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→‎Dreyfus Affair: Content in this edit was copied from the article Dreyfus Affair rev. 1032254800‎; see that article's history for attribution.
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== Nineteenth century ==
== Nineteenth century ==

=== Panama Canal Scandal ===
{{Main|Panama Canal Scandal}}
{{Refimprove section|find=Panama Canal Scandal |find2=antisemitism|date=July 2021}}
[[File:Panama scandal.jpg|200px|left|thumb|1891 Panama Canal Company Liquidation Court Trial in Paris]]

The [[Panama Canal Scandal]] was a corruption affair that broke out in the [[French Third Republic]] in 1892, linked to a French company's failed attempt at building a canal through Panama. Close to half a billion francs were lost. Members of the French government took bribes to keep quiet about the [[History of the Panama Canal#The French project|Panama Canal Company's financial troubles]] in what is regarded as the largest monetary corruption scandal of the 19th century.<ref name="panama">{{cite web |url=http://www.ak190x.de/Bauwerke/panamaen.htm |title=THE PANAMA CANAL 1880-1914: Why de Lesseps failed to build the Panama Canal}}</ref>

[[Hannah Arendt]] argues that the affair had an immense importance in the development of French antisemitism, due to the involvement of two Jews of German origin, Baron [[Jacques de Reinach]] and [[Cornelius Herz]]. Although they were not among the bribed Parliament members or on the company's board, according to Arendt they were in charge of distributing the bribe money, Reinach among the right wing of the bourgeois parties, Herz among the anti-clerical radicals. Reinach was a secret financial advisor to the government and handled its relations with the Panama Company. Herz was Reinach's contact in the radical wing, but Herz's double-dealing blackmail ultimately drove Reinach to suicide.

However, before his death Reinach gave a list of the suborned members of Parliament to ''[[La Libre Parole]]'', [[Edouard Drumont]]'s antisemitic daily, in exchange for the paper's covering up Reinach's own role. Overnight, the story transformed ''La Libre Parole'' from an obscure sheet into one of the most influential papers in the country. The list of culprits was published morning by morning in small installments, so that hundreds of politicians had to live on tenterhooks for months. In Arendt's view, the scandal showed that the middlemen between the business sector and the state were almost exclusively Jews, thus helping to pave the way for the Dreyfus Affair.<ref name="Arendt-1973">{{Cite book |last=Arendt |first=Hannah |title=[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]] |publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich |isbn=0-15-670153-7 |oclc=760643287 <!--|total-pages=[https://archive.org/details/originsoftotali100aren/page/576 576 pages]--> |date=1973-03-21 |pages=95-99}}</ref>


=== Dreyfus Affair ===
=== Dreyfus Affair ===

Revision as of 00:51, 9 July 2021

Note: If you drop translated/copied content anywhere in this article, you must provide proper attribution in the edit summary, per Wikipedia's licensing requirements. Either of these two edit summaries satisfies the requirement:
  • Content in this edit is translated from the existing French Wikipedia article at [[:fr:Antisémitisme en France]]; see its history for attribution.
  • Content in this edit is copied from the existing Wikipedia article at [[Antisemitism in France]]; see its history for attribution.

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Antisemitism in France is the expression through words or actions of an ideology of hatred of Jews on French soil.

In the Middle Ages, France was a center of Jewish learning, but over time, persecution increased, including multiple expulsions and returns.

During the French Revolution in the late 18th century, on the other hand, France was the first country in Europe to emancipate its Jewish population. Antisemitism still occurred in cycles, reaching a high level in the 1890s, as shown during the Dreyfus affair, and in the 1940s, under German occupation and the Vichy regime.[citation needed]

During World War II, the Vichy government collaborated with Nazi occupiers to deport a large number of both French Jews and foreign Jewish refugees to concentration camps.[1] Another 110,000 French Jews were living in the colony of French Algeria.[2] By the war's end, 25% of the Jewish population of France had perished in the Holocaust, though this was a lower proportion than in most other countries under Nazi occupation.[3][4]

Since 2010 or so, more have been making aliyah in response to rising antisemitism in France.[5]

Early period

There have been Jews in France for two millenia.[6] In the year 6 C.E. there were Jews at Vienne and Gallia Celtica; in the year 39 at Lugdunum (Lyon)".[7] Information is sketchy, but there is evidence, some dating to the first century, of geographically widespread habitation in Metz, Poitiers, or Avignon. By the fifth century, there is evidence of settlements in Brittany, Orleans, Narbonne and elsewhere.[6]

From the fifth to the eighth century, the Merovingians ruled France.[6] The emperors Theodosius II and Valentinian III sent a decree to Amatius, prefect of Gaul (9 July 425), that prohibited Jews and pagans from practising law or holding public offices. This was to prevent Christians being subject to them and possibly incited to change their faith.[7] Clovis I converted to Catholicism in 496, along with the majority of the population which brought pressure on Jews to convert as well. The bishops in some localities offered Jews in their pervue a choice between baptism and expulsion.[6] In the sixth century, Jews were documented in Marseilles, Arles, Uzès, Narbonne, Clermont-Ferrand, Orléans, Paris, and Bordeaux.[7]

Middle Ages

Further information: Medieval antisemitism

Persecutions under the Capets

Further information: History of the Jews in France § Persecutions under the Capets

Expulsions

Further information: History of the Jews in France § Expulsions and Returns

Crusades

Further information: History of the Jews in France § The Crusades

Black Death

Main article: Persecution of Jews during the Black Death
Further information: Medieval antisemitism § The Black Death

Early Modern Period

Renaissance (14th – 17th century)

Enlightenment (18th century)

Revolution and Napoleonic era (1789–1815)

Nineteenth century

Panama Canal Scandal

Main article: Panama Canal Scandal
1891 Panama Canal Company Liquidation Court Trial in Paris

The Panama Canal Scandal was a corruption affair that broke out in the French Third Republic in 1892, linked to a French company's failed attempt at building a canal through Panama. Close to half a billion francs were lost. Members of the French government took bribes to keep quiet about the Panama Canal Company's financial troubles in what is regarded as the largest monetary corruption scandal of the 19th century.[8]

Hannah Arendt argues that the affair had an immense importance in the development of French antisemitism, due to the involvement of two Jews of German origin, Baron Jacques de Reinach and Cornelius Herz. Although they were not among the bribed Parliament members or on the company's board, according to Arendt they were in charge of distributing the bribe money, Reinach among the right wing of the bourgeois parties, Herz among the anti-clerical radicals. Reinach was a secret financial advisor to the government and handled its relations with the Panama Company. Herz was Reinach's contact in the radical wing, but Herz's double-dealing blackmail ultimately drove Reinach to suicide.

However, before his death Reinach gave a list of the suborned members of Parliament to La Libre Parole, Edouard Drumont's antisemitic daily, in exchange for the paper's covering up Reinach's own role. Overnight, the story transformed La Libre Parole from an obscure sheet into one of the most influential papers in the country. The list of culprits was published morning by morning in small installments, so that hundreds of politicians had to live on tenterhooks for months. In Arendt's view, the scandal showed that the middlemen between the business sector and the state were almost exclusively Jews, thus helping to pave the way for the Dreyfus Affair.[9]

Dreyfus Affair

Antisemitic riots in a print from Le Petit Parisien
Main article: Dreyfus Affair
Further information: History of the Jews in France § Dreyfus affair

The Dreyfus affair was a political scandal that divided the Third French Republic from 1894 until its resolution in 1906. "L'Affaire", as it is known in French, has come to symbolise modern injustice in the Francophone world,[10] and it remains one of the most notable examples of a complex miscarriage of justice and antisemitism. The role played by the press and public opinion proved influential in the conflict.

The scandal began in December 1894 when Captain Alfred Dreyfus of Alsatian Jewish descent was convicted of treason. He was sentenced to life imprisonment for allegedly communicating French military secrets to the Germans, and was imprisoned in Devil's Island in French Guiana, where he spent nearly five years.

Antisemitism was a prominent factor throughout the affair. Existing prior to the Dreyfus affair, it had expressed itself during the boulangisme affair and the Panama Canal scandal but was limited to an intellectual elite. The Dreyfus Affair spread hatred of Jews through all strata of society, a movement that certainly began with the success of Jewish France by Édouard Drumont in 1886.[11] It was then greatly amplified by various legal episodes and press campaigns for nearly fifteen years. Antisemitism was thenceforth official and was evident in numerous settings including the working classes.[12] Candidates for the legislative elections took advantage of antisemitism as a watchword in parliamentary elections. This antisemitism was reinforced by the crisis of the separation of church and state in 1905, which probably led to its height in France. Antisemitic actions were permitted on the advent of the Vichy regime, which allowed free and unrestrained expression of racial hatred.[citation needed]

Vichy and World War II

During World War II, the Vichy government collaborated with Nazi occupiers to deport a large number of both French Jews and foreign Jewish refugees to concentration camps.[1] By the war's end, 25% of the Jewish population of France had perished in the Holocaust.[3][4]

1941 Paris synagogue attacks

Main article: 1941 Paris synagogue attacks

Post-World War II

1980 Paris synagogue bombing

The Copernic Street synagogue in Paris
Main article: 1980 Paris synagogue bombing

On 3 October 1980, the rue Copernic synagogue in Paris, France was bombed in a terrorist attack. The attack killed four and wounded 46 people. The bombing took place in the evening near the beginning of Shabbat, during the Jewish holiday of Sim'hat Torah. It was the first deadly attack against Jewish people in France since the end of the Second World War.[13] The Federation of National and European Action (FANE) claimed responsibility,[14] but the police investigation later concluded that Palestinian nationalists were likely responsible.[15][16]

1982 Paris restaurant bombing

Main article: Goldenberg restaurant bombing

On 9 August 1982 the Abu Nidal Organization carried out a bombing and shooting attack on a Jewish restaurant in Paris's Marais district. Two assailants threw a grenade into the dining room, then rushed in and fired machine guns.[17] They killed six people, including two Americans[18] and injured 22 others. Business Week later said it was "the heaviest toll suffered by Jews in France since World War II."[19][20] The restaurant closed in 2006 and former owner Jo Goldenberg died in 2014.[21]

Although the Abu Nidal Organization had long been suspected,[22][23] suspects from the group were only definitively identified 32 years after the attacks, in evidence given by two former Abu Nidal members granted anonymity by French judges.[24]

In December 2020 one of the suspects, Walid Abdulrahman Abou Zayed, was handed over to French police (at a Norwegian airport) and flown to France.[25][26][27] Later in December, he was being held at La Sante Prison in Paris.[28] As of March 2021, he is still in prison.[29]

Carpentras cemetery 1990

Further information (in French): Desecration of the Jewish cemetery of Carpentras [fr]

On 10 May 1990, a Jewish cemetery at Carpentras was desecrated. This led to a public uproar, and a protest demonstration in Paris attended by 200,000 persons, including French President François Mitterrand. After several years of investigation, five people, among them three former members of the extremist far-right French and European Nationalist Party confessed on 2 August 1996.[30][31] On 5 June 1990, the PNFE magazine Tribune nationaliste was banned by the French authorities.[32]

Since 2000

Main article: Antisemitism in 21st-century France

France has the largest population of Jews in the diaspora after the United States—an estimated 500,000–600,000 persons. Paris has the highest population, followed by Marseilles, which has 70,000 Jews, most of North African origin. Expressions of anti-semitism were seen to rise during the Six-Day War of 1967 and the French anti-Zionist campaign of the 1970s and 1980s.[33][34] Following the electoral successes achieved by the extreme right-wing National Front and an increasing denial of the Holocaust among some persons in the 1990s, surveys showed an increase in stereotypical antisemitic beliefs among the general French population.[35][36][37]

Passover 2002 attacks

A series of attacks on Jewish targets in France took place in a single week in 2002, coinciding with the Jewish holiday of Passover, including at least five synagogues.[38][39] The targeted synagogues include the Or Aviv synagogue in Marseille, which burned to the ground; a synagogue in Strasbourg, where a fire was set that burned the doors and facade of the building before being doused;[40] and the firebombing of a synagogue in the Paris suburb of Le Kremlin-Bicêtre.[39]

Lyon synagogue

Main article: Lyon synagogue attack

On 30 March 2002, a group of masked men rammed two cars through the courtyard gates of a synagogue in the Template:Ill fr neighborhood of Lyon, France, then rammed one of the cars into the prayer hall before setting the vehicles on fire and causing severe damage to the synagogue.

The attack took place at 1:00 am on a Saturday morning; the building was empty at the time. The attackers wore masks or hoods covering their faces, eyewitnesses reported seeing twelve or fifteen attackers.[41][42][38][43]

2006 murder of Ilan Halimi

Main article: Kidnapping and murder of Ilan Halimi

Ilan Halimi was a young Frenchman of Moroccan Jewish ancestry living in Paris with his mother and his two sisters.[44] On 21 January 2006, Halimi was kidnapped by a group calling itself the Gang of Barbarians. The kidnappers, believing that all Jews are rich, repeatedly contacted the victim's family of modest means demanding very large sums of money. [45]

After three weeks and no success in finding the captors, the family and the police stopped receiving messages from the captors. Halimi, severely tortured, burned over more than 80% of his body, was dumped unclothed and barely alive by the side of a road in Sainte-Geneviève-Des-Bois on 13 February 2006. He was found by a passerby who immediately called for an ambulance, but Halimi died from his injuries on the way to the hospital.[citation needed]

The French police were heavily criticized because they initially believed that antisemitism was not a factor in the crime.[46] The case drew national and international attention as an example of antisemitism in France.[45]

Supermarket siege

Main article: Hypercacher kosher supermarket siege

On 9 January 2015, Amedy Coulibaly, who had pledged allegiance to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant,[47] attacked the people in a Hypercacher kosher food supermarket at Porte de Vincennes in east Paris. He killed four people, all of whom were Jewish,[48][49][50] and took several hostages.[51][52] Some media outlets claimed he had a female accomplice, speculated initially to be his common-law wife, Hayat Boumeddiene.[53]

2017 Killing of Sarah Halimi

Main article: Killing of Sarah Halimi

Sarah Halimi (no relation to Ilhan Halimi) was a retired doctor and schoolteacher who was attacked and killed in her apartment on 4 April 2017. The circumstances surrounding the killing—including the fact that Halimi was the only Jewish] resident in her building, and that the assailant shouted Allahu akbar during the attack and afterward proclaimed "I killed the Shaitan"—cemented the public perception of the incident, particularly among the French Jewish community, as a stark example of antisemitism in modern France.

For several months the government and some of the media hesitated to label the killing as antisemitic, drawing criticism from public figures such as Bernard-Henri Lévy. The government eventually acknowledged an antisemitic motivation for the killing. The assailant was declared to be not criminally responsible when the judges ruled he was undergoing a psychotic episode due to cannabis consumption, as established by an independent psychiatric analysis.[54] The decision was appealed to the supreme Court of Cassation,[55] who in 2021 upheld the lower court's ruling.[56]

The killing has been compared to the murder of Mireille Knoll in the same arrondissement less than a year later, and to the murder of Ilan Halimi (no relation) eleven years earlier.[57]

Murder of Mireille Knoll

Main article: Murder of Mireille Knoll

Mireille Knoll was an 85-year-old French Jewish woman holocaust survivor who was murdered in her Paris apartment on 23 March 2018. The murder has been officially described by French authorities as an antisemitic hate crime.

Of the two alleged assailants, one was a 29-year-old neighbor of Knoll, who suffered from Parkinson's disease,[58] and had known her since he was a child, and the other, an unemployed 21-year-old. The two suspects entered the apartment and reportedly stabbed Knoll eleven times before setting her on fire.[59][60][61]

The Paris prosecutor’s office characterized the 23 March murder as a hate crime, a murder committed because of the “membership, real or supposed, of the victim of a particular religion.” The New York Times noted, "The speed with which the authorities recognized the hate-crime nature of Ms. Knoll’s murder is being seen as a reaction to the anger of France’s Jews at the official response to that earlier crime, which prosecutors took months to characterize as anti-Semitic."[62][63][64]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b "France". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
  2. ^ Blumenkranz, Bernhard (1972). Histoire des Juifs en France. Toulouse: Privat. p. 376.
  3. ^ a b "Le Bilan de la Shoah en France [Le régime de Vichy]". bseditions.fr.
  4. ^ a b Yad Vashem [1]
  5. ^ "Jews are leaving France in record numbers amid rising antisemitism and fears of more Isis-inspired terror attacks". The Independent. 25 January 2016.
  6. ^ a b c d Toni L. Kamins (17 September 2013). "1 A Short History of Jewish France". The Complete Jewish Guide to France. St. Martin's Publishing Group. pp. 30–31. ISBN 978-1-4668-5281-5. OCLC 865113295.
  7. ^ a b c Broydé, Isaac Luria; et al. (1906). "France". In Funk, Isaac Kaufmann; Singer, Isidore; Vizetelly, Frank Horace (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. Vol. V. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. hdl:2027/mdp.39015064245445. OCLC 61956716.
  8. ^ "THE PANAMA CANAL 1880-1914: Why de Lesseps failed to build the Panama Canal".
  9. ^ Arendt, Hannah (21 March 1973). The Origins of Totalitarianism. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 95–99. ISBN 0-15-670153-7. OCLC 760643287.
  10. ^ Guy Canivet, first President of the Supreme Court, Justice from the Dreyfus Affair, p. 15.
  11. ^ Michel Winock, "Edouard Drumont et l'antisémitisme en France avant l'affaire Dreyfus." Esprit 403#5 (1971): 1085-1106. online
  12. ^ Duclert, The Dreyfus Affair, p. 95. (in French)
  13. ^ "Jewish Targets: Recent Attacks: Chronology". New York Times. AP. 7 September 1986. ProQuest 426275757.
  14. ^ https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1981/10/22/des-precedents-nombreux_2709388_1819218.html
  15. ^ Rubin, Barry; Rubin, Judith Colp (2015). Chronologies of Modern Terrorism. Routledge. p. 195. ISBN 9781317474654.
  16. ^ "Terrorist Incidents against Jewish Communities and Israeli Citizens Abroad, 1968-2003". International Institute for Counter-Terrorism. 20 December 2003.
  17. ^ Bisserbe, Noemie (17 June 2015). "Jordan Arrests Suspect in 1982 Attack on Jewish Restaurant in Paris". Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 17 June 2018. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
  18. ^ Vinocur, John. "P.L.O. Foes Linked to Attack in Paris". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 14 November 2015.
  19. ^ Rothman, Andrea (19 March 2012). "4 Dead in Shooting at Jewish School in France". Business week. Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2012.
  20. ^ "Paris symbol of Jewish life to disappear". European Jewish Press. 16 January 2006. Archived from the original on 15 August 2017. Retrieved 19 March 2012.
  21. ^ "Owner of famous Paris Jewish restaurant dies". Jerusalem Post. 12 May 2014. Archived from the original on 20 January 2018. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
  22. ^ Massoulié, François (2003). Middle East conflicts. Interlink Books. p. 98. ISBN 1566562376.
  23. ^ Charters, David (1994). The deadly sin of terrorism: its effect on democracy and civil liberty in six countries. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 108. ISBN 0313289646.
  24. ^ Samuel, Henry (17 June 2005). "Suspected mastermind of 1982 Paris Jewish restaurant attack 'bailed in Jordan'". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
  25. ^ https://www.rts.ch/info/monde/11802483-un-suspect-de-lattentat-de-la-rue-des-rosiers-en-1982-a-paris-mis-en-examen.html
  26. ^ https://www.nrk.no/norge/norsk-palestiner-utlevert-i-fransk-terrorsak-1.15274020
  27. ^ https://www.nrk.no/norge/terrortiltalt-norsk-palestiner-utleveres-til-frankrike-1.15263561
  28. ^ https://www.nrk.no/norge/xl/norsk-palestiner-utlevert-etter-terrorangrep-pa-joder-i-paris-1.15277664
  29. ^ https://www.nrk.no/norge/norskpalestiner-fengslet-i-paris-1.15368884
  30. ^ "Les attentats contre les foyers Sonacotra devant la cour d'assises des Alpes-Maritimes - Les commanditaires occultes de Gilbert Hervochon" [The attacks against the Sonacotra homes before the Alpes-Maritimes Assize Court - The hidden sponsors of Gilbert Hervochon]. Le Monde (in French). 30 October 1991. Retrieved 16 June 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  31. ^ Le procès de quatre profanateurs néo-nazis après six ans de fausses pistes, L'Humanité, 17 March 1997 (in French)
  32. ^ de Boissieu, Laurent (2018). "Parti Nationaliste Français et Européen (PNFE)". France-politique.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  33. ^ Emmanuel Navon, "France, Israel, and the Jews: The End of an Era?", Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs, 2015, https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23739770.2015.1042277
  34. ^ "Le Surmoi antisémite de la Télévision Française", Times of Israel
  35. ^ [2], US Holocaust Museum
  36. ^ "Holocaust denial/legal concepts in Europe" Archived 2018-03-01 at the Wayback Machine, Democratic Union
  37. ^ https://mondediplo.com/1998/05/08igou
  38. ^ a b Diamond, Andrew (1 April 2002). "Weekend of anti-Semitism in France". JTA.
  39. ^ a b Tagliabue, John (5 April 2002). "Synagogue In Paris Firebombed; Raids Go On". New York Times.
  40. ^ McNeil, Donald (2 April 2002). "France Vows Harsh Action After More Synagogues Burn". New York Times.
  41. ^ "Vandals crash cars through French synagogue". Arizona Daily Sun. 30 March 2002 – via AP.
  42. ^ "Shooting in France in Wave of Anti-Jewish Attacks". New York Times. 1 April 2002.
  43. ^ Horn, Heather (19 March 2012). "The Jewish School Shooting and Patterns of Violence". The Atlantic.
  44. ^ Tale of Torture and Murder Horrifies the Whole of France, Michel Gurfinkiel, The New York Sun, February 22, 2006.
  45. ^ a b Fields, Suzanne (3 April 2006). "The Rising Tide of Anti-Semitism". The Washington Times. Retrieved 30 December 2008.
  46. ^ Bernard, Ariane; Craig S. Smith (23 February 2006). "French Officials Now Say Killing of Jew Was in Part a Hate Crime". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 December 2008.
  47. ^ Jane Onyanga-Omara, USA TODAY (11 January 2015). "Video shows Paris gunman pledging allegiance to Islamic State". USATODAY.
  48. ^ "alert bibi coming". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
  49. ^ "Four victims of terror attack on kosher supermarket named". ynet.
  50. ^ "Paris shootings: Hostages killed at Jewish supermarket named". International Business Times UK.
  51. ^ "Charlie Hebdo attack: Manhunt – live reporting". BBC News. 9 January 2015.
  52. ^ "Paris shooting updates / Charlie Hebdo attackers take hostage after car chase". Haaretz. 9 January 2015.
  53. ^ "DIRECT – Porte de Vincennes: plusieurs otages, au moins deux morts". MidiLibre.fr.
  54. ^ "Sarah Halimi: How killer on drugs escaped French trial for anti-Semitic murder". BBC News. 2 May 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
  55. ^ Theise, Philippe (1 May 2020). "Hundreds rally in Paris to seek justice for murdered Jewish woman Sarah Halimi". France24. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
  56. ^ "French top court rules against trying Muslim who killed Sarah Halimi". The Times of Israel. 14 April 2021. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
  57. ^ McAuley, James (23 July 2017). "In France, murder of a Jewish woman ignites debate over the word 'terrorism'". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 17 June 2019. Retrieved 29 August 2017.
  58. ^ BFMTV. "Meurtre de Mireille Knoll: ce que révèle le PV des enquêteurs". BFMTV (in French). Retrieved 6 April 2018.
  59. ^ Weiss, Bari (30 March 2018). "Jews Are Being Murdered in Paris. Again". The New York Times. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
  60. ^ Peltier, Elian; Breeden, Aurelien (28 March 2018). "Mireille Knoll, Murdered Holocaust Survivor, Is Honored in Paris". New York Times. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
  61. ^ Bremmer, Charles (28 March 2018). "Two charged with killing 85-year-old Holocaust survivor Mireille Knoll". The Times (of London). Retrieved 3 April 2018.
  62. ^ Nossiter, Adam (26 March 2018). "She Survived the Holocaust, to Die in a 2018 Hate Crime". New York Times. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
  63. ^ "Slain Holocaust survivor's family: She'd known her killer since he was a boy". The Times of Israel. 27 March 2018. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
  64. ^ Cohen, Ben (10 May 2019). "French Police to Hold Reconstruction of Gruesome Murder of Holocaust Survivor Mireille Knoll". The Algemeiner. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
Notes
Footnotes

Works cited


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