The Dancing Water, the Singing Apple, and the Speaking Bird

The Dancing Water, the Singing Apple, and the Speaking Bird
The foster mother (doe) looks after the wonder-children. Artwork by John D. Batten for Jacobs's Europa's Fairy Book (1916).
Folk tale
Name	The Dancing Water, the Singing Apple, and the Speaking Bird
Aarne–Thompson grouping	ATU 707 (The Dancing Water, the Singing Apple, and the Speaking Bird; The Bird of Truth; The Three Golden Children; The Three Golden Sons)
Region	Sicily, Eurasia, Worldwide
Related	Ancilotto, King of Provino; Princess Belle-Étoile and Prince Chéri; The Tale of Tsar Saltan; The Boys with the Golden Stars; The Sisters Envious of Their Cadette

The Dancing Water, the Singing Apple, and the Speaking Bird is a Sicilian fairy tale collected by Giuseppe Pitrè, and translated by Thomas Frederick Crane for his Italian Popular Tales. Joseph Jacobs included a reconstruction of the story in his European Folk and Fairy Tales. The original title is "Li Figghi di lu Cavuliciddaru", for which Crane gives a literal translation of "The Herb-gatherer's Daughters."

The story is the prototypical example of Aarne–Thompson–Uther tale-type 707, to which it gives its name. Alternate names for the tale type are The Three Golden Sons, The Three Golden Children, The Bird of Truth, Portuguese: Os meninos com uma estrelinha na testa, lit. 'The boys with little stars on their foreheads', Russian: Чудесные дети, romanized: Chudesnyye deti, lit. 'The Wonderful or Miraculous Children', or Hungarian: Az aranyhajú ikrek, lit. 'The Golden-Haired Twins'.

According to folklorist Stith Thompson, the tale is "one of the eight or ten best known plots in the world".

Synopsis

The following is a summary of the tale as it was collected by Giuseppe Pitrè and translated by Thomas Frederick Crane.

A king walking the streets heard three poor sisters talk. The oldest said that if she married the royal butler, she would give the entire court a drink out of one glass, with water left over. The second said that if she married the keeper of the royal wardrobe, she would dress the entire court in one piece of cloth, and have some left over. The youngest said that if she married the king, she would bear two sons with apples in their hands, and a daughter with a star on her forehead.

The next morning, the king ordered the older two sisters to do as they said, and then married them to the butler and the keeper of the royal wardrobe, and the youngest to himself. The queen became pregnant, and the king had to go to war, leaving behind news that he was to hear of the birth of his children. The queen gave birth to the children she had promised, but her sisters, jealous, put three puppies in their place, sent word to the king, and handed over the children to be abandoned. The king ordered that his wife be put in a treadwheel crane.

Three fairies saw the abandoned children and gave them a deer to nurse them, a purse full of money, and a ring that changed color when misfortune befell one of them. When they were grown, they left for the city and took a house.

Their aunts saw them and were terror-struck. They sent their nurse to visit the daughter and tell her that the house needed the Dancing Water to be perfect and her brothers should get it for her. The oldest son left and found three hermits in turn. The first two could not help him, but the third told him how to retrieve the Dancing Water, and he brought it back to the house. On seeing it, the aunts sent their nurse to tell the girl that the house needed the Singing Apple as well, but the brother got it, as he had the Dancing Water. The third time, they sent him after the Speaking Bird, but as one of the conditions was that he not respond to the bird, and it told him that his aunts were trying to kill him and his mother was in the treadmill, it shocked him into speech, and he was turned to stone. The ring changed colors. His brother came after him, but suffered the same fate. Their sister came after them both, said nothing, and transformed her brother and many other statues back to life.

They returned home, and the king saw them and thought that if he did not know his wife had given birth to three puppies, he would think these his children. They invited him to dinner, and the Speaking Bird told the king all that had happened. The king executed the aunts and their nurse and took his wife and children back to the palace.

Overview

The following summary was based on Joseph Jacobs's tale reconstruction in his Europa's Fairy Book, on the general analyses made by Arthur Bernard Cook in his Zeus, a Study in Ancient Religion, and on the description of the tale-type in the Aarne–Thompson–Uther Index classification of folk and fairy tales.

The Emperor overhears the conversation of the three sisters. Frontispiece from Andrew Lang's Violet Fairy Book by H. J. Ford (1906).

The king passes by a house or other place where three sisters are gossiping or talking, and the youngest says, if the king married her, she would bear him "wondrous children" (their peculiar appearances tend to vary, but they are usually connected with astronomical motifs on some part of their bodies, such as the Sun, the moon or stars). The king overhears their talk and marries the youngest sister, to the envy of the older ones or to the chagrin of the grandmother. As such, the jealous relatives deprive the mother of her newborn children (in some tales, twins or triplets, or three consecutive births, but the boy is usually the firstborn, and the girl is the youngest), either by replacing the children with animals or accusing the mother of having devoured them. Their mother is banished from the kingdom or severely punished (imprisoned in the dungeon or in a cage; walled in; buried up to the torso). Meanwhile, the children are either hidden by a servant of the castle (gardener, cook, butcher) or cast into the water, but they are found and brought up at a distance from the father's home by a childless foster family (fisherman, miller, etc.).

Years later, after they reach a certain age, a magical helper (a fairy, or the Virgin Mary in more religious variants) gives them means to survive in the world. Soon enough, the children move next to the palace where the king lives, and either the aunts, or grandmother realize their nephews/grandchildren are alive and send the midwife (or a maid; a witch; a slave) or disguise themselves to tell the sister that her house needs some marvellous items, and incite the girl to convince her brother(s) to embark on the (perilous) quest. The items also tend to vary, but in many versions there are three treasures: (1) water, or some water source (e.g., spring, fountain, sea, stream) with fantastic properties (e.g., a golden fountain, or a rejuvenating liquid); (2) a magical tree (or branch, or bough, or flower, or a fruit – usually apples) with strange powers (e.g., makes music or sings); and (3) a wondrous bird that can tell the truth, knows many languages and/or turns people to stone.

The king begs his wife for forgiveness, after the truth is revealed. Illustration by John Batten for Joseph Jacobs's Europa's Fairy Book (1916).

The brother(s) set(s) off on his (their) journey, but give(s) a token to the sister so she knows the brother(s) is(are) alive. Eventually, the brothers meet a character (a sage, an ogre, etc.) that warns them not to listen to the bird, otherwise he will be petrified (or turned to salt, or to marble pillars). The first brother fails the quest, and so does the next one. The sister, seeing that the tokens changed colour, realizes her siblings are in danger and departs to finish the quest for the wonderful items and rescue her brother(s).

Afterwards, either the siblings invite the king or the king invites the brothers and their sister for a feast in the palace. As per the bird's instructions, the siblings display their etiquette during the meal (in some versions, they make a suggestion to invite the disgraced queen; in others, they give their poisoned meal to some dogs). Then, the bird reveals the whole truth, the children are reunited with their parents, and the jealous relatives are punished.

Variations

Folklore scholar Christine Goldberg identifies three main forms of the tale type: a variation found "throughout Europe", with the quest for the items; "an East Slavic form", where mother and son are cast in a barrel and later the sons build a palace (The Tale of Tsar Saltan and variants); and a third one, where the sons are buried and go through a transformation sequence, from trees to animals to humans again (The Boys with the Golden Stars and variants).

Russian folklorist Lev Barag also noted two different formats to the tale type: the first one, "legs of gold up the knee, arms of silver up to the elbow", and the second one, "the singing tree and the talking bird".

The Brother Quests for a Bride

In some regional variants, the children are sent for some magical objects, like a mirror, and for a woman of renowned beauty and great powers. This character becomes the male sibling's wife at the end of the story. For instance, in the Typen Turkischer Volksmärchen ("Types of Turkish Foltkales"), by folklorists Wolfram Eberhard and Pertev Naili Boratav. Type 707 is known in Turkey as Die Schöne or Güzel ("The Beautiful"). The title refers to the maiden of supernatural beauty that is sought after by the male sibling.

Such variants occur in Albania, as in the tales collected by J. G. Von Hahn in his Griechische und Albanische Märchen (Leipzig, 1864), in the village of Zagori in Epirus, and by Auguste Dozon in Contes Albanais (Paris, 1881). These stories substitute the quest for the items for the search for a fairy named E Bukura e Dheut ("Beauty of the Land"), a woman of extraordinary beauty and magical powers. One such tale is present in Robert Elsie's collection of Albanian folktales (Albania's Folktales and Legends): The Youth and the Maiden with Stars on their Foreheads and Crescents on their Breasts.

Another version of the story is The Tale of Arab-Zandyq, in which the brother is the hero who gathers the wonderful objects (a magical flower and a mirror) and their owner (Arab-Zandyq), whom he later marries. Arab-Zandyq replaces the bird and, as such, tells the whole truth during her wedding banquet.

In a specific Armenian variant, called The Twins, the last quest for the brother is to find the daughter of an Indian king and bring her to his king's palace. In this version, it is a king who overhears the sisters' nightly conversation in his search for a wife for his son. At the end, the brother marries the foreign princess and his sister reveals the truth to the court.

This conclusion also happens in an Indian variant, called The Boy with the Moon on his Forehead, from Bengali. In this tale, the seventh queen begets the wonder-children (fraternal twins, a girl and a boy); the antagonists are the other six queens, who, overcome with jealousy, trick the new queen with puppies and expose the children. When they both grow up, the jealous queens set the siblings on a quest for a kataki flower, with the brother rescuing Lady Pushpavati from Rakshasas. Lady Pushpavati marries the titular "boy with the moon on his forehead" and reveals to the King her mother-in-law's ordeal and the deceit of the King's co-wives.

In an extended version from a Breton source, called L'Oiseau de Vérité, the youngest triplet, a king's son, listens to the helper (an old woman), who reveals herself to be a princess enchanted by her godmother. In a surprise appearance by said godmother, she prophecises her goddaughter shall marry the hero of the tale (the youngest prince), after a war with another country.

Another motif that appears in these variants (specially in Middle East and Turkey) is suckling an ogress's breastmilk by the hero.

The Sister marries a Prince

In an Icelandic variant collected by Jón Árnason and translated in his book Icelandic Legends (1866), with the name Bóndadæturnar (The Story of the Farmer's Three Daughters, or its German translation, Die Bauerntöchter), the quest focus on the search for the bird and omits the other two items. The end is very much the same, with the nameless sister rescuing her brothers Vilhjámr and Sigurdr and a prince from the petrification spell and later marrying him.

Another variant where this happy ending occurs is Princesse Belle-Étoile et Prince Chéri, by Mme. D'Aulnoy, where the heroine rescues her cousin, Prince Chéri, and marries him. Another French variant, collected by Henry Carnoy (L'Arbre qui chante, l'Oiseau qui parle et l'Eau d'or, or "The tree that sings, the bird that speaks and the water of gold"), has the youngest daughter, the princess, marry an enchanted old man she meets in her journey and who gives her advice on how to obtain the items.

In a tale collected in Carinthia (Kärnten), Austria (Die schwarzen und die weißen Steine, or "The black and white stones"), the three siblings climb a mountain or slope, but the brothers listen to the sounds of the mountain and are petrified. Their sister arrives at a field of white and black stones and, after a bird gives her instructions, sprinkles magic water on the stones, restoring her brothers and many others – among them, a young man, whom she later marries.

In the Armenian variant Théodore, le Danseur, the brother ventures on a quest for the belongings of the eponymous character and, at the conclusion of the tale, this fabled male dancer marries the sister.

In The Three Little Birds, collected by the Brothers Grimm, in Kinder- und Hausmärchen (KHM nr. 96), instructed by an old woman fishing, the sister strikes a black dog and it transforms into a prince, with whom she marries as the truth settles among the family.

Alternate Source for the Truth to the King (Father)

In the description of the tale type in the international index, the bird the children seek is the one to tell the king the sisters' deceit and to reunite the family. However, in some regional variants, the supernatural maiden whom the brother and the sister seek is responsible for revealing the truth of their birth to the king and to restore the queen to her rightful place.

In a Kaba'il version from Northern Algeria (Les enfants et la chauve-souris), the bird is replaced by a bat, who helps the abandoned children when their father takes them back and his second wife prepares them a poisoned meal. The bat recommends the siblings to give their meal to animals, in order to prove it's poisoned and to reveal the treachery of the second wife.

In a specific folktale from Egypt, El-Schater Mouhammed, the Brother is the hero of the story, but the last item of the quest (the bird) is replaced by "a baby or infant who can speak eloquently", as an impossible MacGuffin. The fairy (or mystical woman) he sought before gives both siblings instructions to summon the being in front of the king, during a banquet.

In many widespread variants, the bird is replaced by a fairy or magical woman the Brother seeks after as part of the impossible tasks set by his aunts, and whom he later marries (The Brother Quests for a Bride format).

Very rarely, it is one of the children themselves that reveal the aunts' treachery to their father, as seen in the Armenian variants The Twins and Theodore, le Danseur. In a specific Persian version, from Kamani, the Prince (King's son) investigates the mystery of the twins and questions the midwife who helped in the delivery of his children.

Motifs

According to Daniel Aranda, the tale type develops the narrative in two eras: the tale of the calumniated wife as the first; and the adventures of the children as the second, wherein the mother becomes the object of their quest.

The Persecuted Wife and Jealous Sisters

See also: Calumniated Wife

Charles Fillingham Coxwell noted that the mother of the wonder children may be persecuted by her own elder sisters, by a step-relative (step-sister or step-mother), or by her mother-in-law. French comparativist Emmanuel Cosquin suggested that, in a hypotethical original form of the tale, the three sisters all wished to marry the king. German-Chilean philologist Rodolfo Lenz, complementing Cosquin's study, remarked that the elder sisters promise practical things, like cooking a grand meal, weaving such a garment for the king, sewing a special piece of clothing, etc. Similarly, French ethnologist Camille Lacoste-Dujardin, in regards to a Kabylian variant, noted that the sisters' jealousy originated from their perceived infertility, and that their promises of grand feats of domestic chores were a matter of "capital importance" to them.

Ethnologist Verrier Elwin commented that the motif of jealous queens, instead of jealous sisters, is present in a polygamous context: the queens replace the youngest queen's child (children) with animals or objects and accuse the woman of infidelity. The queen is then banished and forced to work in a humiliating job. In other variants, the calumniated woman is buried up to the torso or immured as punishment for her false crime.

In the same vein, French ethnologue Paul Ottino (fr), by analysing similar tales from Madagascar, concluded that the jealousy of the older co-wives of the polygamous marriage motivate their attempt on the children, and, after the children are restored, the co-wives are duly punished, paving the way for a monogamous family unit with the expelled queen.

The Wonder Children

The story of the birth of the wonderful children can be found in Medieval author Johannes de Alta Silva's Dolopathos sive de Rege et Septem Sapientibus (c. 1190), a Latin version of the Seven Sages of Rome. Dolopathos also comprises the Knight of the Swan cycle of stories. This version of the tale preserves the motif of the wonder-children, which are born "with golden chains around their necks", the substitution for animals and the degradation of the mother, but merges with the fairy tale The Six Swans, where brothers transformed into birds are rescued by the efforts of their sister, which is Aarne-Thompson 451, "The boys or brothers transformed into birds".

In a brief summary: a lord encounters a mysterious woman (clearly a swan maiden or fairy) in the act of bathing, while clutching a gold necklace, they marry and she gives birth to a septuplet, six boys and a girl, with golden chains about their necks. But her evil mother-in-law swaps the newborn with seven puppies. The servant with orders to kill the children in the forest just abandons them under a tree. The young lord is told by his wicked mother that his bride gave birth to a litter of pups, and he punishes her by burying her up to the neck for seven years. Some time later, the young lord while hunting encounters the children in the forest, and the wicked mother's lie starts to unravel. The servant is sent out to search them, and finds the boys bathing in the form of swans, with their sister guarding their gold chains. The servant steals the boys' chains, preventing them from changing back to human form, and the chains are taken to a goldsmith to be melted down to make a goblet. The swan-boys land in the young lord's pond, and their sister, who can still transform back and forth into human shape by the magic of her chain, goes to the castle to obtain bread to her brothers. Eventually the young lord asks her story so the truth comes out. The goldsmith was actually unable to melt down the chains, and had kept them for himself. These are now restored back to the six boys, and they regain their powers, except one, whose chain the smith had damaged in the attempt. So he alone is stuck in swan form. The work goes on to say obliquely hints that this is the swan in the Swan Knight tale, more precisely, that this was the swan "quod cathena aurea militem in navicula trahat armatum ('that tugged by a gold chain an armed knight in a boat')."

The motif of the heroine persecuted by the queen, on false pretenses, also happens in Istoria della Regina Stella e Mattabruna, a rhyming story of the ATU 706 type (The Maiden Without Hands).

India-born author Maive Stokes suggested, in her notes to the Indian version she collected, that the motif of the children's "silver chains (sic)" of the Dolopathos tale was parallel to the astronomical motifs on the children's bodies.

The mother's prediction

French scholar Gédeon Huet commented on a motif of the Dolopathos tale: near the beginning of the story, after she makes love to the human lord under the veil of night, the strange maiden (called nympha in the Latin text) knows beforehand she will give birth to seven children, six boys and a girl. In Huet's opinion, this prediction can be attributed to her superhuman wisdom, since she is a fée (a supernatural woman, in the more general sense). Huet also concluded that this detail about the fée's prediction must have originated from an earlier literary version.

Professor Anne E. Duggan remarked that, in some tales of type 707, the mother (the third sister) predicts the number of children she will have, and the wonderful traits they will bear.

Fate of the Wonder Children

When the jealous sisters or jealous co-wives replace the royal children for animals and objects, they either bury the children in the garden (the twins become trees) in some variants, or put the siblings in a box and cast it into the water (river, stream).

The Floating Chest

The royal child is cast into the water in a basket. Illustration by John D. Batten (1915).

French ethnologue Paul Ottino (fr) noted that the motif of casting the children in the water vaguely resembles the Biblical story of Moses, but, in these stories, the children are cast in a box in order to perish in the dangerous waters.

Likewise, Emmanuel Cosquin listed that the motif of the "coffre flottant" ("The Floating Chest") shows parallels with mythological accounts: Muslim/Javanese Raden Pakou, Assyro-Sumerian king Sargon, Hindu epic hero Karna. Israel Levi, in an article in Revue des Études Juives, complements Cosquin's analysis with instances of the same motif in Moses's narrative, in different traditions.

The animal foster parent

After the stepmother or queen's sisters abandon the babies in the forest, in several variants the twins or triplets are reared by a wild animal. This motif also appears in versions of the tale of the Knight of the Swan: the nympha's children are suckled by a hind (in the Dolopathos), or by a "fair white goat" in the Beatrix redaction.

The episode recalls similar mythological stories about half-human, half-divine sons abandoned in the woods and suckled by a female animal. Such stories have been dramatized in Ancient Greek plays of Euripides and Sophocles. This episode also happens in myths about the childhood of some gods (e.g, Zeus and fairy or she-goat Amalthea, Telephus, Dionysus). Professor Giulia Pedrucci suggests that the unusual breastfeeding by the female animal (i.e., by a cow, a hind, a deer, a she-wolf) sets the hero apart from the "normal" and "civilized" world and puts them on a road to achieve a great destiny, since many of these heroes and gods become founders of dynasties and/or kings.

Astronomical signs on bodies

The motif of astronomical signs on the children's bodies has been compared to a similar motif in Russian fairy tales and healing incantations, as in the formula "a red star or sun in the front, a moon on the back of the neck and a body covered with stars". Lithuanian scholarship (Dainius Razauskas, Birutė Jasiūnaitė, Norbertas Velius) have also compared the imagery to Lithuanian fairy tales: the queen gives birth to children with solar/lunar/astral birthmarks. However, Western scholars interpret the motif as a sign of royalty or an indicative of the children's noble birth.

19th-century India-born author Maive Stokes noted that the motif of children born with stars, moon or a sun in some part of their bodies occurred to heroes and heroines of both Asian and European fairy tales.

Apart from the astronomical motifs, scholarship points another sign that marks the extraordinary children: a metallic colour on some body part. In the East Slavic tale type SUS 707, the wonderful children are described as having arms of gold up to the elbow and legs of silver up to the knee. According to Russian folklorist S. Y. Neklyudov, in tales from the Mongolic peoples, the children show a golden chest, often combined with a silver backside. Barbara Walker noted that the colour of the children's hair (golden or silver) also serves to distinguish them, and, according to Christine Goldberg, their adoptive parents may sell their metallic hair.

Literary historian Reinhold Köhler noted another set of motifs that mark the wonder children: the presence of a chain of gold or silver around their necks or on their skin.

In the same vein, Russian professor Khemlet Tat'yana Yur'evna suggests that the presence of the astronomical motifs on the children's bodies possibly refer to their connection to a celestial or heavenly realm. She also argues that similar motifs (golden chains, body parts shining like gold and/or silver, golden hair and silver hair) are a reminiscence or vestige of the solar/lunar/astral motif (which corresponds to the oldest layer). Finally, tales of later tradition that lack either one of these motifs replace them with special attributes or names to the children, like the Brother being a mighty hero and the Sister being a skilled weaver. In a later study, Khemlet argues that variants of later tradition gradually lose the fantasy elements and a more realistic narrative emerges, with the fantastical becoming unreal and with more development of the characters' psychological state.

The Three Treasures

Folklorist Christine Goldberg, in the entry of the tale type in ''Enzyklopädie des Märchens'', based on historical and geographical evidence, concluded that the quest for the treasures was a later development of the narrative, inserted into the tale type.

Richard MacGillivray Dawkins stated that "as a rule there are three quests" and the third item is "almost always ... a magical speaking bird". In other variants, according to scholar Hasan El-Shamy, the quest objects include "the dancing plant, the singing object and the truth-speaking bird".

The Dancing Water

Princess Parizade restores the petrified men to life with the Golden Water. Illustration by Adolphe Lalauze (1881).

Some scholars (i.e., August Wünsche, Edward Washburn Hopkins, John Arnott MacCulloch) have proposed that the quest for the Dancing Water in these tales is part of a macrocosm of similar tales about the quest for a Water of Life or Fountain of Immortality. Czech scholar Jaromír Jech remarked that, in this tale type, after the heroine quests for the speaking bird, the singing tree and the water of life, she uses the water as remedy to restore her brothers after they are petrified for failing the quest.

In regards to Lithuanian variants where the object of the quest is the "yellow water" or "golden water", Lithuanian scholarship suggests that the color of the water evokes a sun or dawn motif.

The Speaking Bird

In some variants from Middle Eastern, Arab or Armenian sources, the Speaking Bird may be named Hazaran Bulbul, Bülbülhesar or some variation thereof. It has been noted that the name refers to the Persian nightingale (Pycnonotus hæmorrhous), whose complete name is Bulbul-i-hazár-dástán ("Bird of a Thousand Tales").

According to August Leskien, the word bülbül comes from Persian and means "nightingale". Hazar also comes from Persian and means "a thousand". In this context, he speculated, hazar is an abbreviation of an expression that means "a thousand stories" or "a thousand voices". In another translation, the name is Hazaran, meaning "bird of a thousand songs". On the other hand, according to Barbara K. Walker, "Hazaran" refers to an Iranian location famed for its breed of nightingales.

History and origins

Possible point of origin

Texan researcher Warren Walker and Mongolist Charles Bawden ascribe some antiquity to the tale type, due to certain "primitive" elements, such as "the alleged birth of an animal or monster to a woman".

The Brothers Grimm, commenting on the German version they collected, De drei Vugelkens, suggested that the tale developed independently in Köterberg, due to Germanic localisms present in the text.

Due to the great popularity of the tale in the Arab world, according to Ibrahim Muhawi, some have theorized that the Middle East is the possible point of its origin or dispersal.

On the other hand, Joseph Jacobs, in his notes on Europa's Fairy Book, proposed a European provenance, based on the oldest extant version registered in literature (Ancilotto, King of Provino). Similarly, Stith Thompson tentatively concluded on a European origin, based on the distribution of the variants.

Another position is sustained by folklorist Bernhard Heller, who defends the existence of "an as yet unknown tradition" that originated Straparola's and Diyab's variants.

Russian scholar Yuri Berezkin suggested that the first part of the tale (the promises of the three sisters and the substitution of babies for animals/objects) may find parallels in stories of the indigenous populations of the Americas.

Scholar Linda Dégh put forth a theory of a common origin for tale types ATU 403 ("The Black and the White Bride"), ATU 408 ("The Three Oranges"), ATU 425 ("The Search for the Lost Husband"), ATU 706 ("The Maiden Without Hands") and ATU 707 ("The Three Golden Sons"), since "their variants cross each other constantly and because their blendings are more common than their keeping to their separate type outlines" and even influence each other.

An Asian source?

Professor Jack Zipes, in turn, proposed that, although the tale has many ancient literary sources, it "may have originated in the Orient", but no definitive source has been indicated.

Swedish folklorist Waldemar Liungman considered this tale was "västorientalisk" (Western Asian) and suggested a possible origin during Hellenistic times.

Ossetian-Russian folklorist Grigory A. Dzagurov formulated a hypothesis that the tale type developed in the east, probably in the Indo-Iranian area, since The 1,001 Nights derived from a Persian source; the type is known in Central Asia, and some of its episodes are recorded in ancient Indian literature.

A Persian source?

Mythologist Thomas Keightley, in his 1834 book Tales and Popular Fictions, suggested the transmission of the tale from a genuine Persian source, based on his own comparison between Straparola's literary version and the one from The Arabian Nights ("The Sisters envious of their Cadette").

According to Waldemar Liungman, Östrup was also of the notion that tale type 707, "Drei Schwestern wollen den König haben" ("Three sisters wish to marry the king"), originated from a Persian source.

As summarized by Ulrich Marzolph, an Iranian origin has been defended by Jiri Cejpek and Enno Littmann. Cejpek claimed that the tale of The Jealous Sisters was "definitely Iranian", but acknowledged that it must have not belonged to the original Persian compilation.

Mahavastu

W. A. Clouston claimed that the ultimate origin of the tale was a Buddhist tale of Nepal, written in Sanskrit, about King Brahmadatta and peasant Padmavatí (Padumavati) who gives birth to twins. However, the king's other wives cast the twins in the river. The tale of Padmavati's birth - contained within the Mahāvastu - is also curious: on a hot summer day, seer Mandavya puts away a pot with urine and semen and a doe drinks it, thinking it to be water. The doe, which lives in the armitage, gives birth to a human baby. The girl is found by Mandavya and becomes a beautiful young maiden. One day, king Brahmadatta, from Kampilla, on a hunt, sees the beautiful maiden and decides to make her his wife.

Norwu-preng'va

French scholar Gédeon Huet supplied the summary of another Asian story: a Mongolian translation of a Tibetan work titled Norwou-prengva, translated into German by European missionary Isaac Jacob Schmidt. The Norwu-preng'wa was erroneously given as the title of the Mongolian source. However, the work is correctly named Erdeni-yin Tobci, compiled by Sagand Secen in 1662.

In this tale, titled Die Verkörperung des Arja Palo (Avalokitas'wara oder Chongschim Bodhissatwa) als Königssöhn Erdeni Charalik, princess Ssamantabhadri, daughter of king Tegous Tsoktou, goes to bathe with her two female slaves in the river. The slaves, envious of her, suggest a test: the slaves will put their copper basins in the water, knowing it will float, and the princess should put her gold basin, unaware it will sink. It so happens and the princess, distraught at the loss of the basin, sends a slave to her father to explain the story. The slave arrives at the court of the king, who explains it will not reprimand his daughter. This slave returns and spins a lie that the king shall banish her to another kingdom with her two slaves. Resigning to her fate, she and the slaves wander to another kingdom, where they meet King Amugholangtu Yabouktchi (Jabuktschi). The monarch inquires about their skills: one slave answers she can weave clothes for one hundred men with a few pieces of fabric; the second, that she can prepare a meal worthy of one hundred men with just a handful of rice; the princess, at last, says she is a simple girl with no skills, but, due to her virtuous and pious devotion, the Three Jewels will bless her with a son "with the chest of gold, the kidneys of mother-of-pearl, the legs the color of the ougyou jewel". The "Great and Merciful Arya Palo" descends from "Mount Potaia" and enters the body of the princess. The child is born and the slaves bury him under the steps of the palace. The child gives hints of his survival and the slaves, now queens, try to hide the boy under many places of the palace, including the royal stables, which cause the horses not to approach it. The two slaves now bury the boy in the garden and a "magical plant of three colours" sprouts from the ground. The king wants to see it, but the plant has been eaten by sheep. A wonderful sheep is born some time later and, to the shepherd's surprise, it can talk. The baby sheep then transforms into a beggar youth, goes to the door of the palace and explains the whole story to the king. The youth summons a palace near the royal castle, invites the king, his mother and introduces himself as Erdeni Kharalik, their son. With his powers, he kills the envious slaves. Erdeni's story continues as a Buddhistic tale.

Tripitaka

Folklorist Christine Goldberg, in the entry of the tale type in Enzyklopädie des Märchens, stated the tale of slander and vindication of the calumniated spouse appears in a story from the Tripitaka.

French sinologist Édouard Chavannes translated the Tripitaka, wherein three similar stories of calumniated wives and multiple pregnancies are attested. The first one, given the title La fille de l'ascète et de la biche ("The daughter of the ascetic and the doe"), a deer licks the urine of an ascetic and becomes pregnant. It gives birth to a human child who is adopted by a brahman. She tends the fire at home. One day, the fire is put out because she played with the deer, and the brahmane sends her to fetch another flint for the fire. She comes to a house in the village, and, with every step she takes, a lotus flower sprouts. The owner of the house agrees to lend her a torch, after she circles the house three times to create a garden of lotus flowers. Her deeds reach the king's ears, who consults a diviner to see if marrying the maiden bodes well for his future. The diviner confirms it and the king marries the maiden. She becomes his queen and gives birth to one hundred eggs. The king's other wives of the harem take the eggs and throw them in the water. They are carried down by the river to another kingdom and are rescued by another sovereign. The eggs hatch and out come one hundred youths, described by the narrative as possessing great beauty, strength, and intelligence. They wage war on the neighbouring kingdoms, one of which their biological father's. Their mother climbs up a tower and shoot her breastmilk, which falls "like darts or arrows" in the mouths of the one hundred warriors. They recognize their familial bond and cease the aggressions. The narrator says that the mother of the 100 sons is Chö-miao, mother of Çakyamuni.

In a second tale from the Tripitaka, titled Les cinq cents fils d'Udayana ("The Five Hundred Sons of Udayana"), an ascetic named T'i-po-yen (Dvaipayana) urinates on a rock. A deer licks it and becomes pregnant with a human child. It gives birth to a daughter who grows up strong and beautiful, and with the ability to spring lotus flowers with every step. She tends the fire at home and, when it is put out, she goes to a neighbour to borrow some of their bonfire. The neighbour agrees to lend it to her, but first she must circle his house seven times to create a ring of lotus flowers. King Wou-t'i yan (Udayana) sees the lotus flowers and takes the girl as his second wife. She gives birth to 500 eggs, which are replaced for 500 bags of flour by the king's first wife. The first wife throws the eggs in a box in the Ganges, which are saved by another king, named Sa-tan-p'ou. The eggs hatch and 500 hundred boys are born and grow up as strong warriors. King Sa-tan-p'ou refuses to pay his tributes to king Wou-t'i-yen and attacks him with the 500 boys. Wou-t'i-yen asks for the help of the second wife: she puts her on a white elephant and she shoots 250 jets of milk from each breast. Each jet falls in each warrior's mouth. The war is ended, mother and sons recognize each other, and the 500 sons become the "Pratyeka Buddhas".

In a third tale, Les mille fils d'Uddiyâna ("The Thousand Sons of Uddiyâna"), the daughter of the ascetic and the deer marries the king of Fan-yu (Brahmavali) and gives birth to one thousand lotus leaves. The king's first wife replaces them for a mass of equine meat and throws them in the Ganges. The leaves are saved by the king of Wou-k'i-yen (Uddiyâna) and from every leave comes out a boy. The thousand children grow up and become great warriors, soon doing battle with the realm of Fan-yu. Their mother climbs up a tower and shoots her breastmilk into their mouths. Cosquin attributed a similar account of this version (of the "Legend of the Thousand Sons") to 7th-century Chinese monk Xuanzang or Hiuen Tsang. In Hiuen Tsang's account, the deer's human daughter has deer paws, just like her mother.

Other accounts

Comparativist Emmanuel Cosquin summarized a legend written down by 4th-century Chinese Buddhist monk Faxian. Faxian produced an account on a legendary kingdom called Vaïsâli: one of the lesser wives of the king gave birth to a lump of flesh. The other cowives suppose it is a bad omen and throw it in the Heng (Ganges) river in a box. The box washes up in another country and is found by another king. When the king opens it, the lump of flesh has become thousand little boys. He raises them and they become fine young warriors, conquering the nearby kingdoms. One day, the thousand warriors prepare to invade Vaïsâli, and the lesser queen orders the construction of a tower at the edges of the city. When the warriors arrive, the queen announces she is their mother and, to prove their connection, shoots from her breasts jets of milk that fall on each of their mouths.

Cosquin also reported a narrative from the 13th-century Sri Lankan work Pûjâwaliya. In this account, the queen of Benares gives birth to a lump of flesh, which is thrown in the (Ganges) river in a box. However, by work of the devas, the box is found by an ascetic, who opens it and finds a pair of twins, a boy and a girl suckling on each other's fingers. After they grow up, they leave their village and found the city of Visâlâ. Rev. R. Spence Hardy provided more details to this narrative: the prince and the princess are given the name Lichawi, due to their similar appearance, and later become the progenitors of a homonymous royal dynasty.

Orientalist Mabel Haynes Bode translated a tale about Uppalavanna and published it in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. In this tale, in a later reincarnation of Uppalavanna, she is a girl from a working class. One day, she finds a lotus blossom flower and gives it to a Pacceka Buddha, expressing her wish to give birth to as many children as there are seeds in a lotus flowers, and for flowers to spring with her every step, in her next incarnation. So it happens: she is reborn as a baby inside a lotus flower, near the foot of a mountain. A hermit finds and rears the child, naming her Padumavatî (Lotus). One day, when she is grown up and her adoptive father is away, the king's forester just happens to pass by her house. Seeing the mysterious beauty inside, he goes to inform the king of Benares. The king sees her and makes her his wife. When she is pregnant, the king has to go to war. Meanwhile, the "other women" bribe a servant to get rid of the queen's children as soon as they are born. Queen Padumavatî gives birth to 500 children, which are taken from her and put in boxes, but a last child, Maha Paduma, the Prince, "was still in her womb". The servants trick her into thinking she gave birth to a log of wood. The returning king is fooled by the deception and expels his wife from the palace. Afterwards, to celebrate his victory, he decides to hold a river-festival. The "other women" seize the opportunity to throw the children downstream. However, the king notices the objects and asks them to be opened. Sakko (or Sakka), the "king of the gods", makes a letter appear inside each box revealing the children's parentage. The king rescues his sons, restores his wife and punishes the servants. Later, the boys grow up and proclaim they are Pacceka Buddhas to their preceptor. Academic Gunapala Piyasena Malalasekera provided more details to the story in his Dictionary of Pali Proper Names: her previous incarnation gives the Pacceka Buddha a lotus flower with 500 grains of fried rice (lājā) inside; some nearby 500 hunters also give honey and flesh to the same man and wish to be reborn as the woman's sons in their next life.

Earliest literary sources

Scholars (i.e., Hans-Jörg Uther, Joseph Jacobs, Ruth Bottigheimer, Stith Thompson) indicate Ancilotto, King of Provino, an Italian literary fairy tale written by Giovanni Francesco Straparola in The Facetious Nights of Straparola (1550–1555), as the first attestation of the tale type.

Bottigheimer and Donald Haase also list as a predecessor Neapolitan tale La 'ngannatora 'ngannata, or L'ingannatora ingannata (English: "The deceiver deceived"), written by bishop Pompeo Sarnelli (anagrammatised into nom de plume Marsillo Reppone), in his work Posilecheata (1684).

Spanish scholars suggest that the tale can be found in Iberian literary tradition of the late 15th and early 16th centuries: Lope de Vega's commedia La corona de Hungría y la injusta venganza contains similarities with the structure of the tale, suggesting that the Spanish playwright may have been inspired by the story, since the tale is present in Spanish oral tradition. In the same vein, Menéndez Y Pelayo wrote in his literary treatise Orígenes de la Novela that an early version exists in Contos e Histórias de Proveito & Exemplo, published in Lisbon in 1575. This Portuguese version lacks the fantastical motifs, albeit the third sister does promise to bear two boys "as beautiful as gold" and a girl "more beautiful than silver".

Bottigheimer, Jack Zipes, Paul Delarue and Marie-Louise Thénèze register two ancient French literary versions: Princesse Belle-Étoile et Prince Chéri, by Mme. D'Aulnoy (of Contes de Fées fame), published in 1698, and L'Oiseau de Vérité ("The Bird of Truth"), penned by French author Eustache Le Noble, in his collection La Gage touché (1700).

Distribution

Late 19th-century and early 20th-century scholars (Joseph Jacobs, Teófilo Braga, Francis Hindes Groome) had noted that the story was widespread across Europe, the Middle East and India. Portuguese writer Braga noticed its prevalence in Italy, France, Germany, Spain and in Russian and Slavic sources, while Groome listed its incidence in the Caucasus, Egypt, Syria and Brazil.

Russian comparative mythologist Yuri Berezkin (ru) pointed out that the tale type can be found "from Ireland and Maghreb, to India and Mongolia", in Africa and Siberia.

Europe

Italy

See also: Ancilotto, King of Provino § Regional tales

France

See also: Princess Belle-Etoile § Variants

Iberian Peninsula

There are also variants in Romance languages: a Spanish version called Los siete infantes, where there are seven children with stars on their foreheads, and a Portuguese one, As cunhadas do rei (The King's sisters-in-law). Both replace the fantastical elements with Christian imagery: the devil and the Virgin Mary.

Portuguese writer, lawyer and teacher Álvaro Rodrigues de Azevedo published a versified variant from the Madeira Archipelago with the title Los Encantamentos da Grande Fada Maria. Portuguese folklorist Teófilo Braga cited the Madeiran tale as a variant of the Portuguese tales he collected.

Folklore researcher Elsie Spicer Eells published a variant from Azores with the title The Listening King: a king likes to disguise himself and go through the streets at night to listen to his subjects' talk. He overhears the three sisters' talk, the youngest wanting to marry him. They do and she gives birth to twin boys with a gold star on the forehead. They are cast in the sea in a basket and found by a miller and his wife. Years later, they find a parrot with green and gold feathers in the royal gardens.

Portugal

Brazilian folklorist Luís da Câmara Cascudo suggested that the tale type migrated to Portugal brought by the Arabs.

Portuguese folklorist Teófilo Braga published a Portuguese tale from Airão-Minho with the title As cunhadas do rei ("The King's sisters-in-law"): the king, his cook and his butler walk through the streets in disguise to listen to the thoughts of the people. They pass by a verandah where three sisters are standing. The three women notice the men and the elder recognizes the cook, wanting to marry him to eat the best fricassees; the middle one sees the butler and wants to marry him to get to drink the best liquors; the youngest sister wants to marry the king and bear him three boys with a golden star on the front. The youngest sister marries the king and bears him twin boys with the golden stars, and the next year a little girl with a golden star on the front. They are replaced for animals and cast in the water, but are saved by a miller. Years later, their aunts send them for a parrot from a garden, for the tree that drips blood and the "water of a thousand springs". The Virgin Mary appears to instruct the sister on how to get a branch from tree and a jug of the water, and how to rescue her brothers from petrification.

Spain

See also: The Bird of Truth

See also: The Water of Life (Spanish fairy tale)

United Kingdom and Ireland

According to Daniel J. Crowley, British sources point to 92 variants of the tale type. However, he specified that most variants were found in the Irish Folklore Archives, plus some "scattered Scottish and English references".

Scottish folklorist John Francis Campbell mentioned the existence of "a Gaelic version" of the French tale Princesse Belle-Étoile, itself a literary variant of type ATU 707. He also remarked that "[the] French story agree[d] with Gaelic stories", since they shared common elements: the wonder children, the three treasures, etc.

Ireland

Scholarship points to the existence of many variants in Irish folklore. In fact, the tale type shows "wide distribution" in Ireland. However, according to researcher Maxim Fomin, this diffusion is perhaps attributed to a printed edition of The Arabian Nights.

One version was published in journal Béaloideas with the title An Triúr Páiste Agus A Dtrí Réalta: a king wants to marry a girl who can jump the highest; the youngest of three sisters fulfills the task and becomes queen. When she gives birth to three royal children, their aunts replace them with animals (a young pig, a cat and a crow). The queen is cast into a river, but survives, and the king marries one of her sisters. The children are found and reared by a sow. When the foster mother is threatened to be killed on orders of the second queen, she gives the royal children three stars, a towel that grants unlimited food and a magical book that reveals the truth of their origin.

Another variant has been recorded by Irish folklorist Sean O'Suilleabhain in Folktales of Ireland, under the name The Speckled Bull. In this variant, a prince marries the youngest of two sisters. Her elder sisters replaces the prince's children (two boys), lies that the princess gave birth to animals and casts the boys in a box into the sea, one year after the other. The second child is saved by a fisherman and grows strong. The queen's sister learns of the boy's survival and tries to convince his foster father's wife that the child is a changeling. She kills the boy and buries his body in the garden, from where a tree sprouts. Some time later, the prince's cattle grazed near the tree and a cow eats its fruit. The cow gives birth to a speckled calf that becomes a mighty bull. The queen's sister suspects the bull is the boy and feigns illness to have it killed. The bull escapes by flying to a distant kingdom in the east. The princess of this realm, under a geasa to always wear a veil outdoors lest she marries the first man she sets eyes on, sees the bull and notices it is a king's son. They marry, and the speckled bull, under a geas, chooses to be a bull by day and man by night. The bull regains human form and rescues his mother.

In Types of the Irish Folktale (1963), by the same author, he listed a variant titled Uisce an Óir, Crann an Cheoil agus Éan na Scéalaíochta.

Scotland

As a parallel to the Irish tale An Triúr Páiste Agus A Dtrí Réalta, published in Béaloideas, J. G McKay commented that the motif of the replacement of the newborns for animals occurs "in innumerable Scottish tales.".

Research Sheila Douglas collected from teller John Stewart, from Perthshire, two variants: The Speaking Bird of Paradise and Cats, Dogs, and Blocks. In both of them, a king and a queen have three children (two boys and a girl), in three consecutive pregnancies, who are taken from them by the housekeeper and abandoned in the woods. Years later, a helpful kind woman tells them about their royal heritage, and advises them to seek the Speaking Bird of Paradise, which will help them reveal the truth to their parents.

Wales

In a Welsh-Romani variant, Ī Tārnī Čikalī ("The Little Slut"), the protagonist is a Cinderella-like character who is humiliated by her sisters, but triumphs in the end. However, in the second part of the story, she gives birth to three children (a girl first, and two boys later) "girt with golden belts". They children are replaced for animals and taken to the forest. Their mother is accused of imaginary crimes and sentenced to be killed, but the old woman helper (who gave her the slippers) turns her into a sow, and tells her she may be killed and her liver taken by the hunters, by she will prevail in the end. The sow meets the children in the forest. The sow is killed, but, as the old woman prophecizes, her liver gained magical powers and her children use it to suit their needs. A neighbouring king wants the golden belts, but once they are taken from the boys, they become swans in the river. Their sister goes to the liver and wishes for their return to human form, as well as to get her mother back. The magical powers of the liver grant her wishes.

Mediterranean Area

Greece

See also: Sun, Moon and Morning Star

Albania

Auguste Dozon collected another version in his Contes Albanais with the title Les Soeurs Jaleuses (or "The Envious Sisters"). In this version, after their father, the previous king, dies, three sisters talk at night - an event eavesdropped by the newly-crowned king. The third sister promises to give birth to twins, a boy and a girl with "with a star on the brow and a moon on the breast". Dozon noted that it was a variant of the story published by von Hahn.

Dozon's tale was also translated into German by linguist August Leskien in his book of Balkan folktales, with the title Die neidischen Schwestern. In his commentaries, Leskien noted that the tale was classified as type 707, according to the then recent Antti Aarne's index (published in 1910).

Robert Elsie, German scholar of Albanian studies, translated the same version in his book Albanian Folktales and Legends. In his translation, titled The youth and the maiden with stars on their foreheads and crescents on their breasts, the third sister, daughter of the recently deceased previous king, promises to give birth to twins, a boy and a girl "with stars on their foreheads and crescents on their breast". The original name of the tale, in Albanian, as provided by Elsie, was "Djali dhe vajza me yll në ball dhe hënëz në kraharuar".

Slavicist André Mazon (fr), in his study on Balkan folklore, published an Albanian language variant he titled Les Trois Soeurs. In this variant, the third sister promises to give birth to a boy with a moon on his breast and a girl with a star on the front. Despite lacking the quest for the items, Mazon recognized its correspondence to other tales, such as Russian "Tsar Saltan" and MMe. d'Aulnoy's "Belle-Étoile".

Folklorist Anton Berisha published another Albanian language tale, titled "Djali dhe vajza me yll në ballë".

Malta

German linguist Hans Stumme collected a Maltese variant he translated as Sonne und Mond ("Sun and Moon"), in Maltesische Märchen (1904). This tale begins with the ATU 707 (twins born with astronomical motifs/aspects), but the story continues under the ATU 706 tale-type (The Maiden without hands): mother has her hands chopped off and abandoned with her children in the forest.

Bertha Ilg-Kössler published another Maltese tale titled Sonne und Mond, das tanzende Wasser und der singende Vogel ("Sun and Moon, the dancing water and the singing bird"). In this version, the third sister gives birth to a girl named Sun, and a boy named Moon.

Cyprus

At least one variant from Cyprus has been published, from the "Folklore Archive of the Cyprus Research Centre".

Western and Central Europe

In a variant collected in Austria, by Ignaz and Joseph Zingerle (Der Vogel Phönix, das Wasser des Lebens und die Wunderblume, or "The Phoenix Bird, the Water of Life and the Most beautiful Flower"), the tale acquires complex features, mixing with motifs of ATU "the Fox as helper" and "The Grateful Dead": The twins take refuge in their (unbeknownst to them) father's house, it's their aunt herself who asks for the items, and the fox who helps the hero is his mother. The fox animal is present in stories of the Puss in Boots type, or in the quest for The Golden Bird/Firebird (ATU 550 – Bird, Horse and Princess) or The Water of Life (ATU 551 – The Water of Life), where the fox replaces a wolf who helps the hero/prince.

A variant from Buchelsdorf, when it was still part of Austrian Silesia (Der klingende Baum), has the twins raised as the gardener's sons and the quest for the water-tree-bird happens to improve the king's garden.

In a Lovari Romani variant, the king meets the third sister during a dance at the village, who promised to give birth to a golden boy. They marry. Whenever a child is born to her (two golden boys and a golden girl, in three consecutive births), they are replaced for an animal and cast into the water. The king banishes his wife and orders her to be walled up, her eyes to be put on her forehead and to be spat on by passersby. An elderly fisherman and his wife rescue the children and name them Ējfēlke (Midnight), Hajnalka (Dawn) - for the time of day when the boys were saved - and Julishka for the girl. They discover they are adopted and their foster parents suggest they climb a "cut-glass mountain" for a bird that knows many things, and may reveal the origin of the parentage. At the end of their quest, young Julishka fetches the bird, of a "rusty old" appearance, and brings it home. With the bird's feathers, she and her brothers restore their mother to perfect health and disenchant the bird to human form. Julishka marries the now human bird.

Germany

Portuguese folklorist Teófilo Braga, in his annotations, commented that the tale can be found in many Germanic sources, mostly in the works of contemporary folklorists and tale collectors: The Three Little Birds (De drei Vügelkens), by the Brothers Grimm in their Kinder- und Hausmärchen (number 96); Springendes Wasser, sprechender Vogel, singender Baum ("Leaping Water, Speaking Bird and Singing Tree"), written down by Heinrich Pröhle in Kinder- und Völksmärchen, Die Drei Königskinder, by Johann Wilhelm Wolf (1845); Der Prinz mit den 7 Sternen ("The Prince with 7 stars"), collected in Waldeck by Louis Curtze, Drei Königskinder ("Three King's Children"), a variant from Hanover collected by Wilhelm Busch; and Der wahrredende Vogel ("The truth-speaking bird"), an even earlier written source, by Justus Heinrich Saal, in 1767. A peculiar tale from Germany, Die grüne Junfer ("The Green Virgin"), by August Ey, mixes the ATU 710 tale type ("Mary's Child"), with the motif of the wonder children: three sons, one born with golden hair, other with a golden star on his chest and the third born with a golden stag on his chest.

A variant where it is the middle child the hero who obtains the magical objects is The Talking Bird, the Singing Tree, and the Sparkling Stream (Der redende Vogel, der singende Baum und die goldgelbe Quelle), published in the newly discovered collection of Bavarian folk and fairy tales of Franz Xaver von Schönwerth. In a second variant of the same collection (The Mark of the Dog, Pig and Cat), each children is born with a mark in the shape of the animal that was put in their place, at the moment of their birth.

In a Sorbian/Wendish (Lausitz) variant, Der Sternprinz ("The Star Prince"), three discharged soldier brothers gather at a tavern to talk about their dreams. The first two dreamt of extraordinary objects: a large magical chain and an inexhaustible purse. The third soldier says he dreamt that if he marries the princess, they will have a son with a golden star on the forehead ("słoćanu gwězdu na cole"). The three men go to the king and the third marries the princess, who gives birth to the promised boy. However, the child is replaced by a dog and thrown in the water, but he is saved by a fisherman. Years later, on a hunt, the Star Prince tries to shoot a white hind, but it says it is the enchanted Queen of Rosenthal. She alerts that his father and uncles are in the dungeon and his mother is to marry another person. She also warns that he must promise not reveal her name. He stops the wedding and releases his uncles. They celebrate their family reunion, during which the Star Prince reveals the Queen's name. She departs and he must go on a quest after her (tale type ATU 400, "The Quest for the Lost Wife").

Belgium

Professor Maurits de Meyere listed three variants under the banner "L'oiseau qui parle, l'arbre qui chante et l'eau merveilleuse", attested in Flanders fairy tale collections, in Belgium, all with contamination from other tale types (two with ATU 303, "The Twins or Blood Brothers", and one with tale type ATU 304, "The Dangerous Night-Watch").

A variant titled La fille du marchand was collected by Emile Dantinne from the Huy region ("Vallée du Hoyoux"), in Wallonia.

Switzerland

In a version collected from Graubünden with the title Igl utschi, che di la verdat or Vom Vöglein, das die Wahrheit erzählt ("The little bird that told the truth"), the tale begins in media res, with the box with the children being found by the miller and his wife. When the siblings grow up, they seek the bird of truth to learn their origins, and discover their uncle had tried to get rid of them.

Another variant from Oberwallis (canton of Valais) (Die Sternkinder) has been collected by Johannes Jegerlehner, in his Walliser sagen.

In a variant from Surselva, Ils treis lufts or Die drei Köhler ("The Three Charcoal-Burners"), three men meet in a pub to talk about their dreams. The first dreamt that he found seven gold coins under his pillow, and it came true. The second, that he found a golden chain, which also came true. The third, that he had a son with a golden star on the forehead. The king learns of their dreams and is gifted the golden chain. He marries his daughter to the third charcoal burner and she gives birth to the boy with a golden star. However, the queen replaces her grandson with a puppy and throws the child in the river.

Hungary

See also: The Hedgehog, the Merchant, the King and the Poor Man § Variants

Scandinavia

Iceland

One version collected in Iceland was published by Ján Árnuson in his book Íslenzkar þjóðsögur og æfintýri (1864), with the title Bóndadæturnar. This tale has been variously translated in the following years: as "The Story of The Farmer's Three Daughters", in Icelandic Legends (1866); as Die Bauerntöchter in Isländische Märchen (1884) or as Die neidischen Schwestern in Die neuisländischen Volksmärchen (1902), by Adeline Rittershaus. The same tale was given a literary treatment and titled The Three Peasant Maidens in Icelandic Fairy Tales, by Angus W. Hall.

Denmark

Danish author Evald Tang Kristensen published some Danish variants in his lifetime. In the first tale, collected from a Jens Povlsen, from Tværmose with the title Det springende Vand og det spillende Træ og den talende Fugl ("The leaping water and the playing tree and the talking bird"), a king gets lost in the woods and stays the night in a house in the woods where three sisters live. They each tell one another their marriage plans, the third saying she wants to marry the king. The king overhears their conversation, marries the third sister and she gives birth to two boys and a girl, in three consecutive years. In this tale, the two sisters replace the children for animals.

In a second tale by Kristensen, collected from the wife of a man named Niels Pedersen, in Vejlby, with the title Den talende fugl, det syngende træ og det guldgule springvand ("The Talking Bird, the Singing Tree and the Golden-Yellow Fountain"), a king goes to war and leaves his wife to the care of his mother, who replaces her three grandchildren for animals.

In a third tale by Kristensen, collected from teller Ane Nielsen, in Lisbjærg Terp, with the title Den lille prins med guldstjærne på brystet ("The little prince with the golden star on the chest"), three princely brothers go on a journey and tell each other last night's dreams, the third tells he dreamt that he married a princess and that they had a son with a golden star on the chest. His two brothers try to kill him, but spare his life, as long as he works as their servant. The trio reaches another kingdom, whose princess falls in love with the third brother. She marries him and gives birth to a boy with a golden star. The boy's uncles bribe the widwife to cast the boy in the water to die, but the child is saved. Years later, the boy becomes a youth, works for a witch and marries her daughter. When he goes to his grandfather's palace with his wife, a parrot at the entrance announces the presence of "the prince with the golden star on his chest". Kristensen published a fourth tale with the title Den talende Fugl og det syngende Trae og det springende Vand ("The Talking Bird, the Singing Tree and the Leaping Water").

The Danish language magazine Skattegraveren published a tale provided by Jens Madsen, in Höjet, with the title Det rindende træ den syngende fugl og det gule vand ("The Flowing Tree, the Singing Bird and the Golden Water"), wherein the siblings (two brothers and a sister) seek the three treasures to embellish their castle, per the suggestion of a beggar. Another edition published a second tale, with the title Det glimrende vandspring, det spillende træ og den talende fugl ("The glistening water fountain, the playing tree and the talking bird"), that follows the usual story: three sisters, abandonment of children, quest for three treasures.

According to Bengt Holbek's Interpretation of Fairy Tales, Denmark registers at least four other variants of type 707: Livsens Vand ("The Water of Life"); Den talende fugl og det syngende trae ("The Talking Bird and the Singing Tree"), and two homonymous tales with the title Den Talende Fugl ("The Talking Bird").

Sweden

Tale type 707 in known in Sweden as Tre systrar vill ha kungen ("Three sisters want to marry the king"). A variant was collected by author and folklore researcher Eva Wigström (sv) with the title Det gyllene trädet, den sjungande floden och den talande fågeln ("The Golden Tree, the Singing River and the Talking Bird").

Other versions have been recorded from Swedish sources: Historie om Talande fogeln, spelande trädet och rinnande wattukällan (or vatukällan); another Scandinavian variant, Om i éin kung in England, from Sjundeå.

Finland

See also: The Tale of Tsar Saltan § Finland

Karelia

See also: The Tale of Tsar Saltan § Karelia

In a Karelian tale, "Девять золотых сыновей" ("Nine Golden Sons"), the third sister promises to give birth to "three times three" children, their arms of gold up to the elbow, the legs of silver up to the knees, a moon on the temples, a sun on the front and stars in their hair. The king overhears their conversation and takes the woman as his wife. On their way, they meet a woman named Syöjätär, who insists to be the future queen's midwife. She gives birth to triplets in three consecutive pregnancies, but Syöjätär replaces them for rats, crows and puppies. The queen saves one of her children and is cast into a sea in a barrel. The remaining son asks his mother to bake bread with her breastmilk to rescue his brothers.

Zaonezh'ya

See also: The Tale of Tsar Saltan § Zaonezh'ya

Veps people

See also: The Tale of Tsar Saltan § Veps people

Baltic Region

Latvia

The work of Latvian folklorist Peteris Šmidts, beginning with Latviešu pasakas un teikas ("Latvian folktales and fables") (1925–1937), records 33 variants of the tale type. Its name in Latvian sources is Trīs brīnuma dēli or Brīnuma dēli.

According to the Latvian Folktale Catalogue, tale type 707, "The Three Golden Children", is known in Latvia as Brīnuma bērni ("Wonderful Children"), comprising 4 different redactions. Its second redaction is the one that follows the siblings' quest for the treasures (a tree that plays music, a bird that speaks and the water of life).

Estonia

See also: The Tale of Tsar Saltan § Estonia

Lithuania

The tale type is known in Lithuanian compilations as Trys nepaprasti kūdikiai, Nepaprasti vaikai or Trys auksiniai sûnûs.

Lithuanian folklorist Jonas Balys (lt) published in 1936 an analysis of Lithuanian folktales, citing 65 variants available until then. In his tabulation, he noted that the third sister promised children with astronomical birthmarks, and, years later, her children seek a talking bird, a singing tree and the water of life.

According to professor Bronislava Kerbelyte, the tale type is reported to register 244 (two hundred and forty-four) Lithuanian variants, under the banner Three Extraordinary Babies, with and without contamination from other tale types. However, only 34 variants in Lithuania contain the quest for the bird that talks and reveals the truth, alongside a singing tree.

Jonas Basanavicius collected a few variants in Lithuanian compilations, including the formats The Boys with the Golden Stars and Tale of Tsar Saltan.

German professor Karl Plenzat (de) tabulated and classified two Lithuanian variants, originally collected in German: Goldhärchen und Goldsternchen ("Little Golden-Hair and Little Golden Star"). In both stories, the queen replaces her twin grandchildren (a boy and a girl) for animals. When she learns they survived, she sends them after magical items from a garden of wonders: little bells, a little fish and the bird of truth.

In a variant published by Fr. Richter in Zeitschrift für Volkskunde with the title Die drei Wünsche ("The Three Wishes"), three sisters spend an evening talking and weaving, the youngest saying she would like to have a son, bravest of all and loyal to the king. The king appears, takes the sisters and marries the youngest. Her son is born and grows up exceptionally fast, to the king's surprise. One day, he goes to war and sends a letter to his wife to send their son to the battlefield. The queen's jealous sisters intercept the letter and send him a frog dresses in fine clothes. The king is enraged and sends a written order to cast his wife in the water. The sisters throw her in the sea in a barrel with her son, but they wash ashore in an island. The prince saves a hare from a fox. The prince asks the hare about recent events. Later, the hare is disenchanted into a princess with golden eyes and silver hair, who marries the prince.

Romania

Professor Moses Gaster collected and published a Romani tale from Romania, titled Ăl Rakle Summakune ("The Golden Children"). In this tale, the prince is looking for a wife, and sees three sisters on his father's courtyard. The youngest promises to give birth to "two golden children, with silver teeth and golden hair, and two apples in their hands all golden". The sisters beg the midwife to substitute the twins, a boy and a girl, for puppies and throw them in the water. Years later, the midwife sends them for the "Snake's crown", the fairy maiden Ileana Simziana, the Talking Bird and the Singing Tree. The collector noted that the fairy maiden Ileana was the one to rescue the Brother, instead of the Sister.

In another Romanian variant, A két aranyhajú gyermek ("The Two Children With Golden Hair"), the youngest sister promises the king to give birth to a boy and a girl of unparalleled beauty. Her sisters, seething with envy, conspire with the king's gypsy servant, take the children and bury them in the garden. After the twins are reborn as trees, they twist their branches to make shade for the king when he passes, and to hit their aunts when they pass. After they go through the rebirth cycle, the Sun, stunned at their beauty, clothes them and gives the boy a flute.

Russia and Eastern Europe

Slavicist Karel Horálek published an article with an overall analysis of the ATU 707 type in Slavic sources. Further scholarship established subtypes of the AT 707 tale type in the Slavic-speaking world: AT 707A*, AT 707B* and AT 707C*.

Russia

See also: The Tale of Tsar Saltan § Russia

Eastern Europe

In an Eastern European variant, The Golden Fish, The Wonder-working Tree and the Golden Bird, the siblings are twins and their grandmother, the old queen, is the villain. Their father, Prince Yarboi, met their mother and her sisters when they were cutting grass on a hot summer day. The sisters commented that their fates were foretold, and the youngest revealed she was destined to marry the prince and bear the wonder twins. This variant was first collected by Josef Košín z Radostova, in Národní Pohádky, Volume III, in 1856, with the title O princovi se zlatým sluncem a o princezně se zlatým měsícem na prsou ("The prince with the golden sun and the princess with the golden moon on her breast"). However, the tale was translated by Jeremiah Curtin and published in Fairy Tales of Eastern Europe, as a Hungarian story.

In the South Slavic tale Die böse Schwiegermutter, also collected by Friedrich Salomon Krauss, the mother gives birth to triplets: male twins with golden hands and a girl with a golden star on her forehead. Years later, they search for the green water, the speaking bird and the singing tree.

In another South Slavic fairy tale, Die Mär von den drei wunderbaren Schwestern ("The Fairy Tale of the Three Wonderful Sisters"), the emperor spies three sisters talking, the youngest saying that she will give birth to twins with green eyes and golden hair, the boy will cry diamonds instead of tears and the girl will produce rose petals when she smiles. The emperor marries the youngest, she gives birth to the twins and they are replaced by puppies. The twins are saved by a miller. Years later, they hire builders with the boy's diamond tears and erect a palace. Their aunts send him after a wild Divenross, a golden branch that can talk, and a woman of great beauty named Pendel Hanuma. Pendel Hanuma marries the Brother and reveals the whole plot to the Emperor.

Belarus

See also: The Tale of Tsar Saltan § Belarus

Ukraine

See also: The Tale of Tsar Saltan § Ukraine

Slovakia

According to professor Viera Gaspariková, professor Frank Wollman (cs)'s fieldwork in Slovakia collected 9 variants of tale type Děti nevinné upodozrievanej matky or The Children of an Innocently Suspected Mother.

In a Slovak variant, Zlatovlasé dvojčatá ("The Golden-Haired Twins"), the prince marries the youngest sister, who promises to give birth to twins with golden hair and a star on their breast. When the time comes, a woman named Striga steals the newly-born infants and casts them out in the water. The boy and girl are soon found and given the name Janík and Ludmilka. Years later, the Striga sets the boy on the quest for the golden pear and the woman named Drndrlienka as a companion for his sister. Scholar Jiří Polívka listed another version of this story, both grouped under his own classification "Deti nevinne vyhnatej matky" ("Sons of an Innocent Exiled Maiden").

Polívka mentioned the existence of a Slovak variant titled Stromčok, Voďička, Ptáčik ("Tree, Water, Bird"), reported to be part of a Slovak collection named Codexy Revúcke ("Codices of Revúca"). He found two other tales, O stromčoku, čo všetko krási, ptáčiku, čo všetko oživuje, a o vodičke, čo všetko zná and Zlatý vták a zlatá voda ("Golden Bird and Golden Water").

Polivka identified a tale of the Boys With the Golden Stars format, which he then named Pani s chlapci zakopaná do hnojiska. Slncová matka im pomáha ("Maiden and sons buried in manure; the Sun's Mother helps them"). In this tale, O jednom zlatom orechu ("About a golden nut"), a wife gives birth to twins while her husband is at war. A witch sews the boys in an oxen hide and buries it in a pit of manure. Out of the pit springs a nut tree. The witch orders the trees to be made into beds and for the beds to be burnt to cinders. Sparks fly out of the pyre and reach a rose bush, eaten by a goat who gives birth to two kids. The animals are killed and they regain human form. The Sun, on his daily journey, sees the twins and, impressed by their beauty, tells his mother. The Sun's mother comes to them with clothes and a golden apple.

Poland

The tale type is known in Poland with the name Trzej synowie z gwiazdą na skroni ("Three Sons With Stars on the Temple").

A version from Poland has been collected by Antoni Józef Glinski, titled O królewiczu z księżycem na czole, z gwiazdami po głowie and translated into German with the name Vom Prinzen mit dem Mond auf der Stirn und Sternen auf dem Kopf (English: "The Princes with the Moon on the Forehead and Stars on the Head").

Polish ethnographer Stanisław Ciszewski (pl) collected two variants, one from Maszków, titled O grającem drzewie, złotej wodzie i gadającym ptaku ("The Music-Playing Tree, the Golden Water and the Speaking Bird"), and another from Skała, named O śpiewającem drzewie, złotej wodzie i gadającym ptaku ("The Singing Tree, the Golden Water and the Speaking Bird").

In a tale from Szląsku, O dwóch dzieciątkach na wodę puszczonych ("About two children cast into the water"), three sisters tell one another their dreams, the youngest promising to bear twin children to the king: a boy, after being washed, his bathwater will turn to gold, and a girl, flowers will bloom with every smile and pearls will fall when she cries. The king takes them to his presence and marries the third sister, but as soon as the twins are born, they are cast into the water. They are saved and raised by an old man. The twins tell him that saw in a dream a place with a fountain, a tree that sings and a bird that talks. The Brother fails, the Sister prevails, gets the treasures and saves her twin. The bird tells them to invite the king for a feast and reveals the whole truth.

Polish folklorist Oskar Kolberg collected a variant from Tarnow with the title O królewnie i dwunastu jej synach ("About the queen and her twelve children"): three sisters are stranded on a beach when the king pass by them, each promising to feed an army with little wheat, to clothe an army with little yarn and to bear 12 children with a moon on the forehead and a bright dawn on the back of the neck. She gives birth to her fabled children, but she is tossed in a barrel with her twelfth son into the sea. They wash ashore on an island. Her son goes to a place to rescue his eleven brothers and reunited the family. When the king, their father, decides to hold a ball in the palace, they decide to infiltrate the celebrations to tell their story.

Czech Republic

Author Božena Němcová published a Czech tale titled O mluvícím ptáku, živé vodě a třech zlatých jabloních ("The speaking bird, the water of life and the three golden apples"): three poor sisters, Marketka, Terezka and Johanka discuss among themselves their future husbands. The king overhears their conversation and summons them to his presence, and fulfills Johanka's wishes. Each time a child is born (three in total), the envious sisters cast the babies in the water, but they are carried by the stream to another kingdom. The second king adopts the babies and names them Jaromír, Jaroslav and Růženka.

Author and journalist Matěj Mikšiček collected and published a Moravian tale titled Pohádka o krásné zahradě ("The Tale of a Beautiful Garden"): a king has a beautiful garden. One day, three women pass by the garden and express their wishes to walk in that garden, the third one promising to bear the king twin children, a boy and a girl with a golden cross on the forehead. The king overhears their talk and chooses the third maiden as his wife. As soon as they are born, they are cast into the water by their own grandmother, but are found by a humble fisherman couple and given the names Františka and František. They are sent for three items to embellish their garden: a fountain that gushes golden pearls, a singing grass and a singing bird.

Bulgaria

The tale type 707 is attested in the Bulgarian Folktale Catalogue, by Liliana Daskalova, with at least 23 variants registered. Some of the tales show the character of the wise maiden (named Dunya Guzeli) that replaces the bird as the teller of truth.

Bulgarian folklorist Vasil Čolakov collected and published a variant from Kalofer. In this tale, every house is forbidden to light any candle at night. One night, however, the prince secretly visits the onlu illuminated house in the city and overhears the conversations between three sister and their mother: the oldest girl promises to marry the king and weave garments for an entire troop with the linen from a distaff; the middle one that she can bake bread enought for the entire troops; and the youngest that she will bear him the Sun and the Moon. The prince marries the youngest and she bears the twins, who are replaces for puppies by the jealous sisters. The twins are abandoned somewhere, while their mother is cast in a pile of dung, to be spat on by the people. A merchant finds the twins, takes them with him and raises them. Years later, the merchant dies, but entrusted the twins' care to an old woman. The old woman tells the boy, Sun, about the castle of a "dog-head", which could make their lives better. The boy finds the castle by accident during a hunt and returns to take his sister and adoptive mother to the castle, but the old woman dies. Another old woman, a sorceress, meets the twins and gives them a box; inside, a magical woman that grants all wishes. The boy wishes for a horse and goes on a journey to another castle, where he finds a tree whose leaves produce all types of sound. The boy brings the tree home and plants it. One day, the prince, his father, is invited to the twins' castle, and marvels at the tree. The next day, the old sorceress advises the boy to meet the woman on the dung heap and to wash her face. The boy does this and the guards arrest him. The old sorceress goes to the prince's court and reveals the truth. Reinhold Köhler published a summary of the tale in an article from Archiv für slavische Philologie.

In another Bulgarian variant, "Дети воеводы" ("The Voivode's Children"), three sisters of marriageable age, while spinning under the moonlight near the mill, comment among themselves what they can do if they marry the voivode's son. The youngest answers she will bear him twin boys with golden hair and silver teeth. The voivode's son marries the youngest and becomes voivode. When the times comes, the queen's sisters insist they be brought to the palace to help in labor. The eldest sister, envious of her fortune and marriage, takes both boy as soon as they are born, kills them, buries them in the garden, while putting two puppies in their place to further humiliate the queen. The voivode banishes her to a hut near a lake and marries her elder sister. Two trees with silver leaves and golden flowers sprout on the children's graves. When taking a stroll in the garden, both trees lean forward to caress the father with their leaves and to hit his new wife with their branches. The voivode's new wife cuts down the trees and burns them. Their ashes are gathered by the former wife and spread through the garden, where two cornflowers with golden stamens and silver petals grow and are eaten by a sheep. The sheep gives birth to two lambs with golden horns and silver wool. They are put in a basket and washed downstream to their mother's hut. She suckles both lambs and they regain human form. After a while, the voivode and his new wife visit the former queen in her hut and see the twin boys. The voivode returns to the palace, questions the cat, which reveals the whole truth. He punishes the new wife and restores his first wife.

A version from Bulgaria was recorded by Václav Florec in 1970, with the name Tři sestry ("Three sisters").

Slovenia

In a Slovenian variant from Livek collected by journalist Andrej Gabršček (sl) with the title Zlatolasi trojčki (sl) ("The Triplets with Golden-Hair"), a count strolls through the village and passes by a window where three sisters are gathered. They each see the count and promise him great things, the third sister that she will give birth to golden-haired triplets. They marry and she gives birth to her promised wonder children. However, the count's mother refuses to accept her as daughter-in-law, lies to her son that she gave birth to abominations and throws her grandchildren, two boys and a girl, into the sea. They are found by a miller. Their grandmother sends them after the golden apple, the speaking bird and the dancing water. The tale was also published by author Janez Dolenc (sl).

Author Anton Pegan collected a variant from tale type 707, titled Vod trejh predic, between 1868 and 1869, which was published in 2007.

Scholar Monika Kropej published a variant collected by Slovenian author Gašper Križnik with the title Od ribča ("About the fisherman") or Ribič in grofov sin ("The fisherman and the count's son"): the count's mother casts her grandson in the water, he is saved by a fisherman and his wife; the boy enters the count's garden and plants a tree that yields fruit during summer and winter.

Serbia

Variants from Serbia have been collected by Serbian philologist Vuk Karadžić, like the tale Зла свекрва ("The evil mother-in-law"), also translated into German language and published in Archiv für Slavische Philologie with the title Die böse Schwiegermutter ("The evil mother-in-law"). In this variant, the youngest sister promises to give birth to two boys with golden hands and a girl with a golden star on the forehead. They quest for the green water, the singing tree and the speaking bird. In another tale from Vuk Karadzic's collection, Опет зла свекрва or Abermals die böse Schwiegermutter ("Once again, about the evil mother-in-law"), the twins, a girl and a boy, are born with golden stars and helped by an angel.

Other tales from Serbian sources were also published in the collection: Bruder und Schwester, beide goldhaarig und silberzähnig ("Brother and Sister, golden-haired and silver-toothed"), where the Brother brings the maiden Djuzelgina as a friend for his Sister; and Zwei goldene Kinder, of the Boys With the Golden Stars format, given in abridged form.

Croatia

In a Croatian variant from Vrbovec, collected by Rikardo Ferdinando Plohl-Herdvigov with the title Kralica i tri čeri (German: Die Königin und ihre drei Töchter; English: "The Queen and her three daughters", three sisters, princesses, talk in their garden about their marriage plans with a local prince, the third princess promising to give birth to three children within a year, two boys and a girl; her first child will have a sun, the second a moon and the third a shooting star. The prince marries the third sister, but his own sister replaces the wonder children for three dogs after each birth.

Hungarian ethnographer Gaál Károly and Austrian Slavicist Gerhard Neweklowsky collected in 1964 a Croatian language tale from Stinatz, Dica na iskanju starljiev or Kinder auf Elternsuche ("Children seeking their parents"), from informant Anna Sifkovits. In this tale, a count woos a girl and they marry. While he is away at war, his wife gives birth to twins, a boy and a girl, who the count's mother orders to be cast in the water in a box. The count's mother's order is carried out, but the twins are saved by a miller. Years later, they leave the miller's home to seek for their parents, and meet a little man that gives them a little trinket that produces money. The twins live and work for some time in a tavern and later buy a house for themselves. After they build a garden, they publish on the paper an advert for people to come see their garden. One day, an old woman appears at their house and tells them about a missing object: a golden bird in a golden cage. Hans (the brother's name) rides on his horse to get the bird. Next, the old woman tells them about a golden apple, and later about a golden fish. After some time, the twins gather an assemblage of people and ask them about their parents. Hans and his sister tell that the name of their mother is written on their chests. A woman passes out in the crowd and reveals she is their mother, and later they find their father.

Moldavia

In a variant from Moldavia that follows The Boys with the Golden Stars format, the youngest maiden promises to give birth to twin children with golden hair. A witch takes the newborn royals and tries to kill them by putting them under the hooves of animals to be trampled. She fails, so she resorts to burying both under the threshold. The boys become walnut trees, then lambs, then ducks, then regain human form.

Bosnia

In a Bosnian version, Die Goldkindern ("The Gold-Children"), the youngest sister promises to give birth to a daughter with golden hair, golden hands and teeth of pearl, and a son with one golden hand, prophecizing her son will become the greatest hero that ever was. Years later, the emperor's first wife tries to get rid of the brother by telling him to kill some Moors that were threatening the realm; by sending him to tame a wild horse, Avgar, which lives in the mountains; to fetch an enchanted flowery wreath from the Jordan River; and to find an all-knowing young maiden whom "hundreds of princes have courted".

In a Bosnian-Romani tale, E Hangjuzela, Jal e Devlehki Manušni ("Hangjuzela, or the Heavenly Woman"), collected by professor Rade Uhlik from an 80-year-old woman named Seferovic Celebija, two sisters are washing their clothes in the river. The younger one says she wants to marry the king and bear a golden-toothed son and a golden-haired girl. She marries him and gives birth to the twins, who are replaced for puppies and thrown in the water. They are rescued by a fisherman. They grow up and sent on a quest for self-playing instruments (mandolins) from the giants and for Hangjuzela, the Heavenly Woman.

North Macedonia

In a tale collected by Bulgarian folklorist Kuzman Shapkarev from Ohrid, modern day North Macedonia, "Три сестри прельки, най-малата - царица или "праината и невинността секога надвиват, а злобата опропастяват", the youngest of three sisters promises that, if she marries the tsar's son, she will give birth to a boy with a star on his forehead and a girl with a moon on her neck. The tsar's son marries her and she gives birth to the boy and to the girl the next year, but her sisters replace the children for a puppy and a kitten. They put the siblings in a casket and throw them in the river. The box washes up at a mill and the miller rescues and raises both. Their foster father advises him to cover his astral birthmark, and thus the boy becomes known as "Kelesh". After a fracas between the boy and some children, the king takes notice of the star mark and begins investigating into the matter.

Bashkir people

According to Russian scholarship, the tale type is also "well-known" in the Bashkir tale corpus.

In a Bashkir tale, Санай-батыр ("Sanai Batyr"), Ulmes-Bey Batyr, an old hunter, falls ill during a hunt. His son, Kusun-batyr, journey through the whole "white world" for a cure for his father. He comes near a tree where a nest of vipers is attacking a wolf den. For three nights, Kusun Batyr kills the serpents with his sword and the wolf, as a token of gratitude, leads the youth to three birch trees, where three maidens are weaving with birch leaves and with a bird claw. From these claws three remedies will spring: kumis, spider silk and honey. The wolf explains that a mixture of these three substances will heal his ailing father. The youth also learns that the three maidens wish to marry Kusun Batyr: the first, daughter of Toygonbeya-batyr, promises to make him the most delicious kumis; the second, daughter of Targynbea-batyr, promises to weave very light outfits of a white colour, and the third, daughter of a wise aksaqal (a village elder), promises to give birth to a son stronger that his father (Sanai Batyr). Kusun Batyr gets the remedies, saves his father and marries all three, designing tasks for them: the first wife shall cook, the second shall weave and the third shall bear him the fabled son. The first two wives, jealous of the third, conspire with a wtich midwife to replace the boy with a dog and abandon him in the woods. The boy, Sanai Batyr, is rescued by the wolf who helped his father and grandfather and grows to be a fine youth. He goes to the mountains, sees a duck become a maiden and captures her, making her his wife. Despondent, Sanai Batyr wishes to travel and see the whole world, and the wolf gives him the ability to become a wasp. In wasp form, he travels to his father's lands to listen to a caravan of travellers narrate the wondrous sights they have seen. Inspired by the fantastical stories, Sanai Batyr decides to have them in his own yurt.

In another Bashkir tale, "Черный щенок" ("The Little Black Dog"), a man named Bai has four wives. He tells them he will go on a long journey and asks them what they will give him when he returns. The first says she will hunt 40 partridges to feed his 100 servants; the second - she will weave boots made of sand; the third will sew gloves made of louse skin, and the fourth says she will give birth to two sons with golden heads, teeth of pearls and silver hair. All four wives fulfill their promises, but the first three wives at first try to kill the children by placing them under cow and horse hooves to be trampled, but they are left unscathed. They decide to cast them into the water and replace them with a little black dog. When Bai returns, he banishes the fourth wife with the little dog to a windowless hut in the woods. In exile, the little dog acquires human speech and helps his "mother", by fetching the wonderful things a traveller tells Bai. At the end of the tale, the little black dog rescues the human children by using four cookies baked with their mother's milk.

Gagauz people

In a variant collected from the Gagauz people by Moshkov, "Три сестры: дѣвушка обѣщавшая царевичу, если онъ возметъ ее замужъ принести сына съ солнцемъ во лбу, а дочь съ мѣсяцемь" ("Three Sisters: the youngest said that, if she were to marry the prince, she would give birth to a son with the sun on the forehead, and a girl with a moon"), the youngest sister gives birth to her promised wonder children, but an evil old witch casts them in the river. The son of the king orders her to be interred to the chest and for everyone who passes by to spit on her. The children, raised by a miller, pass by their mother, who recognizes them. This tale was translated into English as Three Sisters by Charles Fillingham Coxwell.

Kalmyk people

Russian scholarship noted that in tales from the Kalmyk people, tale type 707 appears as continuation of tale type 313H, "The Magic Flight" (subtype with siblings). In one example, "Ьурвн кууктэ эмгн евгн хойр" ("An old man and old woman who had three daughters"), the elderly couple abandon their three daughters in the woods. The sisters meet a malevolent person in the woods and escape through the use of magical objects. The khan finds them and marries the sister who promises to bear the wondrous children with golden breast and golden braids, events that also happen in another Kalmyk variant, "Эгч-дY hурвн" ("Three Sisters").

In other tales, the wonder children are born with golden breast and silver backside. For example, in the tale "О девушке, ставшей царицей, и о ее одиннадцати сыновьях" ("About the Girl who became a queen and her 11 sons"), girl Badma wears feminine clothes at home, but disguises herself as a youth when grazing with the herd. One day, a creature named mus breaks into her house and devours her parents, but she escapes with the help of a horse. Now orphan, she employs herself to a local khan still disguised as male, but the khan tries to reveal her female identity. After some attempts, her magical horse convinces her to tell her story to the khan, who falls in love with Badma. The khan expels his previous 500 Shulma wives and marries the girl. The next year, war erupts, and the khan departs with his wife's magical horse to fight, while she stays and gives birth to eleven sons with golden breast and silver backside. The previous Shulma wives intercept a letter and falsify it to tell the khan his wife gave birth to 11 puppies. The khan orders Badma and her elder son to be cast into the sea in a barrel. Their barrel washes ashore on an island. Badma's magical horse finds its rider and, to help her, the horse begs to be sacrificed and its remains to be distributed nearby. Saddened, they follow through with the instructions, and wake up in a white, carpeted kibitka. Later, the elder son shapeshifts into a sparrow to spy on his father's court, where the previous 500 Shulma wives comment on strange wonders: a beautiful woman that comes out of the water, and on a certain beach 10 youths with golden breast and silver backside come out of the sea to eat food on their golden plates.

In another Kalmyk tale, "Кевун бээдлтэ куукн" ("Сказка про девушку с мужским поведением" or "Девушка, похожая на юношу"; "A girl dressed as a boy"), the titular heroine shows great skills at hunting and horse-riding, wearing masculine clothes when taking the herd to graze. One day, she reaches the estate of a khan, who tries to unmask her. The second part of the tale continues as tale type 707.

According to researcher B. B. Goryaeva, in another Buryat tale titled "Педрəч хан" ("Pedrech Khan"), the third sister promises to bear twins, a boy with golden chest and a girl with silver backside.

Crimean Tatars

According to scholarship, at least 4 variants have been collected from Crimean Tatar sources: Uch Kyz ("Three Girls"), Ak Kavak Kyz or Akkavak Kyz ("The Maid of the Eternal Tree"), Ay man Yildiz and Tuvarchynyn Uch Kyz (Crimean Tatar: "Туварджынынъ уч къызы"; Russian: Три дочери скотника, romanized: Tri docheri skotnika, lit. 'The Cattleman's Three Daughters'). In Uch Kyz, the third sister promises twins with uncommon hair color; in Akkavak Kyz, she promises twins, a boy and a girl, more beautiful than the Sun and the moon; in Ay man Yildiz, the male twin is born with a moon on the front and the female one with a star on the forehead; lastly, in Tuvarchynyn Uch Kyz, she gives birth to twins, the boy named Сырма ("Syrma"), and the girl Сырлы ("Syrly").

Kazan Tatars

In a tale from the Kazan Tatars, translated into Hungarian with the title Aranyfejű, ezüstkezű ("Golden Heads, Silver Hands"), a padishah's golden bird lands in a garden. Three maidens find the bird and will only return it if the padishah marries all three of them. First, however, he asks them about their skills: the first two focus on skills on weaving and sewing, but the third maiden promises to bear twin boys with golden hair and silver hands. The padishah marries all three; the first two do not deliver on their promises, while the third bears the twins. The boys are taken from her and cast into the water in a box that is found by a poor couple. Years later, one of the twins decides to travel the world and reaches another kingdom. The tale continues as tale type ATU 303, "The Twins or Blood Brothers", with the dragonslaying episode of type ATU 300, "The Dragonslayer". Finally, the tale concludes when the twins return to their father's court and reveal their life story.

Dagestan

See also: The Children with the Golden Locks (Georgian folktale) § Dagestan

Ossetia

See also: The Children with the Golden Locks (Georgian folktale) § Ossetia

Dargin people

At least two variants are reported to have been collected from Dargin sources: "Шах и бедная девушка" ("The Shah and the Poor Girl") and "Арц-Издаг" ("Silver Izdag"). In the first tale, the girl bears twins, a son with golden hair and a daughter with silver hair, and the hero is sent for a magic tree and a magical woman. In the second, only a golden-haired boy is born, and he has to seek a cat playing zurna, a tree with honey sap and a beautiful woman named Arts-Izdag, who can petrify her suitors.

Caucasus Mountains

A variant in Avar language is attested in Awarische Texte, by Anton Schiefner. In this tale, Die schöne Jesensulchar ("The Beautiful Jesensulchar"), three sisters talk what they would do if the king chose one of them as his queen, the third promising to give birth to a boy with pearly teeth and a girl with golden locks. They are replaced by a puppy and a kitten and thrown in the water. Years later, they are set on a quest for an apple tree that talks with itself and dances when applauded, and a maiden named Jesensulchar as a friend for the Sister.

Armenia

See also: Silver Hair and Golden Curls

Georgia

See also: The Children with the Golden Locks (Georgian folktale)

Adyghe people

See also: The Children with the Golden Locks (Georgian folktale) § Adyghe people

Azerbaijan

See also: The Children with the Golden Locks (Georgian folktale) § Azerbaijan

Ingush people

See also: The Children with the Golden Locks (Georgian folktale) § Ingush people

Abaza people

See also: The Children with the Golden Locks (Georgian folktale) § Abaza people

Abkhazian people

In a tale from the Abkhazians titled "Младшая дочь князя" ("The Youngest Daughter of the Knyaz"), a knyaz has three daughters and an apple tree with reddened fruits in his garden. He sets a challenge for his daughters' suitors: whoever shoots the apples with an arrow may marry one of his daughters. The son of a neighbouring king tries his luck and shoots an apple. The youngest daughter picks it up from the ground. The prince tries his luck again and shoots the other two fruits. All three sisters introduce themselves to him, who asks them about their skills: the elder two claim to be masters at any skill, while the youngest promises to give birth to a son whose half is of gold and another of silver. The prince marries the youngest. Some time later, he departs to fight in a war and leaves his wife in her sisters' care. Her son is born, but the jealous sisters take the boy and replace him for a puppy, cook him in a cauldron and pour out the liquids in the garden. The prince returns and, seeing the puppy, banishes his wife to the stables. Meanwhile, an aspen tree sprouts on the spot where they poured out the cauldron. The prince fells it down and uses it as beam in his house. His wife gets some splinters of the aspen to make a fire to warm herself. A coal jumps out of the fire and turns into a gold coin. She takes the gold coin and puts it into a chest. Some time later, she hears a voice coming from the chest: it is her son, half of silver and half of gold, now reborn. Mother and son return to the prince to reveal the truth, and he banishes his sisters-in-law.

In another Abkhazian tale titled "Как украли детей Багдажва" ("How Bagdazhva's children were stolen"), a man named Bagdazhv likes to travel the world. One day, he hears a mournful song being played in an instrument and follows the sound to its source: three women playing and mourning. Bagdazhv asks the girls what they are doing there; the three girls answer that they are orphans who only have each other. Bagdazhv brings the girls with him to a friend's house. Some time later, Bagdazhv asks the sisters about their skills: the eldest claims she can weave clothes for 10 people with sheep's wool; the second claims she can make a meal with bread and a bottle of vodka; the youngest promises to bear twins, a child of gold and a child of silver. Bagdazhv marries the elder sisters to friends and makes the youngest his wife. While he is away at war, the jealous sisters and a midwife replace the children for animals and cast them in the water. The twins are found by an old shepherd when he is grazing his she-goat, while their mother is banished to a seven-way crossroad. Years later, they grow up "different from anyone in the village". The midwife goes to the twins and persuades the brother to find as his wife the daughter of a prince who can petrify people. He passes the prince's test and marries his daughter. His sister also marries a prince and gives birth to a son. The brother's wife, a woman with all-knowing powers, sends the youth to rescue his mother from the crossroads. Bagdazhv then welcomes the twins and their spouses to a feast and the youth reveals the whole truth.

Kabardian people

In a tale from the Kabardian people titled "Чудесная гармошка" ("The Magical Garmon"), three brothers hunt in the forest at night and see a light in the distance coming from a cave. They reach the cave and see inside three women. The women explain that they are three sisters from a nearby village who were kidnapped by a man and taken to the cave, but now their captor has died and since then they have lived in the cave. The three brothers decide to marry the three women: the eldest promises to her husband that she will bear twins, a boy and a girl; the middle sister promises her spouse that she will bear a girl with half of her hair made of white gold and the other of red gold; and the youngest sister promises her man that she will bear a son to him, a Nart. Only the eldest gives birth to her promised children, who are "of extraordinary beauty", to the jealousy of her younger sisters. The two sisters take the children and cast them in the water in a box. The box is found by an old couple, while their mother is exiled in the barn. The old couple raises the twins and names the girl Babukh and the boy Cherim. The boy becomes a fine and skilled hunter and the girl grows up to be a beautiful woman. Cherim kills a deer, to the amazement of the hunters (his father and uncles). Cherim is brought to the hunters' house and his mother, from the barn, notices him. The father discovers the truth and punishes the sisters-in-law. Later, a witch, sister to the punished sisters-in-law, goes to the twins' house and tells Babukh about a magical and golden garmon between two rocks, and about a magical apple tree that blooms during the day and yields fruit at night, tended by a maid, sister of seven brothers. Cherim obtains the magical garmon, but is captured by the maid's brothers when he tries to get the apple tree. Cherim's "альп" ("alp") returns to their house and advises Babukh to take the garmon with her and ride to the house of the seven brothers to save Cherim.

Chechnya

In a tale from Chechnya titled "Зависть" ("Envy") or "Золотой мальчик и золотая девочка" ("Golden Boy and Golden Girl"), a mullah and two knyaz live in a village. The first knyaz has three daughters, and the second knyaz wants to marry one of them, so he inquires them about their skills: the elder sister says she can sew garments for 63 people with only a quarter of soft leather (maroquin); the middle one that she can make bread for 63 men with a single dish of flour; and the youngest that she will bear him a golden son and a golden daughter. The second knyaz marries the third sister, to the envy of the elders. After the knyaz leaves, his wife gives birth to a golden son and a golden daughter. The mullah, who feared that the knyaz would become even richer, advises the envious aunts to take the children and replace them for puppie, then to put the twins in a box and cast them in the water. The envious sisters carry out the mullah's plan, but the twins are found by a childless couple. The children grow up and leave their adoptive parents' house. They build a hut for themselves: the boy grazes the sheep in the forest and the girl stays home and prepares the food. The father, the second knyaz, sees the boy, which alerts the envious sisters. They confabulate with the mullah about a plan to get rid of them. The mullah goes to the twins' hut and convinces the sister to seek a golden goat that dances and grazes beyond seven mountains, a wonderful apple tree that never loses its golden apples, and a maiden named Малха-Азани (Malkha-Azani), who lives beyond nine mountains, as wife for her brother. The golden boy goes to Malkha-Azani on his horse and forces her to restore the petrified men near her palace, which she does by taking out her enchanted mirror. Malkha-Azani becomes the male twin's wife and lives with them. One day, the knyaz, their father, tells the two sisters that he will invite the twins for a feast, but he will dig up a hole in the forest and cover it with a carpet. Malkha-Azani warns the twins of the danger and they go to the knyaz's palace through another path. Malkha-Azani and the twins arrive at the palace, but she tells the knyaz they won't join them until the knyaz brings the woman he expelled. Malkha-Azani then explains that the golden twins are his sons.

Asia

Turkey

See also: The Golden-Haired Children (Turkish fairy tale)

Israel

According to an early analysis by Israeli folklorist Dov Noy (de), the Israel Folktale Archive (IFA) contained at first two variants of the tale type, one from a Yemeni source, and another from a Turkish source. A later study by scholar Heda Jason showed 7 variants in the Jewish Oriental tale corpus.

Middle East

The tale type appears in fairy tale collections of Middle Eastern and Arab folklore. Scholar Hasan El-Shamy lists 72 variants of the tale type across Middle Eastern and North African sources. He also stated that variants were collected "in the Eastern part of the Arab culture area", namely in Palestine, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq.

A second variant connected to the Arabian Nights compilation is Abú Niyyan and Abú Niyyatayn, part of the frame story The Tale of the Sultan of Yemen and his three sons (The Tale of the King of al-Yaman and his three sons). The tale is divided into two parts: the tale of the father's generation falls under the ATU 613 tale type (Truth and Falsehood), and the sons' generation follows the ATU 707. A third version present in The Arabian Nights is "The Tale of the Sultan and his sons and the Enchanting Bird", a fragmentary version that focuses on the quest for the bird with petrifying powers.

In an Arab variant, "Царевич и три девушки" ("The Emperor and the Three Girls"), three poor weaving sisters work late at night by candlelight, when the prince comes and spies on them. He overhears the oldest boasting that she would weave a carpet for the entire army to sit, the middle one that she would cook enough food to feed his army, and the youngest that she would bear "a bar of gold and a bar of silver". The prince summons them to his presence, and the youngest explains she meant a son (gold) and a daughter (silver). Her sisters replace them for puppies, and she is banished from the palace. The twins are found by a fisherman. In this version, the prince simply meets the twins while walking through the city, and remarries his own wife, without knowing it at first.

Lebanon

In a Lebanese variant, Die Prinz and seine drei Frauen ("The Prince and his three Wives"), a farmer's three daughters wish to marry the prince, the youngest promising to give birth to a girl with golden hair and a boy with silver hair. The prince marries all three, and the elder sisters replace the children for a cat and a dog. They are saved by a fisherman and his wife, who sell the children's metal-coated hair in the market. They become rich, their parents die and they move out to a palace in the prince's city. Their aunts send them on a quest for a tree with drums and music and a bride for his brother. The bride, with her omniscient knowledge, narrates the twins' story to the king during a dinner.

Syria

In a Syrian variant from Tur Abdin, collected by Eugen Prym and Albert Socin, Ssa'îd, the king of grasshoppers, has three wives, but no children yet. The third wife, also the youngest, gives birth to a boy and a girl, who are replaced for cats and thrown in the water. They are rescued by a fisherman and his wife, and whenever they are bathed, gold and silver appear in the bathwater. One day, when the brother is insulted for not knowing his true parentage, he leaves his adoptive parents with his sister. They then move to a hut near the king's residence, which they demolish and build a palace. The brother is the one to reveal the whole truth to his father, the king.

In a Syrian tale collected by Uwe Kuhr with the title Die drei Schwestern ("The Three Sisters"), one night, three sisters confess their innermost desires: the eldest wants to marry the king's cook to eat the best dishes; the middle one the king's pastrymaker to eat the finest sweets; and the youngest the king himself, for she wants to bear him a brave and clever son. The king overhears their talk and summons them the next morning to his palace. The king marries the youngest, to the sisters' jealousy. When their sister gives birth to twins, a boy and a girl, they cast the children in a box in the river and tell the king the babies were stillborn. The box is saved by a childless sheik, who adopts the twins and names them Jamil (the boy) and Jamila (the girl). Years later, when the sheik dies, their jealous aunts send them for the silver water, the golden tree and the truth-telling peacock, located in the Mountain of Wonders.

Palestine

Scholars Ibrahim Muhawi and Sharif Kanaana collected a Palestinian Arab variant titled Little Nightingale the Crier (blebl is-sayyah). In this tale, the third and youngest sister promises to give birth to three children, 'Aladdin, Bahaddin and Šamsizzha, who, if she smiles, the sun will shine when it is raining, and if she cries, it will rain when it is sunny. The children are replaced for animals by their jealous aunts to humiliate their mother. Year laters, the children build a palace for them, and an old crone tells them that their garden is missing a bird called Little Nightingale the Crier.

In a Palestinian version from Birzeit, Die ausgesetzten Zwillingskinder ("The abandoned twin children"), the third and youngest sister promises to give birth to twins, a boy and a girl with silver and golden hair, but the girl shall have three teeth: one to quench the thirsty, the second to satiate the hungry and the third to feed the tired. The twins are still set on a quest for a bird that flaps its wings and sings.

Iraq

Novelist and ethnologist E. S. Drower collected an Iraqi tale titled The King and the Three Maidens, or the Doll of Patience. This tale focuses on the mother's plight: the youngest sister promises children born with hair of gold on one side and silver on the other, but, as soon as they are born, the children are cast into the water by the envious older sisters. She is told she must never reveal the truth to her husband, the king, so she buys a doll to confide in (akin to The Young Slave and ATU 894, "The Stone of Pity").

In a dialectal variant collected in Baghdad with the title The Nightingale, a sultan's son camps out with his army near the grand vizier's three daughters. Each of the girls announce their wishes to marry the sultan's son by performing grand feats: the oldest by baking a loaf of bread to feed the sultan's son and the army, the middle by weaving a carpet large enough for everyone to seat, and the youngest by bearing twins, a boy with gold locks and a girl with silver locks. The sultan's son marries the elder girl first, but when she states she cannot bake a loaf of bread as she described, she is downgraded to the kitchen. The same happens to the second sister. When the third sister does bear her twins, her sisters replace the children for puppies and throw them in the river. The twins are saved by a fisherman and his wife; whenever they bathe the twins, a bar of gold and a bar of silver appear. His aunts send them after the clapping apples, the ululating pomegranates, and the singing nightingale.

Assyrian people

In a tale from the Assyrian people, "Царь Шах-Аббас и три девушки" ("Tsar Shah-Abbas and the Three Girls"), Emperor Shah Abbas spies on three sisters talking, the youngest promising to bear male twins with curls of pearl. After their birth, the sisters replace them for puppies and puts them in the water in a box. Both boys are saved by a miller. When they are nine years old, they wreck their adoptive father's mill and decide to leave home. They settle in a house in the wood that belong to their biological father, Shah-Abbas. One of his messengers scolds the boys and orders them to appear at the king's presence. They pass by a woman and do not spit on her. The twins wonder why she is in a sorry state, and a jet of milk from her breasts enters their mouths. The guards send them to the king, who asks about their life story, and summons his disgraced wife, who confirms the twins' narration.

Saudi Arabia

As part of fieldwork in Jizan region, researcher Waleed Ahmed Himli collected in 2008 a tale from 88-year-old teller Nema Amshanaq. In her tale, titled El-Bolbol El-Saiyyah ("The Singing Nightingale" or "The Warbler Nightingale"), a king is going to the hajj, and tells his mother to look after his pregnant wife. The wife gives birth to "beautiful" twins, a boy and a girl, who are taken from her by the queen mother and cast in the water in a box. The twins are saved by a fisherman and his wife, who give the boy a magical ring. Years later, the queen mother visits the twins and convinces the girl to ask her brother for a flowing river beside their palace, fragrant roses and a singing nightingale - which the brother obtains by using the magic ring to wish for them. Lastly, the boy searches for the "China China Girl" as his bride, and goes on a journey to find her. Himli also indicates that the tale type is "widely reported ... [from] various parts of Saudi Arabia".

Kurdish people

In a Kurdish tale, Мирза-Мамуд и Хезаран-Больболь ("Mirza-Mamud and Khezaran-Bolbol"), the padishah marries three sisters, the yougest promising to give birth to golden-haired twins, a boy and a girl. Her envious sisters replace the children for animals and cast them in the sea in a box. The box is rescued by a miller, who saves the twins and names them Mirza-Mamud (the boy) and Golizar (the girl). Years later, they move to a new house and the boy meets his father, the Padishah, in a deer hunt. The queen's sisters despair and send an old woman to convince Golizar and Mirza-Mamud to go on a dangerous quest for a maiden named Зардухубар (Zardukhubar). Mirza-Mamud rescues Zardukhubar and they escape from an ogress (tale type ATU 313H*, connected to The Magical Flight or The Devil's Daughter). Zardukhubar becomes Golizar's house companion. Later, the old woman tells the siblings about a magical bird named Khezaran-Bolbol. Mirza-Mamud fails the quest and is petrified. Noticing his long absence, Golizar and Zardukhubar seek him out. They meet an old hermit on the way who tells them how to safely capture the bird. Both women rescue the youth and a whole garden of petrified people. On their way back, the hermit asks them for a prayer, which the trio do and disenchant him into a handsome young man. The quartet is invited to a feast with the king, but the bird warns them their food is poisoned. As instructed by the bird, the siblings invite their father, the padishah, to their house, where the whole truth is revealed.

In another Kurdish tale, "Златокудрые" ("Golden-Curls"), collected in 1976 from informant Osei Shababa, a padishah forbids lighting up a source of light in any house at night, but one house's residents break the prohibition. The padishah and his vizir visit the house and overhear the conversation of three spinning sisters: the eldest promises to make a grand meal for the padishah if he takes her for wife; the middle one promises to weave a unique and singular carpet and the youngest promises to bear him a boy and a girl with golden curls. The padishah marries the youngest and goes to war; a wtich takes the children, replaces them for puppies and casts them in a box in the sea. The box with the children washes ashore; a deer sees the twins and nurses them. Years later, the boy, named Hussein, and the girl, named Gulizar, build a house for them and make garments made of gazelle skin. One day, the padisah hunts some gazelles and is led to the twins' house. He admires the boy's golden curls and imagines what his son could have been. The sisters-in-law send the witch to the twins' house. The witch passes herself as a devotee on a hajj and sends them, first, after a magical tablecloth that produces food with a magical wand, and, later, for a maiden named Шарихубар (Sharikhubar). When Hussein goes for her, her powers petrify him, so his sister Gulizar is the one to rescue him and get Sharikhubar back home. At last, Sharikhubar helps them reveal the truth of their origin.

Researcher Sara Belelli collected and published a Kurdish variant in the Laki language from Kermanshah, with the title Mā(h) pīšānī ("Moon-forehead") (tale types ATU 480 and ATU 707): a girl meets by the riverbank an old ugly woman and compliments her head. When the river water becomes yellow, the old woman throws the girl in the river and she comes out with a moon and a star on her forehead. When the girl's stepsister meets the old woman, she insult her and becomes ugly. The tale then focuses on a prince, who meets Māh pīšānī and her two elder sisters: the elder promises to cook a man of rice to feed 500 people; the middle one that she can weave a carpet large enough for a thousand people, and Māh pīšānī promises to bear him a boy who can cry tears of pearl and a girl whose laughter produces flowers.

Pamir Mountains

In a tale from the Pamir Mountains, from the collection of Ivan Zarubin, "Три сестры" ("Three Sisters"), the royal vizier overhears the three sisters' talk while they are getting water, the youngest promising to bear a golden-haired boy and a beautiful girl if she marries the king. The vizir reports his findings to the king and he marries the third sister. When the twins are born, they are replaced by two puppies, but are found by the gardener. Years later, they are sent after a dress made by the claws of a fox, a magic mirror that can see the whole world and the talking parrot. The parrot stops an accidental marriage between the king and his daughter, and the gardener tells the twins the truth of their adoption in a banquet with the monarch.

Iran

Professor Ulrich Marzolph, in his catalogue of Persian folktales, listed 10 variants of the tale type across Persian sources, which he classified as Die gerechtfertigte verleumdete Frau ("The calumniated girl is vindicated"). These stories vary between the quest for the usual treasures and the Fairy Maiden.

Regional tales

In a variant titled The Story of the Jealous Sisters, collected by Emily Lorimer and David Lockhart Robertson Lorimer, from Kermani, a father abandons his three daughters in the woods. A prince finds them and marries the youngest sister. After she becomes his wife, she gives birth to twins: "a son with a tuft of golden hair and a daughter with a face as beautiful as the moon". Her jealous sisters throw them in the stream. The prince condemns his wife to be trapped in a lime pillar and for stones to be thrown at her. Years later, when the brother passes by her, the youth throws a rose leaf at her, which prompts the king to summon his sisters-in-law.

In a tale collected from a teller in Isfahan and published by professor Mahomed-Nuri Osmanovich Osmanov (ru) with the title "Мельник с золотыми кудрями" ("The Boy with Golden Curls"), three sisters are talking through the night, and the youngest says she will give birth to a boy with golden curls she will name Kazolzari: when he cries, diamonds and pearls will appear; when he laughs, roses will fall from his mouth, and with every step he takes, he leaves behind a trail of bars of gold and silver. The shah listens to their conversation and brings them all to his presence; he marries the sisters off to the vizier and a courtier, and the youngest becomes his queen. The queen's jealous sisters replace the boy for a puppy, and throws him in the water. The boy is saved by an elderly couple who owns a bathhouse. His aunts feign illness and send him to a get milk from a lioness, a mare that gave birth to 40 foals, and a self-swinging cradle. At the end of the tale, Kazolzari takes a wooden horse to eat hay in front of the king, who notices the absurdity of the situation. The youth answers that it is no more absurd with a human woman giving birth to a puppy.

In a variant from Bushehr Province, published in 2003 with the title شاه و هفت زن (English: "The Shah and the Seven Women"), a childless king hasn't fathered a son, despite being married to six co-wives. During a hunt, he sights a beautiful peasant maiden and asks her father for her hand in marriage. She becomes the seventh queen and gives birth to a boy and a girl. The other six wives, jealous of her, bribe the midwife to get rid of the babies in a wooden box and to replace them for puppies. The wooden box with the twins is cast in the sea, but they are rescued by an old woman. Years later, they move out of the old woman's house to another home in the woods, where the king sees them. He tells the other queens about the encounter and the six women, fearing the king might discover the truth, send the midwife to convince the twins to seek Manni Chen (a magical harp that sings) and a shining scarf from the ghouls.

India

See also: The Boy with the Moon on his Forehead

Bangladesh

At least one variant of tale type 707 is attested in the academic literature of Bangladesh.

Lapcha people

In a tale collected from the Lapcha people in Sikhim, The Golden Knife and the Silver Knife, King Lyang-bar-ung-bar-pono goes on a hunt with his two dogs. The dogs follow two stags. The animals turn into she-devils and kill the dogs. The king discovers their corpses and follow a trail into a second realm, Lung-da. He goes to the king's palace and meets two fairies: Se-lamen and Tung-lamen. Se-lamen spends a night with the king and promises to feed the entire palace with a grain of rice. Tung-lamen spends the next night with him and promises that she can clothe the king down to the poorest person with only one roll of cloth. The king Lyang-bar meets Ramit-pandi, the daughter of the king of Lung-da, who promises to give birth to a golden knife and a silver knife. They marry and Ramit-pandi gives birth to twins, who are replaced for puppies by the fairies. The evil fairies put the twins in an earthen pot and bury it deep in the ground at a crossroads. The twins' mother is killed, but her corpse floats upstream. The boys are found by a poor old couple. Years later, king Lyang-bar summons the twins to his presence to inquire them about their origins, and the evil fairies convince the king to send them after the golden and silver flutes of the demon Chenchhyo-byung-pono. The twins steal the flute and a pair of tusks and make peace with the demon, returning soon after to their father's kingdom to reveal the whole truth and to resuscitate their mother.

In another tale, The King of Lyang-bar and the two witch nurses, the queen of the king of Lyang-bar has two nurses who are witches in disguise. While bathing in the sea Jam-chi-chume-der, they fill their wooden bowls with flowers, while the queen plays with her golden plate. It was all a ruse to make the queen flee her home once she sets the golden plate on the water and loses it. The trio journeys to another realm, the Sachak-lat land, whose king dreamt his future wife was coming to him. He finds the three women and tests their abilities, by asking them to wash his head and brush his hair. The two witches act in a forceful manner, but the queen does it gently. They marry and she is expecting three sons. The children are born and put in a box in the water. The three children, a girl and two boys, are saved by an old fisherman and his wife. One day, they carve a wooden horse and ride it to the fountain where the queen and the witches were bathing, and taunt them that a wooden horse drinking water is the same absurd notion that a human woman gave birth to animals. Enraged, the witches feign illness and try to convince the king to kill the children and take their livers as remedy. The assassination plot is averted by the children, who each go their separate ways. Then, the elder brother tries to find their siblings, but only finds their remains. He builds a pyre to burn it, but falls in the flames, perishing also. After three days, a fir-tree springs out of the ashes with the reborn three siblings. The king's syce finds the fir-tree and reports to the king, who goes to the tree with the queen to convince the children to climb down the tree. The children agree, after their parents promise to punish the two witches.

Tibet

Two other Asian versions were recorded by M. Potanine (Grigory Potanin): one from Amdo, in northeast Tibet, from an old "Tangoute" that hailed from Lan-tcheou (in Kan-sou); and a second one that he heard in Ourga (ancient French language name for the city of Ulaanbaatar). The Amdo/Tangut story begins largely the same: two princesses, Ngulyggun ("silver queen") and Kserlyg gun ("golden queen") play the basin game with the king's maid, Yog-tamu-nzo. The princesses lose a silver and a golden basin, the maid returns to the king to inform him, and goes back to the princess with the false story about them being expelled from the kingdom. The maid forces the princesses to exchange places on their way to another realm. They meet a prince; he shoots three arrows to choose his cook and they fall near Kserlyg. On their way to the prince's palace, the maiden Yog-tamu pushes Kserlyg into a lake to drown, forces Ngulyggun into menial service and becomes queen. Ngulyggun, while taking the sheep to graze, receives the visit of her sister's spirit, who gives her bread and food. Yog-tamu discovers this situation and kills Kserlyg's spirit. Ngulyggun gives birth to a half-silver, half-golden child, and Yog-tamu orders the baby to be trampled by sheep, but they scatter. She orders to be trampled by cows and horses, but the baby is spared. Then she orders the baby to be buried in a hole and for it to be filled with manure. A flower sprouts. A sheep eats it and gives birth to a piebald sheep, who talks to its human mother, Ngulyggun. The false queen orders the sheep to be slaughtered and its bones gathered by Ngulyggun. The maiden takes the bones to a cave and, for three times, the bones become a lama. The lama asks his mother to summon the false queen to the cave, where the whole truth is revealed.

Northern Asia

Mansi people

In a tale from the Vogul (Mansi people) published and translated by Finno-Ugricist János Gulya (de) with the title A legkisebb nővér fiacskája ("The Little Son of the Youngest Sister"), each one of three sisters leave home and are forced to marry the same man, an old man who lived in a hut in the woods. One day, before he goes on a hunt, he asks his three wives what they will give him when he returns. The oldest answers she will weave a great linen for him with 100 fathoms, the second that she will weave a heavy 100-pound net, and the third that she will bear him a son with silver arms, golden legs, a sun on the front and the moon on the back of the neck. The boy is born, but cast in the sea and replaced for a little dog. The husband is furious with the third wife, breaks her arms and throws her in the sea with the little dog. They wash ashore on a beach, she heals herself with dew and lives with the little dog in a small cave. The petit animal rescues the little boy with wooden bowls of her breastmilk and takes him to his mother, who confirms their relationship by jets of her breastmilk. The boy grows up in days and builds a house for them on the beach. Sailors come to visit the house and report to the old man their findings. The old man's two wives try to dismiss the sailors' story by telling about even more extravagant sights: a bull with a sauna between its horns, and a birch tree with a cuckoo that produces silver when it sings. The man's son learns of this by a looking glass and commands his servants to have these things on his house.

Khanty people

In a tale collected by Serafim Keropowitsch Patkanov (de) from the Ostyak (Khanty people) with the title The Story of a Wise Maiden, three princes seek wives for themselves. When walking through a city in the dark of night, they see a light in the distance coming from a house. They get a ladder and peer into the illuminated room. Three sister are talking: the eldest wants to marry the elder prince and bear him two daughters, the middle one the middle prince and bear him a daughter and a son; and the youngest wants to marry the youngest prince, and she shall bear him a daughter and two sons, each of them with shining heavenly stars on the crown on their heads, the sun on the forehead, a moon on the back on the neck, and the youngest son shall have the joints of his right hand and right foot in a golden color. She marries the younger prince and bears the three children. Each time, her sisters take the baby to be eaten by "an upper and a lower shade", but, failing that, replace them for puppies. Their mother is nailed to the church door, while the children are reared in a moos. The sisters learn of this and throw the babies in the water to die, but they are saved by a poor fishing couple. Years later, the siblings, now adults, talk to coming traders, and the girl gives them a dog (the younger brother). When the traders depart and reach another town, the brother-as-dog overhears their conversation about wondrous things: a birch tree with small bells and tambourines that when shaken produces silver, a reindeer stag whose antlers hold tinkling silver bells, and a girl with heavenly stars on the crown of her head, a sun on the forehead and the moon on the back of her neck that lives in an iron house at the end of the world. The two brothers get the first two objects and decide to make the woman the bride of one or the other. The brothers fail to get the maiden from the iron house, but their sister visits her and convinces her to resurrect her brothers. The four return to their adoptive parents' house. Some time later, the girl from the iron house tells them about their birth mother, and goes with the sibling to a dinner with the king. The mother is taken off the church door, clothed and bathed and presented to the dinner. The girl from the iron house tells her to squeeze her breasts, so that her breastmilk flows into the mouths of the siblings, proving their relationship.

Yukaghir people

In a tale collected by ethnographer Vladimir Jochelson from the Yukaghir people with the title "Сказка о стучащей ягодъ девушки" ("The Tale about the Berry-Picking Women"), a man has two wives. When he goes to a hunt, his elder wife promises to give him new clothes when he returns, while the younger wife promises to give birth to a son with the sun on the forehead, the star on the top of his head, and a moon on the neck.

Buryat people

Russian scholarship has noted that in Buryat tales and üligers, children born with golden breast and silver backside often show supernatural abilities and functions akin to a cultural hero. They appear in tales classified as type 707, as well in other unrelated types.

In a tale from the Buryat with the title "Девушка и говорящий бархатисто-черный конь" or "Хэли мэдэдэг хэлин х хара моритой басаган" ("The Girl and her talking silky black horse"), a maiden lives with her parents, who are visited by a man named Badarchi Lama. He convinces the girl's parents to expel her from home, under the pretense that she is an evil spirit. The maiden is helped by a talking horse and escapes before her parents do anything to her. With the horse's help, she competes in a male-only tournament (a ploy by the khan to unmask his prophecised daughter-in-law) - a tale type not yet classified in the Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index. As the tale continues, the virago maiden gives birth to a boy with golden breast and silver backside, and her husband takes her magical horse to help him in a war. The same Badarchi Lama intercepts the royal mail and falsifies a letter with an order to dig a hole and bury queen and son inside it. They carry out the order, but the magical black horse, back from the war, rescues them out of the pit and escapes with both to the distant mountains. Now at a safe distance, the horse tells them he is about to expire, and says his remains (bones, skin, head) can help the pair.

In the second tale, "Младшая ханша и ее Златогрудый сын" or "Хаанай бага хатан Алтан сээжэтэй хубуун хоёр" ("The youngest princess and her golden-breasted son"), a khan with two wives decides to marry a third time. One day, before going to war, he asks what his wives will present him upon his return; the third promises to give birth to a boy with golden breast and silver backside. The jealous co-wives throw the boy to the dogs, but he returns later to his father's court and tells his mother's story.

In another tale, "Жагар Мэшэд хан" ("Jagar Meshed Khan"), a powerful khan has three wives. Before he goes to war, the third one promises him a son with golden breast and silver behind. The other two queens become jealous, replace the boy for a puppy and bury him under the palace doors. The khan returns and tries to open the door, so he announces he will beat the drums to summon his people, but the two queens dissuade him. That night, they exhume the boy's remains and throw it in a deep well. Some time later, the khan takes his gray horse to drink from the well. The man notices something wrong with the well and decides to summon workers to dig up the well. The queens dig up the bones, grind them to powder and feed to a cow. The animal gives birth to a calf with coral horns, golden chest and silver behind, which becomes the khan's pet. The jealous queens notice the calf and order a servant to take it to the mountains to kill it, but the animal escapes. Some time later, a young man in rags appears at the khan's court and tells him the whole story. Not believing the youth's words, the khan shoots an arrow at him. The arrow does not harm him, and the youth takes off his rags to show his golden breast, which confirms he is the khan's son.

In another Buryat tale, "Богатый царь Бадма" ("Bogatyr Tsar Badma") or A gazdag Badma hán ("The Rich Khan Badma"), Tsar/Khan Badma lives in a grand and splendid palace with three three wives, the third named Namtu Haraksin. On one occasion, Badma asks his three wives what they will give him when he returns from a journey, the third wife saying she will bear him a son with golden chest and silver backside. Badma rides to the Altai Mountains and returns home. The jealous cowives replace the boy for a black puppy and cast him in the sea. Badma admonishes his third wife. The next time he has to go on a journey, Namtu Haraksin promises to give birth to another boy with golden chest and silver backside. Once again, the jealous cowives replace the boy for a black puppy and cast him in the sea. Badma has to go on another journey, and Namtu Haraksin gives birth to another boy with golden chest and silver backside who she "hides in her sleeve", while the cowives place a puppy in its place. after Badme sees the third puppy, he orders the wife to be sewn in a bull's hide, put in a barrel and for the barrel to be thrown in the sea. Namtu Haraksin and her third child pray to the gods to be rescued and the gods make the barrel wash ashore in a beach. With magical powers, the boy creates a palace for him and his mother. Some time later, the "three riders of Tomo Ula" visit the city by ship on the way to Badma Khan and a little yellow dog (Namtu Haraksin's son) appears to them. The boy becomes a fly and follows the ship. The riders meet Badma Khan and tell him about the palace on the island, but Badma's cowives tell them about an evergreen birch tree with 70 nests of birds that sing all year; then about the king of boars, Hadargan, which ploughs the land with its tusks while his subjects harvest the grains to make alcoholic drinks; and lastly about two boys that live in a iron palace on the other side of the Black Sea who play with the mountains and are guarded by a black dog. Namtu Haraksin's son gets the birch tree and the boar, and decides to get the two boys. His mother prepares two cakes with her breastmilk for the journey. In the iron palace, the two boys eat the cakes with breatmilk and recognize it as their mother's. Their brother appears and takes them to Namtu Haraksin, their mother.

Torghut people

In a tale from the Torghut of Karasahr, colllected by Adam Benningsen with the title "Сказка о Буджин-Дава-хан" ("The Tale of Budjin-Dava-Khan"), Budjin-Dava-Khan has 500 wives, but no son yet. He has a hound named Khasar, which he sets lose one day and follow its trail. He reaches a large house; inside, a mother and her three daughters. He spies on their conversation: the elder sister promises that, if she marries Budjin-Dava-Khan, she will prepare a 9 course meal for 500 people with a single egg; the middle sister that, with the wool of a single she-goat, she can weave a carpet large enough for the Khan and his retinue, and the youngest promises to bear him a son of gold and a girl of silver. The Khan decides to marry all three women. The elder sisters fulfill their boasts and become co-wives of the khan and conspire with the other 500 wives to replace the khan's children with puppies. They seek the services of Цок-Тырыл тушмыла (Tsok-Tyryl tushmyla), who places the twins in a golden box, in a silver box, in a copper box, in an iron box, in a wooden box and wraps it in a leather bag. The boxes float downstream and are found by a fishing couple. After 11 years, the fisherman dies, but asks the golden boy to visit his grave one night. The boy goes and gains a mighty gray horse, equipped wih weapons and armor. He eventually meets Budjin-Dava-Khan, who notices the boy's extraordinariness. The eldest khatun, named Mani-Dara, goes to the twins' house and convices the silver girl to seek a branch of the tree saikhan-saglar (guarded by three many-headed Mangyt-khais) and a maiden named Saikhan-Sarane, daughter of Zandan-tengir, as a wife for her brother. Saikhan-Sarane restores petrified people to life, and resurrects the twins' mother.

Central Asia

Folklorist Erika Taube stated that the tale type was "widespread" in Turkic-Mongolian traditions. The tales may vary in the number of the khan's wives (none, at first, or 1, 2, 3, 12 and even 108); the number of children (a son, two sons, a son and daughter pair or three sons), all born with special attributes (golden chest, silver backside, or legs of gold or silver).

Following professor Marat Nurmukhamedov's study on Pushkin's verse fairy tale, professor Karl Reichl argues that the dastan (a type of Central Asian oral epic poetry) titled Šaryar, from the Turkic Karakalpaks, is "closely related" to the tale type of the Calumniated Wife, and more specifically to The Tale of Tsar Saltan.

In a Kyrgyz tale, A kán fia ("The children of the khan"), a khan has 40 other wives, but marries a maiden he meets in his travel who promises to give birth to twins, a boy and a girl with golden chest and silver back. They are born, replaced by puppies and adopted by a man named Akmat. The brother searches for a white apple tree that always bears fruit, a talking parrot and a woman of great beauty named Kulanda.

Kazakhstan

Kazakh literary critic and folklorist Seyt Kaskabasov stated that type 707 is among the 15 tale types of the international index that are present in both Kazakhstan and elsewhere. Type 707 is reported to register 8 or 9 variants, and Kaskabasov supposes that, apart from tale "Алтын Айдар" ("Altyn Aidar"), at least 6 variants derive from qissa (ru) (Kazakh epic oral poetry) "Мунлык-Зарлык" ("Munlyk-Zarlyk").

In a Kazakh tale, "Три сестры" ("Three Sisters"), a prince, the khan's son, is looking for a bride, when he stops by a tent, where he hears three womanly voices talking about their marriage wishes: the oldest sister says she will weave a golden carpet for his throne; the middle, that she will cook a feast for everyone with only an egg, and he youngest that she will bear the khan's son a boy with golden head and a girl with silver head. The prince decides to marry all three women, the first two accomplishing their promised feats. When it is time for the youngest queen to bear the fabled twins, her elder sisters convince a witch to throw the twins in the sea as soon as they are born and to replace them for animals. It just so happens and the twins are cast in a box that is saved by a poor old couple. They raise the twins and name the boy Kudaibergen ("given by God") and the girl Kunslu ("solar beauty"). Twelve years pass, the old man dies. The boy finds a powerful horse and begins to hunt, when he meets the king during a hunt. The sisters notice and send the witch to convince Kunslu to send her brother on dangerous quests: to get a self-playing dombra, a mirror that can see the whole "white world", and to seek Toshilar's daughter, Aislu ("lunar beauty") as his zhenge (the older brother's wife in the Kazakh familial system). Kudaibergen is advised by a helpful witch named Zhalmauyz Kempir, who, in regards to the second object (the mirror), tells the youth to seek the aid of the bird Samruk. When the boy tries to court Tolishar's daughter, her father shouts a magic spell to slowly petrify the youth. The prince, now khan himself, after seeing in the mirror his wife, tending to two dogs in the desert, orders his viziers to bring her back and learns of the whole plot.

Tajikistan

In a Tajik tale, A beszélö pagagáj ("The Talking Parrot"), the padishah marries the youngest sister, who promised to give birth to a boy and a girl with hair bright like fire, faces bright as the sun and with a beauty mark on their brow. The padishah's other three wives bribe an old nurse to dispose of the children. The old nurse, however, takes them to a shepherd to raise. Years later, they are sent on a quest for a magical mirror that can see the whole world and a talking parrot.

Russian scholar I. M. Oranksij collected a variant in the Parya language from kolhoznik Ašur Kamolov in 1961, in Hissar district. In his tale, a padishah with two wives goes in search of a third one. He meets three women talking: the daughter of the vizir, the daughter of the bey and the daughter of the shepherd. The daughter of the shepherd says that she will bear a boy and a girl "as have never existed in the (whole) world". They marry. After the birth of the twins, they are replaced by the other co-wives by puppies and abandoned in the steppes, but a gazelle nurses the babies. Years later, they are sent for a talking nightingale.

Tuva

Russian ethnologist Grigory Potanin recorded a variant from Uryankhay Krai, modern day Tuva, with the title "Мынг хонгор атту Тюмендей и его сынъ Ерь Сару". In the first part of the tale, a being named Tyumendey, under the guise of a Dzhelbag, forces an old man to surrender his three daughters in exchange for his freedom. The old man and his wife convince the girls to fetch fruits in the woods. They return to the yurt and see Dzhelbag. The girls escape by using objects to create magical obstacles to their pursuer. They meet a beaver near a river that carries them across the water. The beaver tells the girl to toss some stones in the river; Dzhelbag drowns. The animal advises them to climb up three fir trees and wait there. In the second part of the story, as the three sisters are sitting on treetops and playing musical instruments, three hunters pass by the trees when water pours down on them. Thinking it rain, they look up and see the maidens. The three sisters marry the three hunters. One day, the third hunter goes away with his brothers-in-law, and asks his wife what she will do for him when he gets back: she will bear a boy with silver neck and golden head. Her sisters become envious, replace the boy for an animal and throw him in the lake. The hunter returns and, seeing the animal, maims, blinds and abandons his wife. The woman regains her limbs and sight by use of a magical herb. She then prepares to rescue her son from the lake. She tries three times, and is successful on the third occasion. She feeds the boy her milk and rubs her tears on his eyes. He recognizes him as his mother and calls himself Er-Saru (Ер-сару).

Folklorist Erika Taube collected another Tuvan tale from a 69-year-old informant in 1969. In this tale, titled "Он ийи гадынныг хаан" or "Хан с двенадцатью женами" (The Khan with Twelve Wives), a khan has 12 wives, but laments that none has given birth to any son. He goes on a journey and finds at first a woman, which he thinks is ugly. He returns to his travels and finds three sisters talking inside a hut, the youngest wishing for a husband that has looked for her, travelled all over the world and suffered all travails. He marries the third sister and she gives birth to twin boys. The other co-wives replace the boys for animals and cast them in the water. The khan returns and, seeing the animals, banishes the thirteenth wife to an island. The boys are found by a childless couple. Years later, the khan sends his eagle to the skies and, when it does not return, he rides on his horse to the island and meets a deep-wrinkled old lady. The old lady says she is a "lady or ruler of fate" and sets the khan on a quest to redeem himself and restore his family. Taube argued that the old lady character as the ruler of fate was "an ancient element" present in this tale, and compared it to similar motifs and figures of Central Asian faiths.

Tofalar people

In a tale from the Tofalars titled "Три мальчика" ("Three Boys"), an old god wanders the Earth and seek a woman to marry. He finds three women and inquires about their skills: the first tells she can bake bread for 300 people and there will still be some bread left; the second that she can plant 99 aspens to make skis for the people, and the third that she can bear three sons, the first two will have golden chest and the third a normal human chest. The god marries the third woman and has to go on a hunt. His wife gives birth to a boy with golden chest, who is replaced for a puppy by an evil midwife. The next year, the same happens to her second son. On the third year, she gives birth to a normal human boy, and the god, seeing that his wife failed in her promise, orders her and the son to be sewn inside a cow's hide and thrown in the sea. The cow's hide lands on a island. Mother and son live in the island, and the woman sews the boy a nice hat. The boy gives his hat to a man on the island and gains an ax, an iron stick and a bag. He reads in a book about a rich man who lives with two sons with golden chest. He recognizes that the boys are his elder brothres and goes to save them.

Uzbekistan

Similarities have also been noted between the tale type and the Uzbek tale of Хасан и Зухра (Hasan and Zuhra). In this tale, despite being married to 40 wives, the shah still hasn't fathered a son. In his wanderings, he finds three sisters, daughters of a shepherd, talking among themselves: Nasiba, Gulbahor and Sulfiya. The youngest, Sulfiya, promises to give birth to twins, a boy named Hasan and a girl named Zuhra, both beautiful and smart. The midwife replaces them with two goats, puts the twins in a bag and abandons it on the road. Thankfully, they are saved by a coming caravan. Twelve years pass, and Hasan, now a youth, meets his father, the shah, during a hunt. The shah convenes with a wise old woman, who discusses with the monarch the truth of what happened to his twin children.

In another Uzbek tale with the title "Блестящая глиняная чаша" ("A Shining Pottery Bowl"), a tsar has 40 wives, but no son yet. His viziers suggest he take another wife. He does and she is expecting a son. The other 40 wives feel threatened by the newcomer and bribe the midwife to get rid of the child as son as they are born. The midwife takes the royal children, a boy and a girl, replaces them for puppies and abandons both in the wilderness to die. The youngest queen is banished to the steppe with the puppies, while her children are raised by a she-bear in a cave. The midwife sends them for a shining pottery bowl and a magic mirror. To get the second item, the boy saves a nest of Simurgh birdlings and takes a journey to another kingdom on its back.

In the tale "Золотая косичка" ("The Golden-Braided [Boy]"), a padishah and his viziers sight a giant red rose, where three peri women are weaving. The peris are asked about their abilities, the youngest promises to bear the padishah a golden-braided boy. The padishah marries the third peri woman, and the viziers the other two. The padishah's other co-wives bribe a midwife to get rid of the boy and replace him for puppies. The midwife throws the boy into the steppe, but he is found and suckled by a hart. The boy returns to his father's palace and the co-wives take the boy, lock him up in a chest and cast him in the sea. He survives this second attempt and is found by a fisherman. Years later, the co-wives and the midwife send the boy for a flower gulikakhkakh, forty magical cauldrons and a magic mirror.

A fourth Uzbek tale was collected in 1999 from local teller, Dr. Ibodulla Iliasov, professor of German studies, in Bulungur, Samarqand, with the title Die goldhaarigen Zwillingskinder ("The Twin Children with Golden Hair").

East Asia

Other tales about Prince Golden Calf are attested in historical literature of Taiwan, Manchuria and Mongolia. They contain very similar plot structures: birth of hero by third wive or concubine, the attempts on the young prince by the other wives, his rebirth as a golden-horned and silver-hooved calf (with some difference between versions), his escape to another kingdom, his marriage to a human princess; his transformation to human and eventual return to his homeland.

Japan

Folklorist D. L. Ashliman, in his 1987 study of folktales, lists The Golden Eggplant (黄金の茄子 <<Kin no nasu>>) as a Japanese variant of the tale. Other variants of this tale were listed by Japanese scholar Kunio Yanagita.

Scholar Seki Keigo remarked that the Japanese story "show[ed] much similarity" to the tale type, albeit lacking the usual reason for the wife's banishment. He also reported 8 variants, found "chiefly in the southern part of Japan", and cited a local Okinawan legend with similar events. In the Okinawan tale, the lord's wife is cast with her child in a boat because she was accused of breaking wind in public.

Hiroko Ikeda, in his own index of Japanese tales, classified the story as type 707, with the name "The Gold Bearing Plant" (Japanese: Kin no Nasu, Kane no Naru Ki) and listed 25 variants of the story.

Russian scholar Khemlet Tat'yana argues that The Golden Eggplant is an example of the phenomenon where the more fantastical variants of the tale type give way to more realistic stories that treat the extraordinary elements as unreal or a factual impossibility: in the story, the lord's son returns to his father's court with seeds of a gold- and silver-producing tree, which can only be watered by a woman who has never broken wind.

China

See also: The Pretty Little Calf

Chinese folklorist and scholar Ting Nai-tung (zh) established a second typological classification of Chinese folktales (the first was by Wolfram Eberhard in the 1930s). In his new system, tale type 707, "The Three Golden Sons", shows the rivalry between the king's other wives; the number of children vary between stories, and the animal that replaces the children "is often a dead cat". One of the variants of his selected bibliography shows the quest for a magical tree and a girl, and in another for a bird of happiness.

A famous Chinese story that follows the replacement of the child for a cat is Limao huan taizi (English: "Cat in Exchange for a Prince"; "Exchanging a Leopard Cat for a Prince"), attested in the literary work The Seven Heroes and Five Gallants. In this story, a consort, jealous of the other, replaces the latter's son for a cat and gives the child for a eunuch to drown. Out of pity, he smuggles the child to the palace to another prince and the child is raised by the prince, unaware of his true origins.

Korea

See also: The Pretty Little Calf § Korea

According to scholarship, the Buddhist tale of the birth of the Golden Calf "became wide-spread in Korea", with the earliest printed edition dating back to 1329 (during the reign of King Chungsuk of Goryeo). The tale is also known as Kŭmu t'aejajŏn (金牛太子傳; "The Life of Prince Golden Calf"); Kŭmsongajijŏn (금송아지전; "Story of the Golden Calf"), 환생한 송아지 신랑 ("The Reincarnated Calf as a Groom") 금우태자전 ("Crown Prince Geumwoo"), Geumdoktaeja ("Golden Calf Son") and 금송아지로 태어난 아들 ("Son Reborn as Golden Calf").

Korean scholarship reports a Korean tale similar to Japanese "The Golden Eggplant". In the Korean tale, titled "아침에 심어 저녁에 따먹는 오이" (Cucumber Planted in the Morning and Harvested in the Evening), a son is trying to find his father, because he abandoned his mother for passing wind on their wedding night. The boy walks around with a bunch of cucumber seeds that can be planted in the morning and harvested in the evening, and that can only be harvested by people who do not break wind (a physical impossibility).

Mongolia

Hungarian orientalist László L. Lőrincz established the classification of the Mongolian tale corpus. In his system, the international type 707 corresponds to types 138A and 138B, titled Die Gattin, die einen Welpen geboren hat ("The Queen who gave birth to puppies").

According to scholarship, in the Mongolian version of Prince Golden Calf, the third queen gives birth to a boy with golden chest and silver backside. When the two jealous queens give the boy for the cow to eat it, the cow gives birth to a similarly coloured calf. The calf regains human form, returns to his father's palace and denounces the queens' deceit.

Professor Charles R. Bawden provided the summary of other two Mongolian variants. In the first one, In the King's Absence, a king with three queens goes on a journey. Each of the three queens promise a grand feat when he returns: the first to create a seamless pair of boots, the second to sew a shirt with a louse skin, and the third to give birth to a son "with breast of gold and buttocks of silver". Each of them accomplishes what they promised, but the boy's birth wakens feeling of envy in the other two. Tricking the third queen, the two envious ones give the baby for a cow to eat. The king returns and, seeing that no son was born, blinds the third queen, cuts off her hand, breaks a leg and exiles her with the cow. The cow gives birth to the boy. The two queens feign illness and want the liver of a boy with golden breast and silver buttocks. At the end of the tale, the boy and the queen tell the whole story to the king.

In a second tale, recorded in Inner Mongolia, the three queens promise similar things. When the third one gives birth to the boy with golden breast and silver buttocks, they bury the boy under the threshold of the tent and replace him for kittens. After the king returns and demotes the third queen to a simple maid, the two queens dig up the boy and throw him in the well. When horsemen complain about the well, the two women draw the boy up, cook him up and give the broth for the cow to eat. The cow later gives birth to a calf, which becomes the king's pet. The two queens want its liver as remedy for their false illness. When the calf is ready to be killed, the axe breaks the transformation and disenchants him to normal human form. This tale was also published in longer form with the title Jagar Büritü-yin Khagan, which Bawden understood to mean "Khan of All in India".

Professor B. Rintchen collected an epic titled Khan Tschingis from a local Mongol bard named Onoltu. Rintchen published this epic in his book of Khalka Mongol texts. He noticed in his analysis that its "central theme" was The Calumniated Wife: in the story, the queen promises to give birth to a boy "with breast of gold and buttocks of silver" (altan čegejǐtei mōnggün bōgsetei).

Another tale was collected by professor Yasuhiro Yamakoshi from a Mrs. Dogarmaa, in Hulunbuir, in 2005. In this tale, in the Shinekhen Buryat language, A Boy with a Golden Breast and Silver Buttocks, before a king goes to war, he asks his three wives what they will do for him when he returns. The third answers she will give birth to a boy with golden breast and silver buttocks. Just before their husband returns, the other two wives hide the fabled boy to shame the third queen. The king returns and, since he does not see his promised son, banishes the third queen. Later, he discovers that his son was hidden under the sill, and makes peace with the third wife.

Southeast Asia

Indonesia

French scholar Gédeon Huet noted the tale "entered into Indonesia". One example is the story Die Schwester der neun und neuzig Brüder ("The Sister of the Ninety-Nine Brothers"), from the Celebes Islands. In this tale, the youngest daughter promises to give birth to 99 boys and a girl, which draws the attention of the prince. When the children are born, the sisters replace the children for inanimate and "worthless" objects. The 100 siblings are rescued by "benevolent spirits", who also give the girl a wooden horse.

In another Indonesian variant from Aceh, Hikayat gumba' Meuïh, Gumba' Meuin, Gumbak Meuih, or Gombak Emas ("The Tale of Goldenhead"), King Hamsöykasa is married to three wives, but hasn't fathered a son by the first two, named Ratna Diwi and Keuncan Ansari. The third wife, Cah Keubandi, of humble origin, gives birth to 100 children in one day: 99 brothers and 1 sister, each of them with hair of gold and diamonds. The first two wives cast the siblings in the water encased in a box and replace them for creatures. The 100 are saved by a gògasi (gěrgasi) couple. The youngest child, the girl, named Gumba' Meuïh (Goldenhead), is told of her royal origins by a "celestial bird", reaches their father's kingdom and reveals the whole truth. The tale continues with the adventures of princess Goldenhead with celestial (adara) prince Lila Bangguna. Like her mother before her, she is also persecuted by the prince's sister and his second wife, but reclaims her right with the help of her 99 brothers. Her son, Mira' Diwangga, marries a princess of Atrah named Cheureupu Intan ("Diamond Sandal"), and fathers a daughter called Gènggöng Intan, who later marries prince Kaharölah of Silan (Ceylon). The hikayat is reported to exist in 4 (quite similar) manuscript versions in the archives of the Library of Leiden University, and contains the episode of petrification of the 99 brothers and their elephant retinue, as they make their way to their father's kingdom.

Thailand

In a Thai tale, Champa Si Ton or The Four Princes (Thai: สี่ยอดกุมาร), king Phaya Chulanee, ruler of the City of Panja, is already married to a woman named Queen Akkee. He travels abroad and reaches the deserted ruins of a kingdom (City of Chakkheen). He saves a princess named Pathumma from inside a drum she was hiding in when some terrifying creatures attacked her kingdom, leaving her as the sole survivor. They return to Panja and marry. Queen Pathumma is pregnant with four sons, to the envy of the first wife. She replaces the sons for dogs to humiliate the second queen, and throws the babies in the river. A version of the tale is also preserved in palm-leaf manuscript form. The tale continues as the four princes are rescued from the water and buried in the garden, only to become champa trees and later regaining their human shapes.

Laos

The tale Champa Si Ton, or The Four Champa Trees, also appears as a folktale in "the oral tradition of the Lao people".

In one version of the story, King Maha Suvi is married to two queens, Mahesi and Mahesi Noi. Queen Mahesi gives birth to the four princes, who are taken to the water in a basket. When they are young, they are poisoned by the second queen and buried in the village, four champa trees sprouting on their graves. The second queen learns of their survival and orders the trees to be felled down and thrown in the river. A monk sees their branches with flowers and takes them off the river.

In another version, provided by Payungporn Nonthavisarut and Pathom Hongsuwan, the Champa Si Ton is preceded by a narrative about Chao Pho Pak Hueng (or Thao Khatanam), who visits Panjanakhorn and rescues princess Khamkong from the drum.

Myanmar

In a Burmese tale, The Hundred and One Lobsters, a woman eats 101 magical lobsters, said to give the ability to bear wonderful children, and is made queen. She gives birth to 101 children, 100 sons and a daughter, but the king's second queen replaces them for puppies. The 101 children are saved by the king's pet animals (a sow, a cow, a buffalo and an elephant), which are killed by a ploy of the second queen. At last, they are taken in by a fisherman couple and, some time later, take part in a cock fighting contest against their own father, the king.

In a Burmese tale from the Palaung people, "История Схумо" ("The Story of Schumo"), an elderly couple lives in poverty with their daughter. The king, who had many wives, but no son, marries the girl and she gives birth to a son she names Schumo. The jealous co-wives of the king replace the boy for a puppy, to disgrace their rival. The young queen is expelled and returns to her parents' house with the puppy, while her son survives. The son visits his grandparents' home and sees his mother playing with the dog. She confirms her relationship with the boy by using a jet of her breast milk. Russian scholarship classified the tale as type 707, following Thompson and Roberts' Types of Indic Oral Tales.

Philippines

Author Dean Fansler collected a story titled The Wicked Woman's Reward, from one Gregorio Frondoso, a Bicol from Camarines. This tale shows the rivalry between two concubines of the king: one substitutes the other's son for a cat.

Professor Damiana Eugenio listed Thai tale The Four Champa Trees and Chinese tale Cat in Exchange for a Prince as "foreign analogues" to Filipino versions of the story of the king's wife banished from the palace due to the concubine's intrigue and accusations of giving birth to animals.

In a Tagalog version of Cinderella (ATU 510A), after the princess marries the king and is pregnant with seven boys, her step-family replace the boys for puppies and throw the septuplets in the sea in a box. The boys are saved by a hunter and word of the good deed reaches the ears of the princess' step-family. The women bring the boys poisoned maruya, they eat and die. The hunter places the bodies inside a cave, but an oracle's voice tells him to seek the mother of the Sun, who lives in a distant place, for a remedy. He passes by three places where people ask him the solution for their problems, and the hunter promises them he will bring the answers after visiting the house of the sun (akin to tale type ATU 461, "Three Hairs of the Devil"). He resurrects the princes, now young men, and the youngest of them fetches a tree branch of silver and gold, with which a helping enchanter makes clothes and equipment for them.

In another Filipino variant of Cinderella, collected in 1903 from a sixty-year-old woman in Pola, Mindoro, as the continuation of the story, after the marriage, the Cinderella-like character, named Maria, gives birth to seven princes, who are replaced by seven puppies and exposed in the mountains. However, they are saved by a "mother of the day" or "mother of the sun" (ina nang arao) and become seven young men. One day, they pass by their mother, suffering the king's punishment.

Dean Fansler, in another article, summarized a metrical romance published in the archipelago, The Story of the Life of Maria in the Kingdom of Hungary, and showed that it was a combination of Cinderella and Constance. However, the tale contains the punishment of the mother, now disgraced, and the lives of her sons, abandoned in the mountains and saved by a shepherd. He also published another (lesser-known) metrical romance, and a folktale, Amelia ("current in the province of Laguna"), which largely follow the same plot structure: marriage, birth of child or children, replacement by animals, severe punishment of the mother, rescue of children, meeting with parents later in life.

In a tale published by Yukihiro Yamada and collected in 1987, from teller Quintina Cabal Gutierrez (Itbayat), papito so pipatoran (The Seven Kingdoms), three sisters, Magdalena, Rosalina and Maria, express their wishes for a husband: the elder two want to marry rich and powerful men, unlike the youngest, Maria. One day, a bachelor named Juan passes by their house and becomes enchanted with Maria. They marry, and the girl says she prays to God to give her a pair of children, one with golden hair, the other with silver hair. After their birth, her jealous sisters replace the children for puppies and her husband sentences her to be buried up to the torso near the sink.

Africa

Researcher Daniel Crowley pointed that a preliminary study by researcher May Augusta Klipple, in 1938, indicated the existence of 10 variants from Africa, without specifying their region. However, analysing Klipple's study, Hasan El-Shamy identified that she pointed to 11 variants in the following ethnic groups: 9 among Venda, Larusa, Kamba and Masai (East Africa); one from the Sotho (southern Africa), and one from the Hausa (west Africa).

El-Shamy also noted that variants from Subsaharan Africa focus on the rivalry between co-wives and the bond between male twins.

North Africa

Some versions of the tale have been collected from local storytellers in many regions: two versions have been found in Morocco, one on the Northern area; some have been collected in Algeria, and one of them in the Tell Atlas area.

Author E. M Chadli lists other variants from the Maghreb region: L'uccelo della verità ("The Bird of Truth"), by Destaing; "Il figlio e la figlia del re" ("The King's Son and Daughter"), by Biarnay; La storia di Zaohuet ed-Denia ("The Story of Zaohuet ed-Denia"), by Huet; La storia della tre sorelle ("The tale of the three sisters"), by Legey; L'ucello del paese dell'aratura ("The Bird from the Plowing Country"), by Pellar; Storie di tre donne ("Tale of three girls"), by Lacoste-Dujardin; and Il principe e la principessa alle fonti d'oro e l'universo, by Khatibi.

Tunisia

In a Tunisian version, En busca del pájaro esmeralda ("The quest for the emerald bird"), the older brother is the hero of the story and the singing branch is conflated with the titular emerald bird, which reveals the story at a feast with the Sultan. Another Tunisian version has been collected from oral sources under the name M'hammed, le fils du sultan ("M'hammed, the son of the Sultan").

Algeria

In a tale from Kabylie, La fille du forgeron ("The Blacksmith's Daughter"), a sultan has two barren co-wives. One day, he visits a village. There, three girls are talking among themselves: the first, the daughter of the woodsman, says she can make a whole plate of couscous with only a grain of wheat; the second, the daughter of the carpenter, says she can make a beautiful burnous with only a tuft of wool; the third, the titular daughter of the blacksmith, says if she marries the sultan, she will give birth to a son with a temple of gold and the other of silver; another son with teeth of pearls and diamonds and a girl more beautiful than the sun. This tale was collected by writer Rabam Belamri from his aunt in Bougaa, near Kabylie.

Two versions have been recorded by German ethnographer Leo Frobenius in his Atlantis book collection. In the first tale, Die ausgesetzten Geschwister ("The abandoned sisters"), seven sisters go to fetch wood. The youngest feels a bit tired and rests beneath a tree with two other sisters. While they are resting, one young "Agelith" passes by and the sisters announce their promises: the elder that she will feed many people with a handful of wheat; the second that she can feed an entire city with a sheepskin; the third that she will bear him a son with a silver stars and silver moon in his hair, and a girl with a golden sun on the front. They are found by a fisherman and live in their hut. Years pass, and the aunts' accomplice, an old witch, convinces them to search for the Tär Lemeghani ("The Singing Bird") and water from the fountain located where the rocks collide. The brother also rescues several petrified people in the area. In the second, Die goldhaarigen Kinder ("The Golden-Haired Children"), which was identified by Frobenius as a variant of the former, the youngest sister promises to give birth to twin boys with golden hair on the front (taunsa-ne-d'hav). Both variants were later identified as Kabylian.

In an Algerian variant collected in Blida by Joseph Desparmet from informant Fatma bent Eldjennâdî, titled La Ghoule Secourable, a king announces his plans to marry, and orders every possible maiden to pass by his window. One day, three girls pass under the king’s window: the first promises to feed the king’s troops with just a plate of couscous, the second that she can weave garments for the whole troop with wool from a single fleece, and the third that the will bear the king a girl and a boy, both with golden and silver hair. The king marries the first girl and, when she fails on her promise, he divorces her. The same happens to the second girl. He lastly marries the third one, to the envy of the other two. The jealous women seek the services of a Settout (an evil old woman), to act as the queen’s midwife. The Settout replaces the queen’s first child, a boy, for a puppy and casts him in a box in the river. The same happens with the second child, a girl. They are saved and raised by a fisherman and his wife. Some years later, the fisherman’s own children mock the boy and the girl and they leave home. They buy a house and the brother meets the king. The jealous women tell the Settout, who visits the sister while her brother is away. The Settout tells her first about the Les Pommes de Senteur et L’Eau qui rend la vie (Algerian: Etteffâḥ ennifouḥ ou elmâ llî irodd errouḥ, English: “Scented Apples and Water of Life”); then about Le Basilic qui claque et L’eau qui ulule (Algerian: Elḥbeq elli iseffeq ou el mâ llî iouelouel; English: “The Basil that claps and Ululating Water”). When the brother brings the basil and the ululating water, they do not move at all, which the Settout attributes to the absence of their master, L’Aigle Vert (“The Green Eagle”), a little bird in a cage. Lastly, the Settout tells them about the owner of the Green Eagle, a beautiful maiden named Lalla Loundja. With the help of a Ghoule, the brother gets all items to his sister. At the end of the tale, Lalla Loundja marries the brother, and suggests the siblings invite the king and his viziers to a banquet, during which she reveals the truth and reunites the family. French ethnologist Camille Lacoste-Dujardin, in her study about the Kabylian oral repertoire, listed La Ghoule Secourable as a Kabylian variant of type 707.

In a variant from Beni Snous collected by E. Destaing from informant Si El-Haoussin Ben El-Hadj Ennacer and translated as Le fils et la fille du roi ("The Son and The Daughter of the King"), a king and his ministers go with some troops to a mountain. When they rest and drink a bit of water, three girls come by the fountain and talk to one another what they can do if the sultan marries one of them: the first promises to feed the troops with a single grain; the second that she can weave garments for the whole troop with a single fleece; and the third that she can bear the sultan twins, a boy and a girl with "golden and silver horns". The sultan asks his minister to bring the first girl (the pacha's daughter) to prove her skills; she fails and is sent back to her father. He then summons the judge's daughter (the second girl) to test her weaving skills; she also fails. He then summons the third girl and marries her, to the jealousy of the sultan's other wives. The sultan's co-wives hire the Settout to replace the children for animals and to cast them in the water. The twins are saved by a fisherman named Mohammed. Years later, the boy, now called Mhammed, meets with the sultan at a café. The sultan's co-wives ask Settout to get rid of the boy. The old woman sends him on three quests: firstly, for the singing bird; secondly, for a steed named Baberkat; lastly, for a maiden named Zohra bent Zehour. Zohra bent Zehour marries Mhammed and suggests her husband and his sister invite the sultan for a banquet. During the banquet, Zohra bent Zahour tells their story and shows the sultan the twins' horns of gold and silver. Destaing identified this tale as a variant of the Arabian Nights tale "Histoire de Les Deux Soeurs Jalouses de leur Cadette", which was confirmed by Camille Lacoste-Dujardin as belonging to tale type 707.

French orientlist Samuel Biarnay collected and published a Berber language variant from Ouargla with the title Tanfoust n Zahouet eddenia, also a variant of tale type 707.

Egypt

El-Shamy mentioned that 14 variants exist in the Egyptian archives (as of the 1980s), some already collected in the late 19th century.

In a variant collected by Guillaume Spitta-Bey as Histoire d'Arab-Zandyq, or its translated version, The story of the Princess Arab-Zandīq, by E. A. Wallis Budge, the third sister says the girl will have golden hair and the son "hyacinthine locks"; their laughter will make the sun and the moon appear, and when they weep the skies shall thunder and rain. However, in another translation by a professor Bernard Lewis, both twins have hair of gold and hyacinth.

In the tale The Nightingale that Shrieked, collected by Inea Bushnaq, the youngest sister promises twins: "a boy with locks of gold and silver" and a girl who can make the sun shine with her smile and rain fall with her weeping. Years later, they are sent on a quest for the Tree with Apples that dance and Apricots that sing and the Bulbul Assiah, the Nightingale that Shrieks, both tasks completed only by the brother.

In a tale El-Shamy collected from a female teller in a village in the Nile Delta and published with the title The Promises of the Three Sisters, a king forces a ban on lighting candles at night. He goes with his vizier to check on the people and sees an illuminated house. Inside, three sisters are weaving and talking: the eldest promises to bake a cake to feed the king and his army; the second that she will weave a carpet to sit the entire army; and the third that she will bear twins, a boy named Clever Muhammed and a girl called Sitt el-Husn ("Mistress of Beauty"), both with golden and silver hair. Years later, the twins quest for the "dancing bamboo, singing water and talking lark". Clever Muhammed, the brother, obtains the first two items, but fails in the third quest. The sister saves him and gets the bird.

In a tale collected by Yacoub Artin Pacha in the Nile Valley with the title El-Schater Mouhammed, a king forbids lighting candles at night. Three sisters, daughters of a bean seller, disobey the ban and light a candle one night. The king goes to the city with his vizier and dervishes to enforce the ban, and see the three sisters' house. They overhear their convesation: the elder wants to marry the king and promises to spread silk from their house to the palace; the second claims she can bake a cake grand enough for him and the people; the youngest promises to give birth to twins, a boy and a girl, the boy having hair of gold and silver and, when he cries, the sky will be clouded, it will be cold and rainy, and when he laughs, the skies will be clear, even in winter. Years later, the midwife tricks the king that the twins, the boy named El-Chater Mouhammed and the girl Sit-el-Hôsn oual Gamal, intent to dethrone the king, and suggests to give the twins the quest for the objects: the Tree of Sitti-Han (El-Chater obtains the tree and marries its owner, a maiden named Sitti-Han) and "a baby or infant who can speak eloquently".

Morocco

In a variant titled ṭ-ṭăyʁ l-mḥăddəθ ("The Talking Bird"), collected in Chefchaouen, Morocco, by researcher Aicha Ramouni from teller Lālla Ḥusniyya l-ʕAlami, the third sister promises to give birth to twins, a boy and a girl who can make the sun appear with their smiles and rain fall with their tears, and leave one brick of gold and other of silver whenever they walk. Their adoptive father is the one to give them the first items the old woman asks for; but the last item, the talking bird, is sought by the brother, who fails, and obtained by the sister.

In a variant from Marrakech collected by Dr. Françoise Légey with the title Ṭîr El-Gabouri or L'oiseau du pays de Gabour ("The Bird from the Land of Gabour"), four women talk in the woods in front of the king's garden: the first promises to feed his troops with only a plate of couscous, the second that she can sate the thirst of the troops with only a bucket of water, the third that she can weave head coverings for the troops with the hair of one horse only, and the fourth that she can bear the king a boy with a lock of silver and a girl with tresses of gold. The king summons all four women for them to display their talents: the first three women deliver on their promises, but are relegated to the king's harem, while he marries the fourth woman. The midwife takes the twins as soon as they are born and casts them in the water, and replaces them for puppies. They are saved and raised by a fisherman and his wife. Years later, after their adoptive parents die, while going to the mosque, the girl is approached by an old woman, who insists to be her servant. She is brought to their palace, and she tells the girl the palace is beautiful, but lacks several items: on the first quest, the old woman tells about two jets of water, water of roses and water from orange blossoms; on the second quest, the water that "youyoute" ("makes sounds of joy"); on the third quest, the laughing pomegrante; on the fourth quest, the dancing reed. The brother simply delivers the items to the sister. Later, the old woman tells them about the Ṭîr El-Gabouri, a bird from the land of Gabour, which can sing in their garden. The brother goes to the ends of the Earth and meets a Ghoul, who directs him to the bird. The brother fails and is petrified; the sister follows him, catches the bird and disenchants her brother and several others that were petrified by the bird. Lastly, the same old woman tells them to invite the king to their garden. The bird Ṭîr El-Gabouri reveals the truth to the king in the siblings' garden. French ethnologist Camille Lacoste-Dujardin, in her study about the Kabylian oral repertoire, listed L'oiseau des pays de labour (sic) as a Moroccan variant of type 707.

Reginetta Haboucha summarized two variants collected from Tétouan. In the first, Las hermanas envidiosas ("The Jealous Sisters"), the children (two brothers and one sister, in consecutive births) are sent for the Silver Water, the Talking Bird and the Singing Tree. In the second, El agua verde, la caña que tañe y el pájaro que canta, the children (two sons and a daughter), each with a gold star on the front, are born in consecutive years, and when older, are sent for the "Green Water Fish", a Cane/Reed, and the Bird that Sings.

Sudan

In a Sudanese variant published by S. Hillelson, The Talking Parrot, a sister, with the ability to make rain fall when she cries, to produce pearls and coral when she laughs, is convinced by an old woman to send her brother to seek a talking parrot.

Central Africa

Missionary Robert Hamill Nassau collected a tale from the Batanga (fr) with the name The Toucan and the Three Golden-Girdled Children, and published in Journal of American Folklore, in 1915. In this tale, the wife promises to give birth to three children, Manga ("Sea"), Joba ("Sun") and Ngânde ("Moon"). A toucan plays the role of the Speaking Bird and helps the family to reconcile.

Nassau published another tale from the Tanga with the title Dog, and His Human Speech. In this tale, Njambo is already married to a woman named Nyangwa-Mbwa, and they have a son named Mbwa (described as a creature with human speech). Njambo then marries three sisters: Majanga, responsible for cleaning their house; Inyanji, occupied with planting; and Mamĕndi, who is to bear Njambo's children. Mamĕndi is attended by her sisters and gives birth to twin boys, who are cast into the pig-pen and replaced for anthills. Mbwa finds the boys in the pig-pen and takes them to his mother to rear and suckle. One day when Nyangwa-Mbwa is away, Mamĕndi's jealous sisters kill the twins. Mbwa goes to a person named Nja-ya-melema-mya-bato to get two "heart-lives" to resurrect the twins. The twin boys come back to life and grow up as fine young men. The twin boys hunt game and give Mbwa to bring to his father Njambo, who wonders where Mbwa is finding all these animals to hunt. Finally, after some years, Mbwa convinces his father to summon all the people in an assembly. Mbwa brings to the assembly the twins, and reveals the whole truth.

West Africa

In a West African tale, local chief Nyame marries other four women, who later move to his house. There, they need to follow the rules of the head-wife, who asks the women what each would give to their husband. The youngest one answers she would bear him a "child of gold" (or "gold-child"), but eventually gives birth to a twin of silver and a twin of gold. The boys are replaced by two frogs, but the whole truth is discovered with a little help from Anansi, the Spider.

A variant of The child born with a moon on his breast is mentioned by Édouard Jacouttet as hailing from "Gold Coast", an old name for a region on the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa: a king named Miga has many wives, who had not born any children. A witch doctor gives a remedy for the wives: all of them give birth to animals, except one, who mothers a son "with a peculiar sign on his forehead", just like his father. This tale was first recorded in 1902 by G. Härtter, from the Ewe people in Togo.

In a Senegalese tale, The child with a star on the forehead, originally collected in French by Lilyan Kesteloot and Bassirou Dieng with the title L'enfant qui avait une étoile sur le front, the jealous co-wives replace the chief's son for a bottle, but the boy is rescued by a helpful old woman. She raises him and directs him to meet his father.

In a Southern Nigerian tale, The Woman with two Skins, king Eyamba I of Calabar has 200 wives, but no son. He is persuaded to marry one of the spider's daughters, but she is so ugly. In fact, this woman, named Adiaha, takes off the ugly skin at night and becomes a beautiful young woman. The king's head wife discovers this and buys a potion form the "Ju Ju man" in order to make the king forget about Adiaha. She succeeds, and the spider's daughter returns home. Adiaha's father contacts another Ju Ju man to prepare an antidote for his daughter to use on her husband. Adiaha returns to king Eyamba, still with her ugly skin disguise, and gives birth to a son, to the jealousy of the head wife. She prepares another potion to make the king fall ill and forget his son. Due to his poor health, he is convinced by the head wife to cast his son in the water, but the boy is saved by a Water Ju Ju. Once again, Adiaha counters the head wife's plot, returns to her husband Eyamba and mothers a daughter. The girl suffers the same fate as her older brother, but is saved by the same Water Ju Ju. Now a young man, the Water Ju Ju advises the king's son to hold a wrestling match to draw the attention of the king. The youth wins every match and is invited to a dinner with the king. The Water Ju Ju advises the youth to summon the people and present his case in front of the king. There, the whole truth is revealed about the head wife's deception. Soon, the king's children and Adiaha are reinstated to their proper place. Folklorist Andrew Lang, on his notes, recalled similar tales of "European folk-lore" wherein the king is deceived and throws his children in the water because he thought his wife gave birth to puppies.

In a tale from the Ndowe people of Equatorial Guinea, El cerco de los leones, two sisters confide in each other that they will bear handsome children. The younger, however, confesses that she will bear a boy with a star on the forehead and another on the chest. After the boy's birth, the elder sister replaces her nephew for a piece of wood and throws him into a den of lions.

In a tale from the Dahomey people, collected by Melville J. Herskovits with the title Slandering co-wife: Why there are several attendants at childbirth, a girl named Agenu (or Tohwesi), daughter of King Abiliba Numayago, becomes the second wife to a king called Beu. She becomes heavy with child and when it is time to give birth, she is blindfolded by her husband's other wife. Agenu gives birth to a boy, but the second wife hides the boy in a calabash and replace him for a stone. An old woman who was nearby gets the calabash to raise the boy, while his mother locked in a hut to be insulted by the other wives. Years later, the old woman requests an audience with the king, the prime minister and the second minister. The king gathers the people and the boy is asked to appoint his mother. The old woman reveals the treachery to the king.

Hausa language

Hermann Gundert Harris published a variant in the Hausa dialect of Kano, with the title Story of a Poor Girl and the Rival Wives. The tale contains barren co-wives, a poor girl giving birth to twins, the replacement for animals, and the children meeting the father.

Another tale from the "Haoussa" (Hausa) was collected by François-Victor Équilbecq from Fatimata Oazi, in Bogandé, in 1911. In this tale, titled Les trois femmes du sartyi ("The sartyi's three wives"), three women, near a marigot (fr), comment among themselves their wishes. The first one says she will give birth to twins with navels of pure gold if she marries the sartyi (a ruler, a king). The other two also promise extraordinary things. The sartyi marries all three. The sartyi's favorite wife takes the twin boys as soon as they are born, throws them "en dehors du tata" and replaces them for margouillats (lizards). An old woman that was looking for herbs finds the boys and takes them. When they grow up, the twins often provoke the other co-wives when they are taking a bath in the marigot. A griot tells the sartyi of this incident, noting that both boys resembled the king. The sartyi orders that all of his wives shall prepare a meal for the twins, so that they may identify their true mother. Équilbecq noted its similar motifs with European fairy tales and the story from the Arabian Nights: the intrigue of the co-wives and the extraordinary promises of the women.

Cape Verde

Anthropologist Elsie Clews Parsons collected some variants from Cape Verde Islands, grouped under the banner of The Envious Sisters. The wonder children appear in four of them. In one, collected in San Anton (sic), the third sister promises three children with gold stars on the forehead; in the second from the same island, a servant of the king gives birth to triplets with gold stars on the forehead. In the main text, provided by Antonio da Graça of San Nicolao (sic), the third sister gives birth to two boys and a girl with a gold star on the forehead, in three consecutive births. In the fourth, collected from Fogo, the boy has a gold star on the forehead, and the girl a golden apple on her hand.

In a second set of Cape Verdean variants, the children are replaced for animals and saved by the Old-Woman-of-the-Sea. These tales also lack the quest for the items.

East Africa

Scholars have attested the presence of the tale type in African sources. For instance, researcher E. Ojo Arewa indexed some tales from northern East Africa cattle area under number 3743 (which corresponds to type ATU 707 in his system). In these tales (one from the Kamba, one from the Larusa, one from the Maasai), the childless wife tries to get rid of the twins born from the other co-wife.

In one tale from the Maasai people, titled 'L-omon loo-'ñgorōyok are oo 'l-mao ("The story of the two wives and the twins") - tabulated by Arewa -, a man is married to two women. The first hasn't born any sons, but the second gives birth to twin boys. The co-wife cuts the boys' fingers and smears their mother's mouth to accuse her of cannibalism. She puts the twins into a drum and casts it in the water. The drum is washed ashore in another country. This version was translated by Carl Meinhof into German.

Southern Africa

Africanist Sigrid Schmidt asserted that the tale type was particularly widespread in Southeast Africa. In fact, according to her studies, the tale type 707, as well as types 706, Maiden Without Hands, and 510, Cinderella, "found a home in Southern Africa for many generations".

Schmidt provided the summary of two manuscript tales. In the first, a woman gives birth to twin boys in the likeness of their father, a king with the mark of a moon on his chest, but a jealous servant casts them in the water. The twins are rescued and saved by a falcon. Later, they return to their father's castle and a jet of milk leaks from their mother's breast to their mouth, confirming the boys' parentage. In a second tale, a couple wishes for a son with a star on the chest and a moon on the front. Their son is born, but a jealous servant replaces the boy for a puppy and abandons the boy with a giraffe. The giraffe raises the boy as its son and gives him a cloth to hide his astral birthmarks. The boy finds work with in a farm that belongs to the king, where the princess sees his shining birthmarks and marries him. Later, when he returns home, jets of milk leak from his mother's breast to his mouth. Schmidt suggested that, since these two tales contain elements from European fairy tales (kings, queens, castle, the child in the box), these tales must have originated from a (now) lost Dutch tradition in the Cape of Good Hope.

In a tale from the Venda people, The Chief with the Half-Moon on his Chest, the youngest wife gives birth to a boy just like his father, and is helped by a little rat. The story was compared to the Sotho tale and noted by anthropologue Samuel Shaw Dornan to be similar to the male character of Lal Behari Day's Bengali tale of The Boy with the Moon on his Forehead.

In a Khoekhoe tale collected by Leonhard Schultze-Jena, Ariba gye iiguibahe kχoësa or Die Frau, der ein Hund untergeschoben wird, a woman's son is replaced for a dog by jealous women, but he is saved by an aigamuxa. This tale was listed by Elsie Clews Parsons as a parallel to the Cape Verdean tales she collected, and classified as type 707 by Sigrid Schmidt.

Namibia

Sigrid Schmidt created a whole system of classification for Khoisan folktales. Tale type 707, in this system, was numbered KH 1125 and named "The mother of the boy(s) with a moon on his chest or forehead was banished but finally she was allowed back".

Sigrid Schmidt published some tales from Namibia: The Son with a Moon on His Breast, Der Junge mit der Sonne und dem Mond ("The Youth with the Sun and the Moon"), Die Zwillingssöhne mit Mond und Stern auf der Brust ("The Twin Sons with the Moon and the Star on the Chest"). She grouped them under the banner Der Bursche mit dem Mond auf der Brust (Stirn) ("The Boy with the Moon on the Chest/Forehead") and compared them to other incidences of the tale type in international indexes.

She also collected a tale titled Das hundertste Schwein ("The hundredth pig"), which she classified as both type 707 and her type KH 1125.

Sotho people

A tale of the Sotho people (Basotho) with the motif of the wonderful child with a moon on his breast was recorded by Édouard Jacouttet in his book The treasury of Ba-suto lore (1908). The name of the tale, Khoédi-Séfoubeng, Ngoana ea Khoeli-Sefubeng, or Ngwana ya Kgwedi Sefubeng, translates to "The child with a moon on his chest". In this tale, local chief Boulané is known for his peculiar birthmark: a full moon on his chest, and wishes to have a son with that exact shape on their skin. This tale was also translated as The Moon-Child by Ethel McPherson or as The Moonprince by linguist Jan Knappert, in his collection of tales from Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland.

In another tale from Basutoland, Morena-y-a-Letsatsi, or The Sun Chief, a strong chief, with signs of the sun, the moon and eleven stars on his breast, is approached by two sisters: Siloane ("the tear-drop") and Mokete. Mokete says she can cook and grind, and thus becomes her sister's servant, while Siloane marries the chief. On the wedding feast, she "sings a song of [his] praise" and promises to bear him a son "in his image". When she is ready to give birth, Mokete replaces the boy for a deformed child with the face of a baboon. The real son is put with the pigs to be devoured, but "the spirits protect him". Mokete, the new wife, sees the boy survived and asks her husband to kill the pigs and burn down the kraal. She also tries to kill him in other attempts, but fails. The boy survives every time due to intervention of the spirits, becomes the leader of another village, and is given the name Tsepitso. One day, when pasing through a village, he stops by the well and sees a woman named Ma Thabo ("mother of joy"), who gives him some water to drink.

Xhosa people

Another African variant was collected from a Xhosa storyteller named Nongenile Masithathu Zenani, recorded from a performance on September 13, 1967, in her home located in Nkanga, Gatyana District, Transkei. In this variant, titled The Child with the Star on His Forehead, a man marries his wife's sister as another spouse to father a son. The sister gives birth to a boy "with a star on his forehead [and] the crescent of a moon on his chest, just like his father", but is replaced by a cat. The boy is saved and reared by a crab, which takes the boy back to his father's homestead to reveal the truth. Scholar Sigrid Schmidt recognized its classification as tale type AaTh 707.

Two other tales from the Xhosa people were identified by scholarship: Chief Bulane and his Heir and The Child with the Moon on his Forehead. In Chief Bulane and his Heir, published by South African magistrate Frank Brownlee (af), titular Chief Bulane has a half-moon birthmark on his chest - a sign of his royal status. A son is born to him bearing a similar mark. The tale The Child with the Moon on his Forehead was published in Fairy Tales Told by Nontsomi, by M. W. Waters (1927).

Madagascar

According to Hering's Malagasy Tale Index, the tale type is one of 78 international types found in both Madagascar and elsewhere. Eight variants have been collected: two tales from the Merina, a clan tale and a tale titled Haitraitra an'olombelona, zaka an'nanahary (or "Andriambahoaka sy ny zanany"); two tales from the Betsileo, titled "Le mari et ses trois femmes" and "Andriabohoemanana and the unfortunate Rafaravavy"; two tales from the Sakalava, titled "Ramikiloke" and "The speaking bird". The collectors noted that the tale type adapted and integrated into traditions of the country, becoming "a clan legend, an explanation for uxorilocal marriage, and a cautionary tale against polygamy".

Regional tales

In a Merina tale described in the book Tantara ny Andriana eto Madagasikara ("History of the Nobles in Madagascar"), Andriambavirano came down from heaven, goddess Andriambavirano ("Princess of the Water") descends to earth in leaf form near a lake in the Angavo mountain. Andriamanjavona, "royal prince of double affiliation" and son of sovereign Andriandravindravina, is destined to take it, which he does by singing a magical charm. He captures the leaf and takes it home. The leaf becomes a woman named Andriambavirano and they marry. The "vadibe", the first wife, casts away Andriambavirano's three children (two boys and a girl), but they are saved by a foster father. Further sources state the three children (the elder boy named Rabingoanony, the younger boy Andrianjatovorovola and the girl Ratandratandravola) are saved by a creature called Konantitra and later become heroes and heroines. Professor Lee Haring noted the connection to the international tale type ATU 707, "The Three Golden Children".

In another variant, "Андриамбахуака Равухимена и волшебные зерна" ("Andrianbahuaca Ravuhimena and the Magic Grains"), collected in Belu (West Coast of Madagascar), local nobleman Ravuhimena listens to three sisters; the youngest promising to give birth to five sons by him after she eats five grains. Ravuhimena marries all three sisters. When the youngest, Refaran, gives birth to five children, her sisters cast them in the forest, but they are saved by "The Man of the Forest".

French ethnologue Paul Ottino (fr) also analysed two similar Malagasy variants with the substitution of the children for objects and the jealous queens casting the children in the water, one of them titled Ifaranomby, published in 1955 by researcher Jeanne de Longchamps.

In a tale collected in Fianarantsoa, from the Betsileo, Le mari et ses trois femmes ("The man and his three wives"), a man's third wife gives birth to a boy named Razafinjato and a girl called Ramitriavola. The other co-wives replace them for objects and cast them in the sea in a box. An old woman who lived in a garden saves the box and raises the twins. Years later, she sends both to their father. The other co-wives send them to fetch some jewels by the margin of the river where alligators roamed, and to cut the tail of a dangerous bull. The brother performs these tasks and leaves unscathed.

In a variant from the Sakalava, collected by Norwegian missionary Émile Birkeli (no) in Morondava with the title Voromivola or L'oiseau parler ("The Speaking Bird"), two sisters, Talanôlo and Reivone go to a local celebration, leaving behind their youngest sister, Refarane. However, Refarane appears at the event on a horse. The king sees her and is smitten, wanting to marry her. Refarane gives birth to two children (the older a boy) who are replaced for a cat and a little mouse, and thrown in the water. They are saved by an old woman and find a talking bird (Voromivola), who tells them the truth and helps them reconcile their family.

Réunion

In the island of Réunion, a variant was collected from local male storyteller Germain Elizabeth, born in 1895, with the title Kat fler d-roz ("Four Rose Blossoms"). In this variant, three orphan girls express their wishes to marry the king's cook, the king's baker, and the king himself. The king marries the youngest, and, she is to give birth, she is to ring a golden bell for a son, and a silver bell for a girl. She gives birth to two boys and a girl in three consecutive births, but the children are replaces for two puppies and a kitten. An old fairy rescues and raises the children as their foster mother, and she helps them to obtain the treasures: e dancing apple, the singing water, and the bird of truth from the garden of a woman named Four Rose Blossoms lives. Professor Lee Haring also noted that his tale was a "descendant" from Galland's Two Sisters and Grimm's Three Little Birds and, like those tales, also classified as type 707.

Mayotte

A Maorais variant was collected from teller Afiatu Sufu of Mtsapere in the Shimaore language. In this tale, titled Vovoo mutseha na Rambuu mulagua or La Noix d'Arec qui rit et la Feuille de Bétel qui parle ("The Laughing Areca nut and the Speaking Betel leaf"), a poor girl grows up and becomes ill. Whenever the king passes by her village, she shouts at him to cure her, and in return she will give him seven children, six boys and a girl. The girl pleads him so insistently he cures her. Some months later, the girl loses her grandparents, but marries the king, who already has a previous wife. When she is in labour, the first wife and an old woman act as midwife to the second queen in the delivery, replacing the children for stones. The seven siblings are found by a poor old couple. Years later, the old midwife convinces the youngest sister to send her brothers for the lioness's milk, the laughing Areca nut and the speaking betel leaf.

Americas

North America

United States

Professor and folktale collector Genevieve Massignon collected the tale titled Les Trois Sœurs abandonnées, part of a collection of 77 stories obtained from fieldwork from Madawaska, Maine.

A few versions have been collected from Mexican-American populations living in U.S. states, such as California and New Mexico, and in the Southwest.

In a variant collected around Los Angeles area, there are two sons, one golden-haired and the other silver-haired, and a girl with a star on her forehead, while a second variant mixes type ATU 425A ("Search for The Lost Husband") with type ATU 707.

A variant was collected from a Spanish-descent fifteen-year-old named Philomene Gonzalez, from Delacroix Island, Louisiana, in 1941. In this variant, titled Golden Star, a maiden wishes to marry the prince and to have a boy with white and golden hair and with a star on the forehead. She gives birth to this boy and a girl with the same traits the following year. An old woman replaces the children for puppies and throws them in the river, but God rescues them. This version lacks the quest for the items, and concludes when God sends them to a feast with the king.

Native Americans

In a Chippewa tale collected in 1942 from Delia Oshogay, in Court Oreilles, Oshkikwe's Children, Oshkikwe is the youngest sister who marries the king because she promised to give birth to three children: two boys, and the last a girl with golden hair and a star on her forehead. Her two sisters, the elder named Matchikwewis, become jealous and enraged that they married lowly men and devise a plan: cast the children into the river and replace them for animals, causing the queen to be imprisoned by her husband. The children are rescued and raised by an old couple, then go on a quest for the "golden bird that talked".

Anthropologist James Teit collected a tale from the Upper Thompson River Indians titled Spiṓla. A white woman is exiled from home, but meets a lodge where her four brothers lived. She helps them and is blessed with the ability to produce gold with her mouth. A chief's son marries her and she is pregnant. When the husband is called away to a meeting, her step-mother and step-sister help in the delivery. However, they make a hole in the floor, let the her sons fall through it and put a cat and a snake in their place. Seeing the animals, the chief's son condemns her to be drowned in the river, but her brothers rescue her. Meanwhile, the boys have been rescued by the woman's favourite dog named Spiṓla. The dog protects and feeds the children. One day, the woman's step-mother gives some poisoned food to the boys and they die. The dog Spiṓla decides to go to the house of the Sun to seek help, and on his way is questioned by three people to find answers to their problems (a la "Three Hairs from the Devil's Beard"). When the dog resurrects the boys, one boy has a shining sun on the forehead, and the other a bright moon. Lastly, Spiṓla decides to find the wise Bird, who "talked all languages, knew the future, and never told a lie". Stith Thompson related this tale to the cycle of "The Bird of Truth".

New Mexico

A variant from Northern New Mexico was collected by José Manuel Espinosa in the 1930s from a twelve-year-old María del Carmen González, who lived in San Ildefonso. The tale was republished by Joe Hayes in 1998 with the title El pájaro que contaba verdades ("The Bird that spoke the Truth"). In this tale, originally titled Los niños perseguidos, a couple have three children: two boys with golden hair and a girl with a star on the forehead. They are kidnapped by an evil witch and left in the canyon to die. The objects they seek are a bird with green feathers, a bottle of holy water and a whistle.

A second version from New Mexico was collected by Professor R. D. Jameson, titled The Talking Bird, The Singing Tree, and the Water of Life, first heard by the raconteur in his childhood. In a second version by R. D. Jameson, the princess promises to give birth to twin boys: one golden-haired and one silver-haired.

In another variant, first collected in 1930 by Arthur L. Campa in his thesis (El Pájaro Verde; English: "The Green Bird"), the quest is prompted by the siblings's foster mother, in order to ensure a life-long happiness for them.

In another variant, titled The Three Treasures, the youngest sister wants to marry the prince and promises to give birth to golden-haired children. She gets her wish and gives birth first to a girl, then to two boys in the following years. Her sisters cast the siblings in the water, but they are saved by the gardener.

Canada

See also: Les Princes et la Princesse de Marinca

Mexico

A variant was collected from Tepecano people in the state of Jalisco (Mexico) by J. Alden Mason (Spanish: Los niños coronados; English: "The crowned children") and also published in the Journal of American Folklore. A version from Mitla, Oaxaca, in Mexico (The Envious Sisters), was collected by Elsie Clews Parsons and published in the Journal of American Folklore: the siblings quest for "the crystalline water, the tree that sings, and the bird that talks".

In a Yucatec Maya variant, Ooxtuul kiktsilo'ob or El Rey y Las Tres Hermanas ("The King and the Three Sisters"), the king marries the youngest sister and the elder ones replace the children for dead animals.

Central America

Four variants have been collected by Manuel José Andrade, obtained from sources in the Dominican Republic. The tales contain male children as the heroes who perform the quest to learn the truth of their birth. A later study by Hansen listed 12 Dominican variants.

The tale type is also present in the folklore of Puerto Rico (amounting to 9 local versions), and of Panama.

Anthropologist Elsie Clews Parsons recorded a tale from Martinica (L'arbre qui chante, l'oiseau qui parle, l'eau qui dort; English: "The singing tree, the talking bird, the sleeping water"), Guadalupe (De l'eau qui dort, l'oiseau dite la vérité; English: "About the water that sleeps, the bird that tells the truth") and Haiti (Poupée caca la: Trois sé [soeurs] la). The version from Guadalupe begins like Snow White (ATU 709), a mother's envy of her daughter's beauty, and continues as ATU 707.

A version from Jamaica was collected by Pamela Colman Smith, titled De Golden Water, De Singin' Tree and De Talkin' Bird.

Douglas Taylor collected a tale from British Honduras (modern day Belize), in the Island Carib language, translated as Tale of a woman's three children, Hero is the eldest sister's name, Juana the intermediate one, Jessie the youngest,-three girls. In this tale, the king's son, the baker's son and the butcher's son pass by the girls' verandah, and the three sisters express their wishes for a husband: Jessie the king's son, Juana the baker's son and Hero the butcher's son. Their mother, Mrs. Willy, goes to the king, who arranges their marriages. Jessie marries the king's son and he becomes king. He announces during an assembly of the people that he shall have three children, two boys and a girl, thet girl with a star on the forehead, one of the boys with a moon and the other with a sun. The elder sisters deliver the children, cast them in the water and replace them for a cat, a goat and a dog. The children are saved by a poor couple that lived by the river. After his adoptive father dies, the youngest son dreams that his father told him to seek the world's riches. The youngest goes and fails, his elder brother goes as well and fails, both turning to stone. The elder sibling, the girl, goes after them and captures a talking bird. The bird tells her to get a golden water, a branch of a singing tree and to sprinkle a bit of the water to restore her brothers.

South America

Brazil

Brazilian folklorist Luís da Câmara Cascudo stated that the tale type was brought to Brazil by Portuguese colonization. He also collected a variant from a woman named Benvenuta de Araújo, from Rio Grande do Norte. In this variant, titled A Rainha e as Irmãs ("The Queen and her Sisters"), the youngest marries the king and gives birth to two boys and a girl, all with a golden star. Her sisters replace them with frogs and a servant abandons them under a tree in the forest, but they are saved by a hunter. The siblings quest for the Água-da-Vida ("The Water of Life"). During a supper with the hunter, they invite a poor woman to join them, and she reveals she is the servant. The siblings forgive her and later reconcile with their father.

Another Brazilian version was collected by Brazilian literary critic, lawyer and philosopher Silvio Romero, from his native state of Sergipe and published as Os três coroados ("The three crowned ones") in his Contos Populares do Brazil (1894). In this version, the siblings are born each with a little crown on their heads, and their adoptive mother is the heroine.

Author Elsie Spicer Eells recorded a very similar Brazilian variant titled The Stone Twins: the queen gives birth to twins, but the queen's jealous sisters cast them in the river. They are saved by a poor fishing couple. Years later, the sisters meet the boys again and give them flowers and fruits that petrify them. The boys' foster mother is advised to seek the abode of the Sun, because he knows many things. The story continues as tale type ATU 461, Three Hairs from the Devil's Beard, wherein the hero or heroine gets asked three questions and the Devil (or the Sun, or Father Know-All in Slavic variants) is wise enough to know the answers.

Argentina

Folklorist and researcher Berta Elena Vidal de Battini collected eight variants all over Argentina, throughout the years, and published them as part of an extensive compilation of Argentinian folk-tales. Another variant (La Luna y el Sol) has been collected by Susana Chertudi.

Scholar Bertha Koessler-Ilg collected and published from the Mapuche of Argentina an etiological tale she titled Dónde y cómo tuvieron origen los colibries (English: "How and why the colibris were created"), with several similarities with the tale-type. In this story, the inca (lord) marries Painemilla ("Oro azul" or "blue gold"), who gives birth to twins, a boy and a girl, both with golden hair. However, her envious sister, Painefilu ("Vibora azul" or "blue viper") replaces the children for puppies.

Chile

A preliminary report by Terrence Hansen on the Chilean variants listed 14 tales.

Folklorist Rodolfo Lenz collected two variants he grouped under the banner Las dos hermanas envidiosas de la menor ("The two sisters envious of their youngest"): La Luna i el Sol ("Moon and Sun") and La niña con la estrella de oro en la frente ("The girl with the golden star on her forehead"). This last tale is unique in that the queen gives birth to female twins: the eponymous girl and her golden-haired sister, and its second part has similarities with Biancabella and the Snake.

Chilean folklorist Ramón Laval (es) collected another variant from a twenty-year-old youth from Rancagua, titled El Loro Adivino ("The Divining Parrot"). In this story, three sisters, Flor Rosa, Flor Hortensia y Flor María, comment among themselves their potential marriages. The youngest, Flor María, says if she were to marry the king, she would give birth to three children with "el Sol, el Lucero y la Luna" on the front. She marries the king, her envious sisters replace the babies for animals, put them in a box and cast them in a stream. The box is found by a "hortelano" (herb-gatherer) and his wife, who raise the children. When they are twelve, the fosters parents die and Sol, the oldest, decides to seek their real parents. He meets an old lady on the road who tells him to seek "el Arbol que canta, el Agua de la vida y el Loro adivino" (the singing tree, the water of life and divining bird). As usual, only the youngest sister is successful in the quest and rescues her brothers, as well as restores a prince to his human shape and heals a blind king.

Chilean folklorist Yolando Pino Saavedra collected three Chilean variants: El sol y la luna, Maria Ignacia y Juancito and Maria Ceniza. In the first tale, the third sister promises to give birth to "the Sun and the Moon" (a twin with the sun on the front and another with the moon on the front), and a boy and a girl are born. In the second tale, despite lacking the usual introduction with the three sisters (their mother's generation), the brother and the sister are raised by the king's herb-gatherer and seek the leaping fish with the sparkling water, the tree that yields all types of fruits and the one that tells the truth. In the third tale (that begins like starting like Cinderella), a gentleman wishes to be father to twins with the sun and the moon on the front, and Maria Ceniza (the Cinderella-like character) promises to give birth to them.

In a variant from the Maule Region with the title El árbol que canta, el pájaro que habla y el agua de oro, a king goes out at night to listen to the conversations of his people. One night, h espies on one of your minister's three daughters: the oldest wants to marry the king's butler to drink the finest drinks; the middle one the cook to eat the finest pastries, and the youngest the king himself. The third sister marries the king and gives birth to three children in three consecutive pregnancies: two boys and a girl. They are each cast in the water, but saved by another one of the king's ministers. On their adoptive father's deathbed, the minister tells the siblings to quest for the singing tree, the talking bird and the golden water to ensure their happiness.

Colombia

In a Colombian version, The Three Sisters, after the children are cast in the water and reared by the royal gardener, the queen, their mother, comments with the gardener that the royal gardens need "a bird that speaks, an orange tree that dances, and water that jumps and leaps". The sister's brothers, Bamán and Párvis, offer to obtain the treasures, but it is their sister who finishes the quest and rescues her brothers.

Ecuador

In an Ecuadorian variant, Del Irás y Nunca Volverás ("[The Place] of Going and Not Returning"), three sisters express their wishes to marry the baker, the royal cook and the king himself. The third sister marries the king and gives birth (in consecutive pregnancies) to two boys and a girl with a star on the front. Her sisters replace them for animals and cast them in the water. They are saved by a childess old couple. Years later, the king visits their house and a servant tells them of three wonders to embellish their garden: the singing tree, the golden water and the speaking bird. This tale was also classified as type 707.

Bolivia

Two variants are reported to have been collected, one in Spanish, the other in Quechua. In one of them, titled El sol y la luna ("Sun and Moon"), the queen gives birth to children "like the sun and the moon".

Adaptations

Opera

The tale seems to have inspired Carlo Gozzi's commedia dell'arte work L'Augellino Belverde ("The Green Bird"). In it, the eponymous green bird keeps company to the imprisoned queen, and tells her he can talk, and he is actually a cursed prince. The fantastic children's grandmother sets them on their quest for the fabulous items: the singing apple and the dancing waters.

The tale has also inspired Canadian composer Gilles Tremblay to compose his Opéra Féerie L'eau qui danse, la pomme qui chante et l'oiseau qui dit la vérité (2009).

Literature

Lithuanian professor Asta Gustaitienė (lt) acknowledges that French-Lithuanian poet Oscar Milosz adapted a traditional Lithuanian variant titled Auksaplaukis ir Auksažvaigždė ("Golden-Hair and Golden Star"), by delving more into the relationships between the characters.

Bulgarian author Ran Bosilek adapted a variant of the tale type as the tale "Слънце и Месец" ("Sun and Moon"). In his adaptation, the youngest sister gives birth to two children, "one beautiful as the sun and the other beautiful as the moon", but her sisters abandon the children in the forest. They are saved and raised by a woman who lives in a distant palace. When they are of age, their foster mother reveals the truth and sends them back to their father's kingdom. On their way, they see their mother buried up to the torso in a trash heap. Instead of spitting at her, he kisses and washes her face. This surprises the guards and the king.

British author Alan Garner penned a children's fantasy book titled The Well of the Wind. In his story, twins, a boy and a girl, are found by a fisherman from a box drifting at sea. When they are of age, they are sent on a quest for "the springs of silver, the acorns of gold and the Well of the Wind", a location that houses the "white bird of perfect feather".

Television

Some German variants were condensed and adapted into the Märchenfilm Die drei Königskinder (de) as an episode of film series Sechs auf eine Streich.

Other interpretations

In balladry

Croatian folklorist Maja Bošković-Stulli argued for the presence of motifs of the tale type in the South Slavic epic ballad of Lov lovio Teftedar Alaga: Alaga's brother is tasked with killing Alaga's barren wife, but all of a sudden she gives birth to a boy with golden hands and legs and silver hair. In the same vein, Bulgarian folklorist Lyubomira Parpulova observed "similar notions" between the tale type 707, "The children with the wonderful features", and the Bulgarian/South Slavic folk song about a "walled-up wife". Commenting on a Greek variant he collected, Austrian consul Johann Georg von Hahn noted the punishment of the mother by walling her, and related the motif to Slavic legends.

In hagiography

It has been suggested that the tale type ATU 707 shows some approximation to the Breton legend of the Seven Saints (Septs Saints), in a variation from Ploubezre.

Granadan professor Amelina Correa Ramón argues in a study that the hagiographical life of Iberian saint Beatrice of Silva can be compared to similar motifs found in folktales of the international index, namely, types ATU 480 ("The Kind and Unkind Girls"), ATU 510 ("The Persecuted Heroine"), ATU 706 ("Maiden Without Hands"), ATU 707 ("The Three Golden Children"), and ATU 896 ("The Lecherous Holy Man and the Maiden in a Box").

In medieval literature

French scholar and medievalist Philippe Walter, in his work Gauvain, le chevalier solaire, about Arthurian character Sir Gawain, compared tales of Gawain's childhood with tale type ATU 707. He claimed that the resemblance between the description ("schéma") of the tale type and Gauvain's childhood is nette ("clear, evident").

Arthur Dickson, in his book about French romance Valentine and Orson, suggested that an early mediaeval version of the tale (named Valentine und Namelos) was based on the story of "The Jealous Sisters". However, his results were questioned by folklorist Archer Taylor.

In mythology

French linguist Hubert Pernot interpreted the astral motifs of the royal children, in light of the Griselidis story, as pertaining to an astral myth. However, this position was criticized by Richard MacGillivray Dawkins and by French folklorist Paul Delarue.

Likewise, Russian scholarship compared elements in variants from Altai, Buryat, Turkic and Mongolic peoples, in relation to some of their epics, dastans and Üligers (e.g., Epic of Jangar, Maadai-Kara, Alpamysh, Daini-Kyurul) - namely, body parts in golden and/or silver colour, fantastical births of the heroes, and their extraordinary abilities. They concluded that such traits denote the protagonists' supernatural connection to another world, akin to mythical heroes and totemic figures.

Crimean philologist Nuriya Emirsuinova argues for the antiquity of the Crimean Tatar tale Ak Kavak Kyz: the twins are sent for a branch of a magical tree that produces sounds and for its owner, a maiden whose name is connected to that tree. When the brother breaks off the branch, "earth and sky tremble" - a motif that, according to her, recalls ideas about the World Tree.

In Indo-European mythology

Lithuanian scholarship (e.g., Norbertas Vėlius) suggests that the character of the maiden with astronomical motifs on her head (sun, moon and/or star) may be reflective of the Baltic Morning Star character Aušrinė.

British scholar Arthur Bernard Cook, in his book Zeus, a Study in Ancient Religion (1925), posited that some versions of the story, collected from Greek and Italian sources, contained some remnants of Helen and her brothers, Castor and Pollux (the Dioskouroi or Divine twins of Greek mythology), in the characters of the wonder-children (triplets or two male/one female siblings) with astronomical motifs on their bodies. He also concluded on a stellar nature of the children, based on their names and astral birthmarks.

French historian François Delpech noted that strange birthmarks in folktales indicated a supernatural or royal origin of the characters, and mentioned the tale type in that regard. In addition, since the birthmarks are transmitted by the mother (who even knows beforehand their appearance), Delpech suggests it is a "reinterpretation" of a "well-documented" Indo-European mytheme of a female entity or goddess of sovereignty. In a later article, Delpech better defines this entity as a trivalent maternal deity that accompanies the Indo-European divine twins as their mother, sister, common wife or even enemy. He also claimed that tale types ATU 303 ("The Twins or Blood-Brothers"), ATU 451 ("The Maiden who Seeks her Brothers") and ATU 707 contain remnants of this dioskuric mytheme.

See also

• Ancilotto, King of Provino
• Princess Belle-Etoile
• The Three Little Birds
• The Bird of Truth
• The Wicked Sisters
• The Tale of Tsar Saltan
• The Water of Life
• The Pretty Little Calf
• The Green Bird, an Italian commedia dell'arte by Carlo Gozzi (1765)

For a selection of tales that mix the wonder-children motif with the transformation chase of the twins, please refer to:

• The Boys with the Golden Stars
• A String of Pearls Twined with Golden Flowers

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Further reading

• Nakin, Rosalia Moroesi (2017). "A deconstructionist analysis of the sesotho folktale, Ngwana ya Kgwedi Sefubeng". In: Southern African Journal for Folklore Studies Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 30–41. ISSN 1016-8427. https://doi.org/10.25159/1016-8427/2503

External links

• The Dancing Water, the Singing Apple, and the Speaking Bird on SurLaLune Fairy Tales at the Wayback Machine (archived November 30, 2019)