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Skanderbeg

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This article is about the Albanian hero. For other uses of "Scanderbeg" or "Skënderbeu" or "Skendi", see Skanderbeg (disambiguation).
Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg
Portrait of Skanderbeg in the Uffizi, Florence
Reign1443–1468
PredecessorGjon Kastrioti
Burial
Saint Nicholas Church of Lezhë, Albania
SpouseDonika Komneni
HouseKastrioti
FatherGjon Kastrioti
MotherVojsava Tripalda
ReligionChristian and Islam

George Castriot Skanderbeg (6 May 1405 – 17 January 1468; widely known as Skanderbeg Albanian: Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu, Greek: Γεώργιος Καστριώτης Σκερντέμπεης, Latin: Georgius Castriotus Scanderbegh, Turkish: İskender Bey, meaning Lord Alexander or Leader Alexander) is a prominent historical figure in 15th-century Albanian history. Skanderbeg is the national hero of the Albanians and initially through the work of his 16th-century biographer, Marin Barleti, is remembered for his struggle against the Ottoman Empire, whose armies he successfully ousted from his native land for more than two decades.[1]

Name

In contemporary documents Skanderbeg's first name was spelled in a number of ways depending on the language used: George, Gjergj, Giorgi, and Giorgio. The form of his last name was given variously as Castriota, Kastrioti, Castriottis,[2] Castriot,[3] and Kastriot. The name given him by the Turks has been rendered as Skanderbeg, Scanderbeg, Skënderbeg, Skënderbeu, Scander-Begh, Skënderbej, or Iskander Bey.

The name Skanderbeg (Skënderbeu in the Albanian version) is derived from Iskender (Turkish word derived from Alexander) and the Turkish appellative Bey (for Lord or Prince).[4] The last name Kastrioti refers to a village name in northern Albania called Kastriot in Dibra; however Skanderbeg is thought to have been born in the village of Sinë. In Albanian his name was Gjergj Kastrioti. "Skënder" was a name given by the Sultan. He was later given the title of Bey, awarded by the Turkish Sultan, hence the appellative Skander-Bey. Latinized in Barleti's version as Scanderbegi and translated into English as Skanderbeg the appellative is assumed to have been a comparison between Skanderbeg's military skill to that of Alexander the Great.[5]

Early life

Skanderbeg dueling with a Tatar in the Ottoman court (1436).

Skanderbeg is thought to have been born in Sinë, one of the two villages owned by his grandfather (according to Gjon Muzaka's book of genealogies). He was a descendant of the Kastrioti family. Skanderbeg's father was John Castriot,[6] lord of Middle Albania, which included Mat, Mirditë and Dibër. His mother was Vojsava Tripalda[7] a princess from the Tripalda family,[8] (who came from the Polog valley, north-western part of present-day Republic of Macedonia). Gjon Kastrioti was among those who opposed the early incursion of Ottoman Mehmed I, however his resistance was ineffective. The Sultan, having accepted his submissions after the fall of Krujë in 1415, obliged him to pay tribute, and to ensure the fidelity of local rulers.[9]

According to Barleti Skanderbeg and his three older brothers: Reposh, Kostandin, and Stanisha, were taken by the Sultan to his court as hostages,[7] however according to documents only one of the brothers of Skanderbeg, probably Stanisha,[9] was conscripted into the Devşirme system, which conscripted Christian boys, converted them to Islam, and trained them to become military officers.[10] When Skanderbeg was about 9, in 1415, he too was conscripted. He was taken to Edirne, then capital of the Ottoman Empire, to enroll into the Devşirme system and stayed there for a period of around 10 years.[9] It is during this time that he was given the appellative İskender.[9] For the first time Skanderbeg's name is mentioned in Albania in 1426, when he and his family purchased a grave in the Hilandar Monastery in Mount Athos.[11]

At that time Skanderbeg was a sipahi and, in 1437–1438,[12] he became vali (equivalent of governor) of the Krujë zeamet.[11] Up to 1432 the vali of the city had been Zaganoz Bey, and in 1438, Zaganoz became again vali of Krujë, but he must have come to the city one year later, because Skanderbeg is still mentioned as being in Albania twice, on July 7 and July 10, 1438.[11] Skanderbeg during the 1430s owned a relatively large timar, composed of nine villages, although it is unknown exactly which villages they were.[11] Historians believe that it is plausible that those villages were part of the vilayet of Dhimiter Jonima.[11]

It was because of Skanderbeg's display of military merit in several Ottoman campaigns both in Asia Minor and in Europe that Murad II had given him the title of vali. At that time Skanderbeg came to lead a cavalry unit of 5,000 men.[13] According to contemporary documents and sources, during his stay in Albania as Ottoman governor, he used to maintain secret links with Ragusa, Venice, Ladislaus V of Hungary, and Alfonso of Naples.[14][page needed] During these years (1430–40) he also maintained close relations with the population in his father's former properties and also with the other Albanian noble families.[11] After the death of Reposh, then a monk, in 1431, and the later deaths of Kostandin and Skanderbeg's father (who died in 1437), Skanderbeg governed his zeamet with his surviving brother, Stanisha.[12]

In 1439 Murad II took Skanderbeg away from his zeamet in Albania and gave him other fiefdoms elsewhere, probably in Nikopol of modern Bulgaria. It is safe to assume that this was seen by Skanderbeg as a demotion.[12] In the 1439–1443 period Skanderbeg is no longer mentioned in Albania and is thought to have been fighting along the Turks in their European campaigns, mostly against the revolts led by Janos Hunyadi.[12]

Albanian resistance

Rise

In November 1443 Skanderbeg saw his opportunity to rebel during a battle against the Hungarians, led by John Hunyadi, in Niš as part of the Crusade of Varna. He switched sides along with 300 other Albanians serving in the Ottoman army. After a long trek to Albania he eventually captured Krujë on November 28, by forging a letter from the Sultan to the Governor of Krujë, which granted Skanderbeg control of the city.[15] After capturing Krujë and other minor castles, and eventually gaining control over more than his father Gjon Kastrioti's domains, Skanderbeg abjured Islam and proclaimed himself the avenger of his family and country.[16] He raised a flag with the double-headed eagle, his family's own emblem and the historical symbol of Christian Empires, most notably the Holy Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire. This flag and symbol are still in use today by Albania (see Albanian flag) and the double-headed eagle is used by various other states and authorities of the Balkans, Eastern Europe and Central Europe.

In other parts of Albania the Ottomans were expelled by the other Albanian princes, and most of the Albanian territories were freed from Ottoman rule. The areas that remained under Ottoman control were mainly the south-western territories of Albania and the cities of Vlorë, Kaninë, Gjirokastër and Kostur.

Skanderbeg allied with George Arianiti[17] (born Gjergj Arianit Komneni, who was a distant relation of the Byzantine Komnenos dynasty through one of his great grandmothers)[18] and married his daughter Andronike (born Marina Donika Arianiti).[19]

Following the capture of Krujë, Skanderbeg managed to bring together all the Albanian princes in the town of Lezhë[20] (see League of Lezhë, 1444). Gibbon reports that the"Albanians, a martial race, were unanimous to live and die with their hereditary prince"[21] and that"in the assembly of the states of Epirus, Skanderbeg was elected general of the Turkish war and each of the allies engaged to furnish his respective proportion of men and money".[21] With this support, Skanderbeg built fortresses and organized a mobile defense force that forced the Ottomans to disperse their troops, leaving them vulnerable to the hit-and-run tactics of the Albanians.[22] Skanderbeg fought a guerrilla war against the opposing armies by using the mountainous terrain to his advantage. During the first 8–10 years, Skanderbeg commanded an army of generally 10,000-15.000 soldiers,[23] but only had absolute control over the men from his own dominions, and had to convince the other princes that his policies and tactics were the right ones.[18]

File:Skandeberginkruja.jpg
The Krujë Castle during Ottoman times.

In the summer of 1444, in the field of Torvioll, the united Albanian armies under Skanderbeg faced the Ottomans under direct command of the Turkish general Ali Pasha, with an army of 25,000 men.[24][full citation needed] Skanderbeg had under his command 7,000 infantry and 8,000 cavalry. 3,000 cavalry were hidden behind the enemy lines in a nearby forest under the command of Hamza Kastrioti. At a given signal they descended, encircling the Turks and giving Skanderbeg a much needed victory. About 8,000[18] Turks were killed and 2,000 were captured. His victory echoed across Europe because this was one of the few times that an Ottoman army was defeated in a set-piece battle on European soil. In the coming years, Skanderbeg defeated the Turks two more times, in 1445 and again in 1446.[25][26]

In 1447, Skanderbeg was also involved in a conflict with the Republic of Venice, due to the capture of a castle in Northern Albania (Dagnum) by the Republic of Venice. During the conflict, Venice invited the Ottomans to attack Skanderbeg simultaneously from the east, provoking a double-sided conflict for the Albanians. Skanderbeg, who had besieged a few castles that were possessed by Venice in Albania, was forced to fight an Ottoman Army commanded by Mustafa Pasha. In 1448 he won the battle against Mustafa Pasha in Dibër; some days later, on July 23, 1448, he won in Shkodër another battle against a Venetian Army led by Andrea Venier. At the same time he besieged the towns of Durrës and Lezhë which were then under Venetian rule.[27] This forced the Venetians to offer a peace treaty to Skanderbeg. The peace treaty was signed between Skanderbeg and Venice on 4 October 1448. Soon afterwards Skanderbeg left to join John Hunyadi in Kosovo.[28]

Woodcut of confrontation between Skanderbeg's forces and Ottoman forces.

Although it is sometimes believed that Skanderbeg took part in the Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448, but he never actually arrived. He and his army were en route to reinforce the mainly Hungarian army of John Hunyadi, but Hunyadi did not wait for Skanderbeg[29] while he was delayed by Brankovic.[1]

In 1448, Skanderbeg sent some Albanian troops in Italy under Demetrio Reres to help Alfonso to put down a rebellion. Many of these troops settled there.[30]

In 1448 an Ottoman army led by Sultan Murad II and his son Mehmed II laid siege to the castle of Svetigrad. The Albanian garrison in the castle resisted the frontal assaults of the Ottoman Army, while Skanderbeg harassed the besieging forces with the remaining Albanian army under his personal command. In late summer 1448 due to a lack of potable water[A] the Albanian garrison surrendered the castle with the condition of a safe passage through the Ottoman besieging forces, a condition which was accepted and respected by the sultan.[31]

The next year, in June 1450, an Ottoman army numbering approximately 100,000 men led again by Sultan Murad II himself and Mehmed II laid siege to Krujë.[32] Following a scorched earth strategy (thus denying the Ottomans the use of necessary local resources), Skanderbeg left a protective garrison of 1,500 men under one of his most trusted lieutenants, Vrana Konti, while with the remainder of the army he harassed the Ottoman camps around Krujë by continuously attacking the supply caravans of the Sultan's army. Three major direct assaults on the city walls by the Ottomans were repelled by the garrison, causing great losses to the besieging forces. Ottoman attempts at finding and cutting the water sources failed, as did a sapped tunnel, which collapsed suddenly. An offer of 300,000 aspra (Turkish money) and a promise of graduation to the Turkish army made to Vrana Konti, were both rejected by him.[33]

By September 1450 the Ottoman camp was in disarray as morale sank and disease ran rampant. Murad II acknowledged the castle of Krujë would not fall by strength of arms and in October 1450, he lifted the siege and made his way to Edirne, leaving behind several thousand dead soldiers.[33] Soon thereafter in the winter of 1450–1451, Murad died in Edirne and was succeeded by his son Mehmed II.

Consolidation

Engraving of an Albanian assault on a Turkish camp.

Although achieving a great success at resisting the Sultan himself, harvests were unproductive and famine was widespread. Following Skanderbeg's requests, King Alfons V of Naples helped him in this situation and the two parties signed in 1451 the Treaty of Gaeta, according to which Skanderbeg would be formally vassal of Alfonso V in exchange for some military aid. Also, in 1451 Skanderbeg married the daughter of Gjergj Arianiti, one of the most influential Albanian noblemen, strengthening the ties between them.

For the next five years Albania was allowed some respite as the new sultan set out to conquer the last vestiges of the Byzantine Empire, though a battle took place in 1452, when another Ottoman army sent to Albania was defeated again by Skanderbeg's forces. During this period, skirmishes between Skanderbeg and Dukagjin family were put to an end by the intervention of the pope and in 1454 a peace treaty was reached.[34]

The first real test between the armies of the new sultan and Skanderbeg came in 1455 during the Siege of Berat that would end in a defeat for the League of Lezhë forces.[35] Skanderbeg besieged the town's castle for months, causing the demoralized Turkish officer in charge of the castle to promise his surrender.[35] At that point Skanderbeg relaxed his grip, split his forces and left the siege location.[35] He left behind one of his generals, Muzakë Topia and half of his cavalry on the banks of the River Osum to finalize the surrender.[35] It would be a costly error; the Ottomans saw this moment as an opportunity for attack.[35] They sent a large cavalry force led by Isa Beg Evrenos from Anatolia to Berat as reinforcements.[35] The Albanian forces had become overconfident and lulled into a false sense of security.[35] The Ottomans caught the Albanian cavalry by surprise while they were resting on the banks of the River Osum.[35] Almost all the 5,000 Albanian cavalry laying siege to Berat were killed.[35] Most of the forces belonged to Gjergj Arianiti and this defeat reduced his role as the greatest supporter of Skanderbeg.[35]

This defeat affected somewhat the attitude of other Albanian noblemen. One of them, Moisi Arianit Golemi, defected to the Turks and in 1456 returned to Albania as a commander of a Turkish army of 15,000 men, but was defeated by Skanderbeg in a swift battle.[36] Later that year a remorseful Moisi Arianit Golemi returned to Albania asking for Skanderbeg's forgiveness, and once acquitted, remained loyal up to his death in 1464.[36]

In 1456, one of Skanderbeg nephews (son of his sister Yella), George Stress Balsha, sold the fortress of Modrichi to the Turks for 30000 silver ducats. He tried to cover up the act but his treason was discovered, and he was sent to prison in Naples.[37]

In the beginning of 1457, another nobleman, Hamza Kastrioti, Skanderbeg's own nephew and his closest collaborator, defected to the Turks when he lost his hope of succession after the birth of Skanderbeg's son John Castriot II. In the summer of 1457 an Ottoman army numbering approximately 70,000 men[14] invaded Albania with the hope of destroying Albanian resistance once and for all; this army was led by Isa beg Evrenos, the only commander to have defeated Skanderbeg's forces in the battle of Berat, and Hamza Kastrioti, who knew all about Albanian army strategies. After wreaking much damage to the countryside[14] the Ottoman army set up camp at the Ujebardha field (literally translated as "White Water"), halfway between Lezhë and Krujë. After having avoided the enemy for months, calmly creating the impression to the Turks and his European neighbours that he was defeated, on September 2, Skanderbeg attacked the Ottomans in their encampments and defeated them.[38] This was one of the most brilliant, important and glorious victories of Skanderbeg over the Ottomans, which led to a five-year peace treaty with Sultan Mehmed II. Hamza was captured[39] and sent to detention in Naples.[40]

Last years

File:Beteja e Albulenës.jpg
Beteja e Albulenës by Fatmir Haxhiu

On 17 April 1461 Skanderbeg signed a three-year armistice with the sultan. This allowed him to launch in late summer 1461 a successful campaign[20] against the noblemen of the Angevin and their ally, Francesco Piccinino, who sought to destabilize King Ferdinand I of Naples. For his services[3] he gained the title of the Duke of San Pietro in the Kingdom of Naples. After securing the Neapolitan kingdom, a crucial ally in his struggle, he returned home, informed of the Ottoman movements within the borders. There were three Ottoman armies approaching: the first one, under the command of Sinan Pasha, was defeated at Mokra (near Dibër); the second one, under the command of Hussain Bey, was defeated in the Battle of Ohër where the Turkish commander was captured; and the third one was defeated in the region of Skopje.[41] This forced the sultan to agree to a ten-year armistice which was signed in April 1463.[41][42] Inspired by the Crusade declared by Pius II and hearing of the presence of the Pope and the crusaders' army in Ancona, at the beginning of August 1464 Skanderbeg's forces attacked and defeated Sheremet Bey's forces near Ohrid lake.[43] But when the pope died and the crusade dispersed, Skanderbeg's forces remained alone against the sultan. In April 1465 at the First Battle of Vajkal Skanderbeg fought and defeated Ballaban Badera, an Albanian Ottoman general. However, during an ambush in the same battle, Ballaban managed to capture some important Albanian noblemen,[44] including Moisi Arianit Golemi, a cavalry commander; Vladan Gjurica, the chief army quartermaster; Muzaka of Angelina, a nephew of Skanderbeg, and 18 officers. These men were sent immediately to Constantinople (Istanbul) where they were skinned alive for fifteen days and later cut to pieces and thrown to the dogs.[43][44] Skanderbeg's pleas to have these men back, by either ransom or prisoner exchange, failed.

Later that same year two other Ottoman armies appeared on the borders. The commander of one of the Ottoman armies was Ballaban Badera, who, together with Jakup Bey, the commander of the second army, planned a double-flank movement: firstly, Skanderbeg attacked Ballaban's forces at the Second Battle of Vajkal where the Turks were defeated, but this time all the Turkish prisoners were slain in an act of revenge for the previous execution of Albanian captains;[45] the other Turkish army, under the command of Jakup Bey, was also defeated some days later in Kashari field near Tirana.[45]

In 1466 Sultan Mehmed II personally led an army into Albania and laid the Second Siege of Krujë, as his father had attempted sixteen years earlier. The town was defended by a garrison of 4,400 men, led by Prince Tanush Thopia. After several months of siege, destruction and killings all over the country, Mehmed II (also known as Fatih the Conqueror), like Murad II, saw that seizing Krujë was impossible for him to accomplish by force of arms. Subsequently, he left the siege to return to Istanbul. However, he left a force of 80,000 men under Ballaban Pasha to maintain the siege by building a castle in central Albania, which he named Il-basan (modern Elbasan), in order to support the siege. Durrës would be the next target of the sultan, in order to be used as a strong base opposite the Italian coast.[46] Skanderbeg spent the following winter in Italy, unsuccessfully seeking aid in Rome and Naples. However, on his return he allied with Lekë Dukagjini, and together on 19 April 1467 they first attacked and defeated, in the Krrabë region, the Turkish reinforcements commanded by Yonuz, Ballaban's brother: Yonuz himself and his son, Haydar were taken prisoners.[45] Four days later, on 23 April 1467, they attacked the Ottoman forces laying siege to Krujë. The Second Siege of Krujë was eventually broken, resulting in the death of Ballaban Pasha by an Albanian arquebusier[18][41] named Gjergj Aleksi.[47]

After these events, Skanderbeg's forces besieged Elbasan, but lacked artillery and sufficient numbers to capture it by direct assaults.[48] The destruction of Ballaban Pasha's army and the siege of Elbasan, forced Mehmed II to march again in summer 1467 against Albania. He energetically pursued the attacks against the Albanian strongholds, while sending detachments to raid the Venetian possessions (especially Durrës) and to keep them isolated. The Ottomans failed again in their third Siege of Krujë to take the city and subjugate the country, but the degree of destruction was immense.[citation needed]

During the annual Ottoman incursions, Albanians suffered a great number of casualties, especially to the civilian population and the economy of the country was in ruin. The above problems, the loss of many Albanian noblemen and the new alliance with Lekë Dukagjini, caused Skanderbeg to call together in January 1468 all the remaining Albanian nobleman to a conference in the Venetian stronghold of Lezhë, to discuss the new war strategy and restructuring what remained from the League of Lezhë.[48] During that period Skanderbeg fell ill to malaria and soon died on 17 January 1468.[48] After his death Venice asked and obtained from his widow the permission to defend Krujë and the other fortresses with Venetian garrisons.[48] Krujë held until 1477, when it was besieged again by Gedik Ahmed Pasha and after a year of a valiant resistance in June 1478, the city was starved to death, it finally surrendered to Sultan himself.[48] In 1479 an Ottoman army, headed again by the Sultan, besieged and captured Shkodër[48] and this meant that at that time Venice had lost all of the Albanian possessions with the exceptions of Durazzo, Antivari, and Dulcigno.[48]

Diplomacy

Relations with the Papal States

Skanderbeg Museum in Krujë.

Skanderbeg's military successes evoked a great deal of interest and admiration from the Papal States, Venice, and Naples who were threatened by the growing Ottoman power. As an active defender of the Christian cause in the Balkans, Skanderbeg was also closely involved with the politics of four popes, including Pope Pius II, who hailed him as the Christian Gideon.[3]

Skanderbeg's relations with the Papal States were intensified under Pope Calixtus III. But Skanderbeg's military undertakings involved considerable expense, which the contribution of Alfonso V of Aragon was not sufficient to defray. Following the Ottoman invasion in 1457 Skanderbeg requested help from Pope Calixtus III who was in financial difficulties. The pope could do no more than send Skanderbeg a single galley and a modest sum of money, promising more ships and larger amounts of money in the future. But Ragusa refused bluntly to release the funds which had been collected in Dalmatia for the crusade and, which according to the pope, were to have been distributed in equal parts to Hungary, Bosnia and Albania. The Ragusans even entered into negotiations with Mehmed. At the end of December 1457, Pope Calixtus III threatened Ragusa with an interdict and when this failed he repeated it in February 1458. After the victory of Ujëbardha on December 1457, Pope Calixtus III appointed Skanderbeg as captain general of the Curia in the war against the Turks, but once again Venice destroyed the prospects for a favorable turn in Albania by raising new claims. As the captain of the Curia, Skanderbeg appointed as a lieutenant in his native land, the duke of Levkas (Santa Maura), Leonardo III Tocco, formerly the prince of Arta and "despot of the Rhomaeans" a figure virtually unknown except in Southern Epirus[49][page needed]

Profoundly shaken by the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Pope Pius II tried to organize a new crusade against the Ottoman Turks, and to that end he did his best to come to Skanderbeg's aid, as his predecessors Pope Nicholas V and Pope Calixtus III had done before him. The latter named him captain general of the Holy See. They gave him the title Athleta Christi, or Champion of Christ. Pope Pius II planned a crusade in which he would assemble 20,000 soldiers in Taranto and another 20,000 would have been gathered by Skanderbeg. They would have been summoned in Durazzo under Skanderbeg's leadership and would have organized the central front against the Ottomans. This plan forced Skanderbeg to break his 10 year peace treaty with the Ottomans signed in 1463, by attacking the Turkish forces near Ohrid. But Pope Pius II died at the crucial moment when the crusading armies were gathering and preparing to march in Ancona, in August 1464 and Skanderbeg was again left alone facing the Ottomans.[43]

The papacy was generous with praise and encouragement, but its financial subsidies were limited. It is possible tha curia only provided to Skanderbeg 20,000 ducats in all, which could have paid the wages of twenty men over the whole period of conflict.[50] During the winter of 1466—1467 when the situation was critical Skanderbeg spent several weeks in Rome trying to persuade Pope Paul II to give him money. At one point, he was unable to pay for his hotel bill, and he commented bitterly that he should be fighting against the Church rather than the Turks.[51] Only when Skanderbeg left for Naples did Pope Paul II give him 2,300 ducats. The court of Naples, whose policy in the Balkans hinged on Skanderbeg's resistance, was more generous with money, armaments and supplies. Ragusa and Venice helped when it was their interest to do so. But it is probably better to say that Skanderbeg financed and equipped his troops largely from local resources, richly supplemented by Turkish booty.[50]

Relations with the Republic of Venice

Skanderbeg's helmet preserved in the Kunsthistorisches Museum of Vienna

At the beginning of the Albanian insurrection, Venice was supportive of Skanderbeg, considering his forces to be a buffer between them and the Ottoman Empire. Accordingly, the League of Lezhë was held in Venetian territory and with the approval of Venice. The later affirmation of Skanderbeg and his rise as a strong force on their borders was seen as a menace to the interest of the republic and this led to a worsening of relations, leading to the case of Dagnum which triggered the Albanian-Venetian War of 1447–1448. The Venetians sought by every means to overthrow, or bring about the death of Skanderbeg, even offering a life pension of 100 golden ducats annually for the person who could do so.[26][52] In that period they also requested the help of the sultan[53] and when Skanderbeg defeated the Venetian army at Shkodër and the Turkish army at Oronik, they requested an armistice, and a peace treaty with "buoni amici e vicini" (good friends and neighbours) was signed on 4 October 1448. Venice agreed to pay Skanderbeg 1,400 ducats for keeping Dagnum and its environs but would cede to Skanderbeg the territory of Buzëgjarpri at the mouth of the river Drin, and also Skanderbeg would enjoy the privilege of buying, tax-free, 200 horse-loads of salt annually from Durazzo.[28]

During the First Siege of Krujë, the Venetian merchants furnished the besieging Ottoman army. The attack by Skanderbeg on their caravans raised tension between the parties, but the case was resolved with the help of the bail of Durrës which would not allow any Venetian merchants to furnish the Ottoman army.[33]

The senate of Venice further resented Skanderbeg's alliance with the Kingdom of Naples, an old enemy of the republic. Frequently they delayed their tributes to Skanderbeg and this was long a matter of dispute between the parties, with Skanderbeg threatening at least three times war on Venice during the 1448–1458 period, and Venice conceding in a reconciling tone.[54]

The position of the republic changed when they entered in their first war with the Turks (1463—1479). During this period the republic saw Skanderbeg as an invaluable ally, and on August 20, 1463 the peace treaty was renewed and this time other conditions were added: the right of asylum in Venice; an article precising that any Venetian treaty with the Turks would include a guarantee of Albanian independence; and allowing the presence of several Venetian ships in the Adriatic waters around Lezhë.[42][55]

After the death of Skanderbeg, with the request of Skanderbeg's wife, a number of Venetian soldiers were added to the Albanian garrison of Krujë, while she went to take refuge to the Kingdom of Naples together with her 11 year old son Gjon Kastrioti, and in this way, Venice was the de facto controller of what was once Skanderbeg's territory.[48] The eventual defeat of Venice and of what remained of their Albanian allies at the Siege of Shkodër in 1479, marked the end of the organised Albanian resistance.

Relations with the Kingdom of Naples

Portrait of Alfonso V of Aragon, by Vicente Juan Masip

According to some scholars,[who?] Skanderbeg and King Alfonso kept secret contact when Skanderbeg was suba at Krujë around 1438. After his ascendance in 1443 they become part of Skanderbeg's diplomacy. The intensification began in 1447 when Skanderbeg got into conflict with Venice. King Alfonso V was the main rival of Venice in the Adriatic and his dreams for an empire were always opposed by Venice.[56]

In 1448 Alfonso V of Aragon suffered a rebellion caused by certain barons in the rural areas of his kingdom in southern Italy. He needed reliable troops to deal with the uprising, so he called upon Skanderbeg for assistance. Skanderbeg responded to Alfonso's request for aid by sending to Italy a detachment of Albanian troops commanded by General Demetrios Reres. These Albanians were successful in quickly suppressing the rebellion and restoring order. King Alfonso rewarded Demetrios Reres for his service to Naples by appointing him Governor of Calabria. Two years later, in 1450, another detachment of Albanian troops was sent to garrison Sicily against a rebellion and invasion. This time the troops were led by Giorgio and Basilio Reres, the sons of Demetrios.

In 1451 Albania was in ruin after Sultan Murad II was defeated at the Siege of Krujë and now it was Skanderbeg's turn to ask for help from King Alfonso. He sent his emissaries to Naples, and after some negotiations, Skanderbeg's representatives, Stephan the Bishop of Krujë and the Dominican Nichola de Berguzzi, signed on 26 March 1451 the Treaty of Gaeta. The treaty was signed not only in the name of Skanderbeg but also "... e de soi parenti, baruni in Albania, de la parte altra" (..... his relatives, barons in Albania, of the other part).[56]

According to the Treaty, Skanderbeg recognized King Alfonso's sovereignty over his lands, in exchange for the help that King Alfonso would give to him in his war against the Ottomans. Skanderbeg even promised to put the lands he and his relatives would eventually conquer from the Ottomans under King Alfonso' sovereignty. King Alfonso pledged to respect the old privileges of Krujë and Albanian territories and to pay Skanderbeg an annual 1,500 ducats, while Skanderbeg pledged to make his fealty to King Alfonso only after the full expulsion of the Ottomans from the country, a condition never reached in Skanderbeg's lifetime. This fact (the oath never took place) expressively stated in the agreement has raised debate among scholars: was Skanderbeg to be called a vassal of King Alfonso or not? Some maintain that although it looked like a typical vassal treaty, since this treaty was a conditional agreement and the condition was not fulfilled, then Skanderbeg was not even de jure a vassal of Aragon. What is generally accepted is that Skanderbeg de facto had full sovereignty over his territories, while Naples archives have registered payments and supplies sent to Skanderbeg, they do not mention any kind of payment or tribute by Skanderbeg, except for various Turkish war prisoners and banners sent by him as a gift of King Alfonso.[56]

At the same time Alfonso V signed different treaties with other Albanian noblemen, including Golem Arianit Komneni[57] and also with the Despot of Morea, Demetrios Palaiologos.[58] These movements of Alfonso showed that he indeed was thinking about a crusade from Albania and Morea, a crusade which never took place.[59] Following this treaty in the end of May 1451, a small detachment of 100 Catalan soldiers, headed by Bernard Vaquer, was established at the castle of Krujë. In May 1452 another Catalan nobleman, Ramon d’Ortafà, came to Krujë with the title of viceroy. In 1453 Skanderbeg paid a secret visit to Naples and the Vatican, probably discussing the new conditions after the fall of Constantinople and the planning of a new crusade which Alfonso would have presented to the Pope Nicholas V in a meeting of 1453—1454.[60][61]

In November 1453 Skanderbeg informed King Alfonso that he had conquered some territories and a castle and Alfonso replied some days later that soon Ramon d’Ortafà would have returned to continue the war against the Ottomans (now more than ever) and also promised more troops and supplies. In the beginning of 1454 Skanderbeg and the Venetians[62] informed King Alfonso and the Pope about a possible Ottoman invasion and asked for help. The Pope sent 3,000 ducats while Alfonso sent 500 infantry and a certain sum of money,[63] along with a message directed to Skanderbeg.[64]

In June 1454 Ramon d’Ortafà returned after a long absence to Krujë, this time with the title of viceroy of Albania, Greece and Slavonia with a personal letter to Skanderbeg as the Captain general of the armed forces in Albania.[65] Along with Ramon d’Ortafà, King Alfonso V also sent to Albania the clerics Fra Lorenzo da Palerino and Fra Giovanni dell’Aquila with a tabby flag with an embroidered white cross as a symbol of the Crusade which was about to begin.[66][67] Even though this crusade never began, the Neapolitan troops were used in the siege of Berat where they were almost entirely annihilated and were never replaced.

On 27 July 1458, King Alfonso V the greatest supporter of Skanderbeg died at Naples while Skanderbeg sent three emissaries, Tanush Topia, Vladan Givrici and Angjelin Muzaka, to his son King Ferdinand. According to Marinesco the death of King Alfonso marked the end of the Aragonese dream of a Mediterranean Empire and also the hope for a new crusade in which Skanderbeg was assigned a leading role.[68] The relationship of Skanderbeg with the Kingdom of Naples continued even after Alfonso V's death. The situation changed; the natural son and heir of Alfonso V Ferdinand I of Naples was not as able as his father and now it was Skanderbeg's turn to help King Ferdinand to regain and maintain his kingdom.

File:Ferrantepotrait.jpg
A portrait of Ferdinand I of Naples.

In 1460 King Ferdinand had serious problems with another uprising of Angevins and asked for help from Skanderbeg. This invitation worried King Ferdinand's opponents, while Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta declared that if King Ferrante of Naples received Skanderbeg, Malatesta would go to the Turks.[69] Ferdinand's main rival, Giovanni Antonio Orsini, Prince of Taranto, in correspondence with Skanderbeg tried to dissuade him from this enterprise and even offered him an alliance. This did not affect Skanderbeg and in the beginning of 1461 Skanderbeg dispatched a company of 500 cavalry under his nephew, Gjok Stres Balsha. When the situation became critical, Skanderbeg made a three year armistice with the Ottomans and in late August 1461 landed in Pugliawith an expedition of 1,000 cavalry and 2,000 infantry.[70] At Barletta and Trani, he managed to defeat the Italian and Angevin forces of Giovanni Antonio Orsini, Prince of Taranto, secured King Ferdinand's throne, and returned back to Albania.

King Ferdinand was very grateful for Skanderbeg for this intervention and not only gave to him and his descendants the castle of Trani, properties of Monte Sant'Angelo and San Giovanni Rotondo, but also continued to support Skanderbeg with money and supplies.[71][full citation needed] Skanderbeg paid another visit to Naples after he visited Rome in the winter of 1466—67 asking in vain for help.[72][full citation needed]

King Ferdinand's gratitude toward Skanderbeg continued even after his death. In a letter dated to 24 February 1468, he expressively stated that "Skanderbeg was like a father to us" and "We regret this (Skanderbeg's) death not less than the death of King Alfonso", offering protection for Skanderbeg's widow and his son. It is relevant to the fact that the majority of Albanian leaders after the death of Skanderbeg found refuge in the Kingdom of Naples and this was also the case for the common people trying to escape from the Ottomans, who formed Arbëresh colonies in that area.

After death

Mural commemorating a Skanderbeg battle. The Arms of Skanderbeg visible in the forefront are copies of the originals held at the Art Museum Vienna

The Albanian resistance went on after the death of Skanderbeg for an additional ten years under the leadership of Dukagjini, though with only moderate success and no great victories. In 1478, the fourth siege of Krujë finally proved successful for the Ottomans. Demoralized and severely weakened by hunger and lack of supplies from the year-long siege, the defenders surrendered to Mehmed, who had promised them to leave unharmed in exchange. As the Albanians were walking away with their families, however, the Ottomans reneged on this promise, killing the men and enslaving the women and children.[46]

In 1479 the Ottoman forces captured the Venetian-controlled Shkodër after a fifteen-month siege.[73] Shkodër was the last Albanian castle to fall to the Ottomans. The Albanian resistance to the Ottoman invasion continued after Skanderbeg's death by his son, John Castriot II, who tried to liberate Albanian territories from Ottoman rule in 1481–1484.[74] In addition, a major upheaval in 1492 occurred in southern Albania, mainly in the Labëria region: Bayazid II was personally involved with crushing the resistance.[75] In 1501 George Castriot II, grandson of Skanderbeg and son of John Castriot II, along with Progon Dukagjini and around 150–200 stratiotis went to Lezhe and organized a local upheaval, but that too was unsuccessful.[76] Venetians evacuated Durrës in 1501.

The union[77] which Skanderbeg had maintained in Albania did not survive him. Without Skanderbeg at their lead, their allegiances faltered and splintered until they were forced into submission. The defeats triggered a great Albanian exodus[73] to southern Italy, especially to the kingdom of Naples, as well as to Sicily, Greece, Romania, and Egypt. Albania remained a part of the Ottoman Empire until 1912.

Effects on the Ottoman expansion

The Ottoman Empire's expansion ground to a halt during the time that Skanderbeg and his Albanian forces resisted. He has been credited with being the main reason for delaying Ottoman expansion into Western Europe, giving the Italian city-states time to better prepare for the Ottoman arrival.[18][78] While the Albanian resistance certainly played a vital role in this, it was one piece of numerous events that played out in the mid-15th century. Much credit must also go to the successful resistance mounted by Vlad III Dracula in Wallachia and Stephen III the Great of Moldavia, who dealt the Ottomans their worst defeat at Vaslui, among many others, as well as the defeats inflicted upon the Ottomans by Hunyadi and his major Hungarian forces.[79] Along with Skanderbeg Stephen III the Great and Hunyadi also achieved the title of Athleti Cristi, Defenders of the Christian faith. The particularity of Skanderbeg was the maintaining of such an important and difficult resistance for a long period of time (25 years) against the strongest power of the 15th century's world, while possessing very limited economical and human resources. His political, diplomatic and military abilities were the main factor for the small Albanian principate to achieve such a success.

Descendants

Coat of arms of the Kastrioti family[80]

Skanderbeg’s family, the Kastrioti Skanderbeg, were invested with a Neapolitan dukedom after the Turkish pressure became too strong.[81] They obtained a feudal domain, the Duchy of San Pietro in Galatina and County of Soleto (Province of Lecce, Italy).[82][full citation needed] John Castriot II, Scanderbeg’s son, married Irene Palaeologus, last descendent of the Byzantine imperial family, the Palaeologus. Thus, the Castriota Scanderbeg today represent the only descendants left of the last imperial family of Byzantium.[83]

Two lines of the Castriota Scanderbeg family lived from that time onwards to the present day in southern Italy, one of which has descended from Pardo Castriota Skanderbeg and the other from Achille Castriota Skanderbeg, both being natural sons of Duke Ferrante, son of John, and Scanderbeg’s nephew. They are part of the Italian nobility and members of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta with the highest rank of nobility.[84]

The only legitimate daughter of Duke Ferrante, Irene Castriota Skanderbeg, born to Andreana Acquaviva d'Aragona from the Nardò dukes, inherited the paternal estate, bringing the Duchy of Galatina and County of Soleto into the Sanseverino family after her marriage with Prince Pietrantonio Sanseverino (1508–1559). They had a son, Nicolò Bernardino Sanseverino (1541–1606), but the legitimate Castrioti name was forever lost with Irene Castriota.

Legacy

Mausoleum of Skanderbeg in Lezhë

Skanderbeg is considered today not only a commanding figure in the national consciousness of Albania, but also of 15th-century European history.[85] According to archival documents, there is no doubt that Skanderbeg had already achieved a reputation as a hero in his own time.[86] The failure of most European nations, with the exception of Naples, to give him support, along with the failure of Pope Pius II's plans to organize a promised crusade against the Turks meant that none of Skanderbeg's victories permanently hindered the Ottomans from invading the Western Balkans.[86] When in 1481 Sultan Mehmet II captured Otranto, he massacred the male population, thus proving what Skanderbeg had been warning about.[86] Skanderbeg's main legacy was the inspiration he gave to all of those who saw in him a symbol of the struggle of Christendom against the Ottoman Empire.[87]

Skanderbeg's struggle against the Ottomans became highly significant to the Albanian people, as it strengthened their solidarity, made them more conscious of their national identity, and served later as a great source of inspiration in their struggle for national unity, freedom, and independence.[88]

Skanderbeg's memory has been engraved in many museums and monuments in Albania, such as the Skanderbeg Museum next to the Krujë Castle. Many monuments have been raised in honor of the hero around Albania and in predominantly Albanian-populated parts of Macedonia and Kosovo.

In February 1944 the 21st SS Division Skanderbeg was formed, with 6,491 Kosovo Albanian volunteers forming a fully ethnic Albanian division. By October 1944 the division's strength had been reduced to about 3,500 through desertions. Often refusing to fight or take orders, the division never became a significant combat force, and their main activities were to terrorize the Serb population of Kosovo, and assisting German forces in rounding up 281 Jews to be sent to their deaths in Bergen-Belsen. They also assisted German troops in their withdrawal through and from Kosovo in November 1944.[89]

The so called "Seal of Skanderbeg". The inscription on the seal writes in Greek (from top right anti-clockwise): ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ, ΕΛΕΩ ΟΥ, ΑΥΤ. ΡΩΜ., Ο ΜΕΓ. ΑΥΟ. ΤΟΥΡ.ΑΛΒ. ΣΕΡΒΙ.Κ. ΒΟΥΛΓΑΡΙ, (ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ, ΕΛΕΩ ΘΕΟΥ, ΑΥΤΟΚΡΑΤΩΡ ΡΩΜΑΝΙΑΣ, Ο ΜΕΓΑΣ ΑΥΘΕΝΤΗΣ ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑΣ, ΑΛΒΑΝΙΑΣ, ΣΕΡΒΙΑΣ ΚΑΙ ΒΟΥΛΓΑΡΙΑΣ) English: King Alexander, By the Grace of God, Emperor of Romania(Byzantine Empire), Grand Leader of Turkey, Albania, Serbia and Bulgaria.[90]

Probably one of the most important legacies of Skanderbeg lays with his military mastery. The trouble that he caused to the Ottoman Empire military forces was such that when the Ottomans found the grave of Skanderbeg in Saint Nicholas, a church in Lezhë, they opened it and made amulets of his bones, believing that these would confer bravery on the wearer.[91] Indeed the damage inflicted to the Ottoman Army was so prevalent that Skanderbeg is said to have slain three thousand Turks with his own hand during his campaigns. Among stories told about him was that he never slept more than five hours at night and could cut two men asunder with a single stroke of his scimitar, cut through iron helmets, kill a wild boar with a single stroke and cleave the head off a buffalo with another.[92] James Wolfe, commander of the British forces at Quebec, spoke of Skanderbeg as a commander who "excels all the officers, ancient and modern, in the conduct of a small defensive army".[93] On October 27, 2005, the United States Congress issued a resolution "honoring the 600th anniversary of the birth of Gjergj Kastrioti (Scanderbeg), statesman, diplomat, and military genius, for his role in saving Western Europe from Ottoman occupation."[94][95]

Skanderbeg will be also remembered as a statesman. During his reign as part of his internal policy programs, Skanderbeg issued many edicts, such as those on carrying out a census of the population and on tax collection, based on Roman and Byzantine law.[96]

Skanderbeg in arts and culture

In literature, music, and movies

File:BarletiSkanderbeg.jpg
Frontispiece of Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi, Epirotarum principisby Marin Barleti

Skanderbeg gathered quite a posthumous reputation in Western Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. With much of the Balkans under Ottoman rule and with the Turks at the gates of Vienna in 1683, nothing could have captivated readers in the West more than an action-packed tale of heroic Christian resistance to the "Moslem hordes". [citation needed]

Books on the Albanian prince began to appear in Western Europe in the early 16th century. One of the earliest of these histories to have circulated in Western Europe about the heroic deeds of Skanderbeg was the Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi, Epirotarum Principis (Rome, 1508), published a mere four decades after Skanderbeg's death. This History of the life and deeds of Scanderbeg, Prince of the Epirotes was written by the Albanian historian Marinus Barletius Scodrensis, known in Albanian as Marin Barleti,[1] who after experiencing the Turkish occupation of his native Shkodër at firsthand, settled in Padua where he became rector of the parish church of St. Stephan. Barleti dedicated his work to Donferrante Kastrioti,[20] Skanderbeg's grandchild, and to posterity. The book was first published in Latin.

In the 16th and 17th centuries Barleti's book was translated into a number of foreign language versions: in German by Johann Pincianus (1533), in Italian by Pietro Rocca (1554, 1560), in Portuguese by Francisco D'Andrade (1567), in Polish by Ciprian Bazylik (1569), in French by Jaques De Lavardin (French: Histoire de Georges Castriot Surnomé Scanderbeg, Roy d'Albanie, 1576), and in Spanish by Juan Ochoa de la Salde (1582). The English version was a translation from the French one of De Lavardin and made by one Zachary Jones Gentleman, and was published at the end of the 16th century under the title, Historie of George Castriot, surnamed Scanderbeg, King of Albinie; containing his Famous Actes, his Noble Deedes of Armes and Memorable Victories against the Turkes for the Faith of Christ. Barleti gives a good history of Skanderbeg, however he is sometimes inaccurate in favour of his hero, for example, according to Gibbon, Barleti claims that the Sultan was killed by disease under the walls of Krujë.[97] Barleti's inaccuracies had also been noticed prior to Gibbon by Laonikos Chalkokondyles.[98]

Portrait of Scanderbeg, ca. 1648.

Kastrioti's biography was also written by Franciscus Blancus, a Catholic bishop born in Albania. His book "Georgius Castriotus, Epirensis vulgo Scanderbegh, Epirotarum Princeps Fortissimus" was published in Latin in 1636.[99]

Voltaire starts his chapter "The Taking of Constantinople" with the phrase

Had the Greek Emperors acted like Scanderbeg, the empire of the East might still have been preserved.[100]

Skanderbeg is the protagonist of three 18th-century British tragedies, William Havard's Scanderbeg, A Tragedy (1733), George Lillo's The Christian Hero (1735), and Thomas Whincop'sScanderbeg, Or, Love and Liberty (1747).[101]

A number of poets and composers have also drawn inspiration from his military career. The French 16th century poet Ronsard wrote a poem about him, as did the 19th century American poet, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.[102] For Gibbon, "John Huniades and Scanderbeg... are both entitled to our notice, since their occupation of the Ottomanarms delayed the ruin of the Greek empire."

In 1855, Camille Paganel wrote Histoire de Scanderbeg, inspired by the Crimean War.[103]

In the lengthy poetic tale Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812–1819), which Byron had begun writing while in Albania, Scanderbeg and his warrior nation are described in the following terms:[104]

Land of Albania! where Iskander rose,
Theme of the young, and beacon of the wise,
And he his namesake, whose oft-baffled foes,
Shrunk from his deeds of chivalrous emprize:
Land of Albania! let me bend mine eyes
On thee, thou rugged nurse of savage men!
The cross descends, thy minarets arise,
And the pale crescent sparkles in the glen,
Through many a cypress grove within each city's ken."

Ludvig Holberg, a Danish writer and philosopher, claimed that Skanderbeg is one of the greatest generals in history.[105] Sir William Temple considered Skanderbeg to be one of the seven greatest chiefs without a crown, along with Belisarius, Flavius Aetius, John Hunyadi, Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Alexander Farnese, and William the Silent.[106]

Skanderbeg is also mentioned by Prince of Montenegro, Petar II Petrović-Njegoš, one of the greatest poets of Serbian literature in his most famous poem The Mountain Wreath.[107]

The Italian baroque composer Antonio Vivaldi composed an opera entitled Scanderbeg (first performed 1718). Another opera entitled Scanderbeg was composed by 18th century French composer François Francœur (first performed 1763).[108] A third opera was composed in the 20th century by Albanian composer, Prenkë Jakova, Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu, which premiered in 1968 for the 500 anniversary of the hero's death.[109] The Great Warrior Skanderbeg (Albanian: Skënderbeu, Russian: Velikiy voin Albanii Skanderbeg) is a 1953 Albanian-Soviet biographical movie, which earned an International Prize in the 1954 Cannes Film Festival.[110]

Monuments dedicated to Skanderbeg

Skanderbeg currently has monuments dedicated to his memory in the Albanian cities of Tirana (in the Skanderbeg Square by Odhise Paskali), Krujë, and Peshkopi. A palace in Rome in which Skanderbeg resided during his 1466–67 visits to the Vatican is still called Palazzo Skanderbeg, currently the Italian museum of pasta:[111] the palace is located between the Fontana di Trevi and the Quirinal Palace. Also in Rome, a statue is dedicated to the Albanian hero in Piazza Albania. Monuments or statues of Skanderbeg have also been erected in the cities of Skopje and Debar (Republic of Macedonia), Pristina (Kosovo), Geneva (Switzerland), Brussels (Belgium), and other settlements in southern Italy where there is an Arbëreshë community. In 2006, a statue of Skanderbeg was unveiled on the grounds of St. Paul's Albanian Catholic Community in Rochester Hills, Michigan, the first Skanderbeg statue in the United States.[112]

Amongst the Albanian people stories about Skanderbeg are highly popular, depicting him as extremely wise and very strong.

On one occasion Ballaban Pasha sent to Skanderbeg a gift of four Arabian horses, splendidly equipped, to honour him as a commander. Skanderbeg's response to the Pasha was a gift of a crook and knar, letting Ballaban know that to Skanderbeg it would be more honorable to be a simple shepherd in his village than to betray his own country.

For the Albanians Skanderbeg would perform miracles with his sword. It was supposed that it would take three men to lift the sword, and Skanderbeg could split rocks or pierce mountains with it. Another popular story recounts that during peace negotiations Sultan Mehmed II, having heard of the sword, requested it as a favor from Skanderbeg. Skanderbeg agreed and sent his sword as a gift to the sultan. Skanderbeg's men upon hearing the news were worried. They asked Skanderbeg about their fears that he had handed over his legendary sword, but Skanderbeg laughed and responded that he had given his sword but not his arm.[113]

List of battles and campaigns

Skanderbeg fought in many major battles, most of which ended in victory for the Albanian side.

  1. Battle of Torvioll (1444)
  2. Battle of Mokra (1445)
  3. Battle of Otonetë (1446)
  4. Battle of Oranik (1446)
  5. Battle of the Drin (1448)
  6. Siege of Svetigrad (1448)
  7. Battle of Oranik (1448)
  8. Siege of Krujë (1450)
  9. Battle of Modrica (1451)
  10. Battle of Meçad (1451)
  11. Battle of Pollog (1453)
  12. Siege of Berat (1455)
  13. Battle of Oranik (1456)
  14. Battle of Albulena (1457)
  15. Italian expedition (1461—1462)
  16. Battle of Mokra (July 1462)
  17. Battle of Mokra (August 1462)
  18. Battle of Pollog (1462)
  19. Battle of Livad (1462)
  20. Great Macedonian raid (1463)
  21. Battle of Ochrida (1464)
  22. Battle of Vaikal (1465)
  23. Battle Oranik (1465)
  24. Battle of Meçad (1465)
  25. Siege of Svetigrad (1465)
  26. Battle of Vajkal (1465)
  27. Battle of Kashari (1465)
  28. Siege of Krujë (1466)
  29. Siege of Krujë (1467)

See also

Notes

  1. ^
    Historians have different versions of the facts: with old sources maintaining that a dead dog was found in the castle well, and the garrison refused to drink the water since it may corrupt their soul (Barletius et al) while the latter historians conjecture that the Ottoman forces found and cut the water sources of the castle.

References

  1. ^ a b c Marin Barleti, 1508, Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi Epirotarum principis. Available on line and as pdf, text.
  2. ^ Tennent 1845, p. 129
  3. ^ a b c Catholic World Encyclopedia VOL. XXIII, Number 134, 1876,Scanderbeg entry
  4. ^ Hodgkinson 2005, p. 1
  5. ^ Rosser 2001, p. 363
  6. ^ Gibbon 1788, p. 462
  7. ^ a b Marin Barleti, 1508, Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi Epirotarum principis
  8. ^ Noli 1947, p. 21
  9. ^ a b c d Anamali 2002, p. 341
  10. ^ Glassé 2008, p. 129
  11. ^ a b c d e f Anamali 2002, p. 342
  12. ^ a b c d Anamali 2002, p. 343
  13. ^ Francione 2003, p. 15
  14. ^ a b c Noli, Fan S.: George Castrioti Scanderbeg, New York, 1947
  15. ^ Setton 1976, p. 72
  16. ^ Gibbon 1901, p. 464
  17. ^ Fine, John V. (1994). The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. ISBN 0-472-08260-4.
  18. ^ a b c d e Hodgkinson 2005, p. 240
  19. ^ Cenni storici sull'Albania(Italian)
  20. ^ a b c Minna Skafte Jensen, 2006,A Heroic Tale: Edin Barleti's Scanderbeg between orality and literacy
  21. ^ a b Gibbon 1788, p. 143
  22. ^ Stavrianos 1958, p. 64
  23. ^ Jacques 1995, pp. 179–180
  24. ^ Albania, General Information published by 8 Nëntori Pub. House, page 23
  25. ^ Frashëri 1964, p. 72
  26. ^ a b Myrdal 1976, p. 48
  27. ^ Hodgkinson 1999, p. 85
  28. ^ a b Noli 2009, p. 23
  29. ^ Babinger 1992, p. 55 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBabinger1992 (help)
  30. ^ The Italo-Albanian villages of southern Italy Issue 25 of Foreign field research program, National Research Council (U.S.). Division of Earth Sciences Volume 1149 of Publication (National Research Council (U.S.))) Issue 25 of Report, National Research Council (U.S.). Division of Earth Sciences Volume 1149 of (National Academy of Sciences. National Research Council. Publication) Volume 1149 of National Research Council Author George Nicholas Nasse Publisher National Academies, 1964 p.24
  31. ^ Hodgkinson 1999, p. 102
  32. ^ Logoreci, Anton The Albanians, London, 1977
  33. ^ a b c Noli 2009, p. 25
  34. ^ Fine 1994, p. 558 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFine1994 (help)
  35. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Noli 1947, p. 51
  36. ^ a b Frashëri 1964, p. 79
  37. ^ Noli 1947, p. 52
  38. ^ Noli 1947, p. 53
  39. ^ Frashëri 1964, p. 80
  40. ^ Anamali 2002, pp. 367–368
  41. ^ a b c Noli 2009, p. 35
  42. ^ a b The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest By John Van Antwerp Fine Edition: reprint, illustrated Published by University of Michigan Press, 1994 ISBN 0-472-08260-4, 9780472082605
  43. ^ a b c Noli 2009, p. 36
  44. ^ a b John Musachi, 1515, Brief Chronicle on the Descendants of our Musachi Dynasty
  45. ^ a b c Noli 2009, p. 37
  46. ^ a b Babinger, Franz (1992). Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time. ISBN 0-691-01078-1.
  47. ^ Drizari 1968, p. 85
  48. ^ a b c d e f g h Noli 2009, p. 38
  49. ^ Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time By Franz Babinger, William C. Hickman, Ralph Manheim Translated by Ralph Manheim Edition: 2, reprint, illustrated Published by Princeton University Press, 1992 ISBN 0-691-01078-1, 9780691010786
  50. ^ a b Housley 1992, p. 91
  51. ^ Setton 1976, p. 282
  52. ^ Noli 1947, p. 40
  53. ^ Fine 1994, p. 557 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFine1994 (help)
  54. ^ Noli 2009, p. 30
  55. ^ Noli 2009, pp. 35–36
  56. ^ a b c Noli 2009, p. 26
  57. ^ Archive of Crown of Aragon, reg. 2691, 101 recto –102 verso; Zurita: Anales. IV, 29
  58. ^ Archive of Crown of Aragon, reg. 2697, 98—99
  59. ^ Noli 2009, p. 27
  60. ^ Marinesco 1923, pp. 69–79
  61. ^ Pall: Skanderbeg,15
  62. ^ ASV, Senato Deliberazioni da Mar, V, fl. 8; Ljubic: Listine, X, nr. XXV
  63. ^ ASM, Carteggio gen. Sforzasco, ad annum 1454
  64. ^ "Magnifico et strenuo viro Georgio Castrioti, dicto Scandabech, gentium armorum magnanimo capitaneo, nobis plurimum dilecto" Noli 1947
  65. ^ "Magnifico et strenuo viro Georgio Castrioti, dicto Scandarbech, gentium armorum nostrarum in partibus Albanie generali capitaneo, consiliario fideli nobis dilecto" Noli 1947
  66. ^ Jorga 1908–1913, p. 46
  67. ^ Marinesco 1923, p. 82
  68. ^ Marinesco 1923, pp. 133–134
  69. ^ Babinger 1992, p. 201 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBabinger1992 (help)
  70. ^ Noli 2009, p. 32
  71. ^ Although less than his father. Marinesco, Noli etc
  72. ^ This time the help of Ferrante consisted in 1000 ducats for his war, 500 ducats for the expenses of Skanderbeg's stay in Rome, 200 carts of grain and a loan for another 100 carts of grain.(Noli 1947)
  73. ^ a b
  74. ^ Anamali 2002, pp. 413–416
  75. ^ Anamali 2002, pp. 416–417
  76. ^ Anamali 2002, pp. 417–420
  77. ^ Public Domain This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  78. ^ Lane–Poole 1888, p. 135
  79. ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 396
  80. ^ Hodgkinson 2005, p. xix
  81. ^ Gibbon 1901, p. 467
  82. ^ The fall of Constantinople 1453, Cambridge University Press
  83. ^ Runciman 1990, pp. 183–185
  84. ^ Archivio del Gran Priorato di Napoli e Sicilia del Sovrano Militare Ordine di Malta, Napoli
  85. ^ Hodgkinson 2005, p. ix
  86. ^ a b c Hodgkinson 2005, p. xii
  87. ^ Hodgkinson 2005, p. xiii
  88. ^ Kabashi, Artemida (2007). "Creation of Albanian National Identity". Balkanistica. 20. Slavica Publishers: 63. The story of Scanderbeg ... rests at the heart of the Albanian nation, because it marks the creation of national identity for the Albanian people and their desire for freedom.
  89. ^ Elsie, Robert. Historical Dictionary of Kosova (European Historical Dictionaries). United States of America: Scarecrow Press Inc. p. 169. ISBN 0-8108-5309-4. SKANDERBEG SS DIVISION. The Skanderbeg SS division (German:Waffen-SS-Gebirbsdivision Skander Beg), approved of by Adolf Hitler in February 1944, was a volunteer force of Kosova Albanian fighters.... 6.491 joined division, which never became significant fighting force, ..... its number were sufficient to terrorize Serb population .....participated in rounding up 281 Jews who were subsequently deported to their deaths in Bergen-Belsen ... assist to German troops in their withdrawal trough and from Kosova in November 1944. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  90. ^ The seal is made of brass and it is 6 centimetres in length and weighs 280 grams. A cross and crown (a Christian symbol traditionally used in heraldry) are depicted above the double-headed eagle and an animal (fox? wolf?) under eagle's feet. The seal has been in Denmark since the first part of the 17th century; it was registered in 1634 and it is in the National Museum of Denmark since 1839. (The seal of Scanderbeg)
  91. ^ Gibbon 1901, p. 466
  92. ^ Cohen 2003, p. 151
  93. ^ Willson 1909, p. 296
  94. ^ "COMMITTEE BUSINESS SCHEDULED WEEK OF OCTOBER 24, 2005". Foreignaffairs.house.gov. Retrieved 2010-09-22.
  95. ^ "CongressmenRohrabacher and Lantos Introduce Congressional Resolution to Honor the 600th Anniversary of the Birth of Gjergj Kastrioti Scanderbeg". Blog.aacl.com. Retrieved 2010-09-22.
  96. ^ Barletius, 1508, Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi Epirotarum principis
  97. ^ Gibbon 1901, p. 465
  98. ^ see Laonikos Chalkokondyles, l vii. p. 185, l. viii. p. 229
  99. ^ Georgius Castriotus Epirensis, vulgo Scanderbegh. Per Franciscum Blancum, De Alumnis Collegij de Propaganda Fide Episcopum Sappatensem etc. Venetiis, Typis Marci Ginammi, MDCXXXVI (1636).
  100. ^ Voltaire, 1762, Works, Vol 3.
  101. ^ Havard, 1733, Scanderbeg, A Tragedy; Lillo, 1735, The Christian Hero; Whincop, 1747, Scanderbeg, Or, Love and Liberty.
  102. ^ Longfellow 1880, pp. 286–296
  103. ^ Camille Paganel, 1855,"Histoire de Scanderbeg, ou Turcs et Chrétiens du XVe siècle"
  104. ^ Galt, John (1835), The life of Lord Byron, Harper & Brothers, pp. 96–
  105. ^ Holberg on Scanderbeg by Bjoern Andersen
  106. ^ Temple 1705, pp. 285–286
  107. ^ The Mountain Wreath, Petar II Petrović-Njegoš (Serbian)
  108. ^ The Scanderberg Operas by Vivaldi and Francouer by Del Brebner
  109. ^ Rubin, Don (2001), The world encyclopedia of contemporary theatre, Taylor & Francis, pp. 41–, ISBN 9780415059282
  110. ^ "Festival de Cannes: The Great Warrior Skanderbeg". festival-cannes.com. Retrieved 2009-01-31.
  111. ^ "Palazzo Skanderbeg e la Cultura tradita" (in Italian).
  112. ^ Delaney, Robert (29 September 2006). "Welcoming Skanderbeg — Cd. Maida, Albanian president unveil statue of Albanian hero". The Michigan Catholic. Archdiocese of Detroit.
  113. ^ Baxhaku, Fatos. "In Debar, at Skanderbeg's birthplace". Gazeta Shqip (in Albanian). Retrieved 16 August 2010.

Sources

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Regnal titles
Preceded by
Ballaban Pasha (Ottoman occupation)
 Prince of Kastrioti
28 November 1443 — 2 March 1444 		Succeeded by
Post abolished
Preceded by
Post created
 Head of League of Lezhë
2 March 1444 — 17 January 1468 		Succeeded by

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