen, J. D. (2008). Morphology at the interfaces: reduplication and noun incorporation in Uto-Aztecan. Vol. Vol. 117. John Benjamins Publishing. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Heath, J. (1978). "Uto-Aztecan* na-class verbs". International Journal of American Linguistics. 44 (3): 211–222. doi:10.1086/465546. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Hill, Jane H. (December 2001). "Proto-Uto-Aztecan". American Anthropologist. New Series. 103 (4). doi:10.1525/aa.2001.103.4.913. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Hill, Jane H. (2010). "New evidence for a Mesoamerican homeland for Proto-Uto-Aztecan". PNAS. 107 (11): E33. doi:10.1073/pnas.0914473107. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Hill, J. H. (2011). "Subgrouping in Uto-Aztecan. Language Dynamics and Change". 1 (2): 241–278. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Iannucci, David (1972). Numic historical phonology. Cornell University PhD dissertation.
Kaufman, Terrence (2001). Nawa linguistic prehistory. Mesoamerican Language Documentation Project. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Kaufman, Terrence (1981). Comparative Uto-Aztecan Phonology. Unpublished manuscript. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Kemp; González-Oliver; Malhi; Monroe; Schroeder; McDonough; Rhett; Resendéz; Peñalosa-Espinoza; Buentello-Malo; Gorodetsky; Smith (2010). "Evaluating the farming/language dispersal hypothesis with genetic variation exhibited by populations in the Southwest and Mesoamerica". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 107 (15): 6759–6764. doi:10.1073/pnas.0905753107. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Kroeber, Alfred Louis (1907). Shoshonean dialects of California. The University Press. Retrieved 24 August 2012. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Kroeber, Alfred Louis (1934). Uto-Aztecan Languages of Mexico. Vol. 8. University of California Press. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Langacker, Ronald W. (1970). "The Vowels of Proto Uto-Aztecan". International Journal of American Linguistics. 36 (3): 169–180. doi:10.1086/465108. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Langacker, R. W. (1977). An overview of Uto-Aztecan grammar. Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Langacker, R. W. (1976). Non-distinct arguments in Uto-Aztecan. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Manaster Ramer, Alexis (1992). "A Northern Uto-Aztecan Sound Law: *-c- → -y-¹". International Journal of American Linguistics. 58 (3): 251–268. JSTOR 3519784. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Merrill, William L.; Hard, Robert J.; Mabry, Jonathan B.; Fritz; Adams; Roney; MacWilliams (2010). "Reply to Hill and Brown: Maize and Uto-Aztecan cultural history". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 107 (11): E35–E36. doi:10.1073/pnas.1000923107. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Merrill, W (2013). "The genetic unity of southern Uto-Aztecan". Language Dynamics and Change. 3: 68–104. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Merrill, William L. (2012). "The Historical Linguistics of Uto-Aztecan Agriculture". Anthropological Linguistics. 54 (3): 203–260. doi:10.1353/anl.2012.0017. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Miller, Wick R. (1986). "Numic Languages". In Warren L. d’Azevedo (ed.). Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 11, Great Basin. Washington: Smithsonian Institution. pp. Pages 98–106.
Miller, Wick R. (1983). "A note on extinct languages of northwest Mexico of supposed Uto-Aztecan affiliation". International Journal of American Linguistics. 49: 328–333. doi:10.1086/465793. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Miller, Wick R. (1983). "Uto-Aztecan languages". In Ortiz, Alfonso (ed.). Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 10. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 113–124. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |trans_chapter= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Miller, Wick R. (1984). "The classification of the Uto-Aztecan languages based on lexical evidence". International Journal of American Linguistics (1): 1–24. doi:10.1086/465813. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Mithun, Marianne (1999). The languages of Native America. Cambridge University Press. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Shaul, D. L. (2014). A Prehistory of Western North America: The Impact of Uto-Aztecan Languages. University of New Mexico Press.
Steele, Susan (1979). "Uto-Aztecan: An assessment for historical and comparative linguistics". In Campbell, Lyle; Mithun, Marianne (eds.). The Languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 444–544. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Sapir, E. (1913). "Southern Paiute and Nahuatl, a study in Uto-Aztekan". Journal de la Société des Américanistes. 10 (2): 379–425. doi:10.3406/jsa.1913.2866. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Shaul, David L. (2014). A Prehistory of Western North America: The Impact of Uto-Aztecan Languages. University of New Mexico Press. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Shaul, David L.; Hill, Jane H. (1998). Tepimans, Yumans, and other Hohokam. pp. 375–396. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Voegelin, C. F.; Voegelin, F.; Hale, K. (1962). Typological and Comparative Grammar of Uto-Aztecan: Phonology. Memoirs of the International Journal of American Linguistics. Vol. 17. Waverly Press. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Whorf, B. L. (1935). "THE COMPARATIVE LINGUISTICS OF UTO‐AZTECAN". American Anthropologist. 37 (4): 600–608. doi:10.1525/aa.1935.37.4.02a00050. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Works on individual languages

Boas, Franz (1917). "El dialecto mexicano de Pochutla, Oaxaca". International Journal of American Linguistics (in Spanish). 1 (1). New York: Douglas C. McMurtrie: 9–44. doi:10.1086/463709. OCLC 56221629. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Hopi Dictionary Project (1998). Hopi Dictionary: Hopìikwa Lavàytutuveni: A Hopi–English Dictionary of the Third Mesa Dialect With an English–Hopi Finder List and a Sketch of Hopi Grammar. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Campbell, Lyle (1985). The Pipil Language of El Salvador. Mouton Grammar Library, no. 1. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-010344-1. OCLC 13433705. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Dayley, Jon P. (1989). "Tümpisa (Panamint) Shoshone Grammar". University of California Publications in Linguistics. 115. Berkeley: University of California Press. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Givón, Talmy (2011). Ute Reference Grammar. Culture and Language Use Volume 3. Amsterdam:: John Benjamins Publishing Company. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
Jeanne, LaVerne Masayesva (1978). Aspects of Hopi grammar. MIT, dissertation. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Voegelin, Charles F. (1935). "Tübatulabal Grammar". University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology. 34: 55–190. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Voegelin, Charles F. (1958). "Working Dictionary of Tübatulabal". International Journal of American Linguistics. 24 (3): 221–228. doi:10.1086/464459. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Robinson, Lila Wistrand; Armagost, James (1990). Comanche dictionary and grammar. publications in linguistics (No. 92). Dallas, Texas: The Summer Institute of Linguistics and The University of Texas at Arlington. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Lamb, Sydney M (1958). A Grammar of Mono (PDF). PhD Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved July 8, 2012. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Zigmond, Maurice L.; Booth, Curtis G.; Munro, Pamela (1991). Pamela Munro (ed.). Kawaiisu, A Grammar and Dictionary with Texts. University of California Publications in Linguistics. Vol. Volume 119. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Nichols, Michael (1973). Northern Paiute historical grammar. University of California, Berkeley PhD dissertation. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
McLaughlin, John E. (2012). Shoshoni Grammar. Languages of the World/Meterials 488. Muenchen: LINCOM Europa. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Press, Margaret L. (1979). Chemehuevi, A Grammar and Lexicon. University of California Publications in Linguistics. Vol. Volume 92. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Sapir, Edward (1992) [1930]. "Southern Paiute, a Shoshonean Language". In William Bright (ed.). The Collected Works of Edward Sapir, X, Southern Paiute and Ute Linguistics and Ethnography. Berlin: Mouton deGruyter. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Seiler, Hans-Jakob (1977). Cahuilla Grammar. Banning, California: Malki Museum Press. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Hill, Kenneth C. (1967). A Grammar of the Serrano Language. =University of California, Los Angeles, PhD dissertation. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
Hill, Jane H. (2005). A Grammar of Cupeño. University of California Publications in Linguistics. Berkeley: University of California Press. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Caballero, Gabriela (2008). Choguita Rarámuri (Tarahumara) Phonology and Morphology (PDF). PhD Dissertation: University of California at Berkeley. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Thornes, Tim (2003). A Northern Paiute Grammar with Texts. PhD Dissertation: University of Oregon at Eugene. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Kroeber, Alfred L.; Grace, George William (1960). The Sparkman Grammar of Luiseño. University of California Publications in Linguistics 16. Berkeley: The University of California Press. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Zepeda, Ofelia (1983). A Tohono O'odham Grammar. Tucson, Arizona: The University of Arizona Press. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Willett, T. (1991). A reference grammar of southeastern Tepehuan (PDF). Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and University of Texas at Arlington. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Mason, J. Alden (1916). "Tepecano, A Piman language of western Mexico". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 25: 309–416. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1916.tb55171.x. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Miller, Wick R. (1996). La lengua guarijio: gramatica, vocabulario y textos. Mexico City: Instituto de Investigaciones Antropologicas, UNAM. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Bascom, Burton W. (1982). "Northern Tepehuan". In Ronald W. Langacker (ed.). Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar, Volume 3, Uto-Aztecan Grammatical Sketches. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. pp. 267–393. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Lionnet, Andrés (1978). El idioma tubar y los tubares. Segun documentos ineditos de C. S. Lumholtz y C. V. Hartman. Mexico, D. F:: Universidad Iberoamericana. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
Casad, Eugene H. (1984). "Cora". In Ronald W. Langacker (ed.). Studies in Uto-Aztecan grammar 4: Southern Uto-Aztecan grammatical sketches. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics 56. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. pp. 153–149. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Iturrioz Leza, José Luis; Ramírez de la Cruz, Julio (2001). Gramática Didáctica del Huichol: Vol. I. Estructura Fonológica y Sistema de Escritura. Departamento de Estudios en Lenguas Indígenas–Universidad de Guadalajara – Secretaria de Educación Pública. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Dedrick, John; Casad, Eugene H. (1999). Sonora Yaqui Language Structures. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 9780816519811. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Freeze, Ray A. (1989). Mayo de Los Capomos, Sinaloa. Archivo de Lenguas Indígenas del Estado de Oaxaca, 14. 14. 166. México, D.F.: Instituto de Investigación e Integración Social del Estado de Oaxaca. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Lionnet, Andrés (1986). Un idioma extinto de sonora: El eudeve. México: =UNAM. ISBN 968-837-915-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
Estrada-Fernández, Zarina (1998). Pima bajo de Yepachi, Chihuahua. Archivo de Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico. Colegio de México. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Munro, Pamela; Gabrielino/Tongva Language Committee (2008). Yaara' Shiraaw'ax 'Eyooshiraaw'a. Now You're Speaking Our Language: Gabrielino/Tongva/Fernandeño. Lulu.com. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Launey, Michel (1986). Categories et operations dans la grammaire Nahuatl. Ph. D. dissertation, Paris IV. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Langacker, Ronald W. (ed.) (1979). Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 2: Modern Aztec Grammatical Sketches. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, 56. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. ISBN 0-88312-072-0. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Shaul, D. L. (2001). The Opatan Languages, Plus Jova. Vol. Festschrift. INAH. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
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