Jump to content

Yoga as therapy

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by ESerranoAG (talk | contribs) at 16:04, 14 July 2011. The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

For the family of spiritual practices that originated in India, see Yoga and Asana.
This article is part of a series on
Alternative medicine
Yoga class at a gym
General information
Fringe medicine and science
Controversial Health and Medical Theories
Classifications
Traditional medicine
Alternative diagnoses

Yoga (Devanagari:योगा) is a term for a range of traditional systems of physical exercise and meditation in Hinduism. Modified versions of the physical exercises in Hatha Yoga have become popular as a kind of low-impact physical exercise, and are used for therapeutic purposes.[1][2][3] "Yoga" in this sense, in common parlance, refers to the physical exercises, i.e. the asanas or postures. Aspects of meditation are sometimes also included.[4][5] Various alternative forms of yoga have emerged in the US, most notably Aerial Yoga, a fusion of traditional yoga and aerial dance using a simplified "suspension trainer" called the AntiGravity® Aerial Yoga hammock, developed by inventor Christopher Harrison.[6]

File:InversionDeviceAerialYoga.jpg
An inversion pose in Aerial Yoga


Both the meditative and the exercise components of yoga show promise for non-specific health benefits. Yoga teachers assert that yoga stimulates the flow of healing "life energy", or prana, and can treat a wide variety of illnesses and complaints.[7] Yoga has been studied as an intervention for many conditions, including back pain, stress, and depression. A survey released in December 2008 by the US National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine[8] found that yoga was the 6th most commonly used alternative therapy in the United States during 2007, with 6.1 percent of the population participating.[9]

Background and overview

A western style Hatha Yoga class

Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid 19th century along with other topics of Hindu philosophy. New schools of Yoga were introduced in the context of Hindu revivalism towards the end of the 19th century. The first Hindu teacher to actively advocate and disseminate aspects of Yoga to a western audience was Swami Vivekananda, who toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s.[10]

The physical asana of Hatha Yoga have a tradition that goes back to the 15th century, but they were not widely practiced in India prior to the early 20th century. Hatha Yoga was advocated by a number of late 19th to early 20th century gurus in India, including Sri Krishnamacharya in south India, Swami Sivananda in the north, Sri Yogendra in Bombay, and Swami Kuvalyananda in Lonavala.

In the 1960s, western interest in Hindu spirituality reached its peak, giving rise to a great number of Neo-Hindu schools specifically advocated to a western public. Among the teachers of Hatha yoga who were active in the west in this period were B.K.S. Iyengar, K. Pattabhi Jois, and Swami Vishnu-devananda, and Swami Satchidananda. [11] [12][13] A second "yoga boom" followed in the 1980s, as Dean Ornish, a follower of Swami Satchidananda, connected yoga to heart health, legitimizing yoga as a purely physical system of health exercises outside of counter culture or esotericism circles, and unconnected to a religious denomination.[10]

Since then, yoga has been used as supplementary therapy for diverse conditions such as cancer, diabetes, asthma, and AIDS.[14] The scope of medical issues where yoga is used as a complementary therapy continues to grow.

There are many different styles and disciplines and people practice yoga for a variety of reasons. One of the main goals of yoga is to improve overall well-being through teaching discipline and self-regulation.[15] Recently, research has focused on the healing properties of yoga and how it relates to positive psychology. Researchers wonder what psychological advantages it can afford, in addition to the previously discovered physical benefits. Yoga has proven to offer different and multiple benefits for individuals ranging from consciousness of one's body and its capabilities, satisfaction from challenging oneself physically, and increased energy and mental clarity and concentration.[16] While the topic is still somewhat new and some research is still preliminary, results have shown significant improvements in both physical and mental health among a variety of subjects in various circumstances.

The practice of yoga traditionally includes both meditation and exercise, but in the West the focus is mainly on exercise. The more classical approaches, such as Iyengar Yoga, move at a more deliberate pace, emphasize proper alignment and execution, hold asanas for a longer time. They aim to gradually improve flexibility, balance, and strength. Other approaches, such as Ashtanga or Power Yoga, shift between asanas quickly and energetically. And more recently, contemporary approaches to yoga have developed [(such as Scaravelli inspired, as taught by the likes of Diane Long, Sophie Hoare and Marc Woolford )], inviting students to become their own authority in yoga practice by offering principle based approaches to yoga that can be applied to any form.[17]

Nearly all types of yoga practices include asanas (postures), pranayama (breathing exercises), and savasanas (relaxation techniques).[18]

Major theoretical approaches

Positive psychology

One of the most recent trends in the practice of and research about yoga as alternative therapy is how it relates to the field of positive psychology. Positive Psychology is the study of that which contributes to the overall well-being of and supports the optimal functioning of individuals.[19] As more research is released in support of yoga contributing to a better state of being, yoga becomes more in line with positive psychology's focus on developing alternate strategies for healing and bettering individuals' lives.[19] Positive psychology refutes the concept of dualism and scientists in this field believe that the body and mind cannot be separated. This logic indicates that all physical benefits resulting from the practice of yoga are coupled with mental benefits such as development of inner consciousness, positivity, awareness, and appreciation of nature, combining to offer a whole-body therapy. Drawing from recent research on the mental and physical benefits of practicing yoga, positive psychologists have begun to look deeper into the possibilities of utilizing yoga as a positive psychology therapy.[20] (see Major Empirical Findings and Applications, Anxiety and Depression, below)

Yoga and religion

The most historically-rooted perspective taken on yoga is that of considering yoga’s spiritual linkages and implications. The foundational text for yoga is a Hindu scripture named Yoga Sutra. The Yoga Sutra is a compilation of sutras, or concise, instructional writings. There remains controversy over when the writings were published (see controversies below). The Yoga Sutra is built on a foundation of Samkhya philosophy. The physical practices detailed in the Yoga Sutras are the manifestation of theory offered in the Samkhya philosophies. The sutras are divided into four parts, including:

  • Samadhi Pada: translated: “On being absorbed in spirit.” This section focuses on the ridding of one’s ego through practice of yoga or the “emergence of the spiritual man from the veils and meshes of the psychic nature”
  • Sadhana Pada “On being immersed in spirit.” This section is concerned with the growth of the spiritual self through practical spiritual training. This segment details methods for how to attain closeness with the divine spirit. The Sadhana Pada offers commandments to be followed in order to live a truly yogic life and attain genuine closeness with one’s spiritual self.
  • Vibhuti Pada “On supernatural abilities and gifts.” This section details the progression of one attaining closeness with one’s spiritual self and subsequently revealing the inherent spiritual talents that were previously clouded and hidden by worldliness. The only way to reveal these strengths is through genuine, dedicated and thorough practice of the guidelines set in the two previous Padas.
  • Kaivalya Pada “On absolute freedom.” This final section discusses the “mechanism of salvation,” referring to “the ideally simple working of cosmic law which brings the spiritual man to birth, growth and fullness of power, and prepares him for the splendid, toilsome further stages of his great journey home.” [21]

Mindfulness

Mindfulness has been a fundamental aspect of yoga since its early documentation in the Yoga Sutra. Mindfulness is defined as “attending to relevant aspects of experience in a nonjudgmental manner”.[22] Mindfulness is attained through the practice of yoga in that one is able to maintain awareness of the present, releasing control and attachment of beliefs, thoughts and emotions. By letting go of one’s thoughts and mind, allowing the mind to be calm and at peace, one is able to attain a greater sense of emotional well-being and balance. Researchers have recently begun to take interest in the healing benefits of mindfulness through yoga. Research has indicated that there are health benefits of applying mindfulness-based approaches to pain management, physical functioning, and ability to cope with stresses in everyday life.[22]

Physical aspects of yoga

Yoga has been highly Westernized in recent years, and a majority of the result of this westernization and modernization is the heightened profile of the physical aspect yoga has to offer. This physically-exerting practice is typically hatha yoga, which combines asanas that exert the participant's physical self. The therapeutic healing benefits of yoga were recently discussed by Van der Kolk, who posited that regulation of physical movement is a fundamental priority of the nervous system. For this reason, focusing on and developing an awareness of physical movement allows for the mind and body to connect and be in sync. This is beneficial for humans, especially those suffering from psychological conditions such as depression and PTDD (the focus of Van der Kolk’s work) because the connectedness of mind and body allow for feelings of control and understanding of their “inner sensations” and state of being.[20] The physical benefits of yoga are linked to the release of β-endorphins and the shift caused in neurotransmitter levels linked to emotions such as dopamine and serotonin.[23] These benefits are most likely in high-intensity practices of yoga.[20] Lower-intensity yoga practices, which includes a majority of yoga, typically spark the “relaxation response” as defined by Dr. Herbert Benson.[24] This response is typified by a “physiological de-activation” of tenseness and control over one’s body. Benson related this release of control to the implicit dominance of the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS).[24]

Major empirical findings

A 2010 literature review of the research on the use of yoga for treating depression said that preliminary research suggests that yoga may be effective in the management of depression. Both the exercise and the mindfulness meditation components may be helpful. However the review cautioned that "Although results from these trials are encouraging, they should be viewed as very preliminary because the trials, as a group, suffered from substantial methodological limitations."[25] At the same time, a 2009 individual study found that the regular practice of yoga helps to decrease levels of depression significantly. For individuals who practiced yoga twice weekly for a period of two months, depression levels decreased as well as levels of state and trait anxiety.[26] People also found evidence of improved mood and increased energy after an hour-long class.[27] Evidence also indicates that yoga has a significant effect on lowering levels of anxiety and stress. A study on the effects of Hatha yoga showed that the emphasis on breath awareness, internal centering, relaxation, and meditation enabled participants learn to avoid ‘mental and emotional blockages. These strategies helped participants experience significantly lower stress and anxiety levels in addition to higher quality of life scores.[28]

While the healing properties of yoga help individuals with clinically diagnosed anxiety and depression problems, they also help people learn to navigate and cope with daily sources of stress. A study conducted with a group of medical school students revealed lowered stress overall in addition to less stress on the mornings of exams. Significantly less students in the experimental group (those who received the yoga treatment) failed their exams than in the control group. Students in the experimental group said that they had a better sense of well-being, improved concentration, self-confidence, and lower levels of irritability.[29]

More recent studies have looked into how yoga can help participants cope with symptoms from more physical conditions, such as cancer. Learning breathing and relaxation techniques help patients manage pain, depression, anxiety, insomnia, and fatigue. The patients reported that their overall quality of life significantly improved in addition to mood, distress, sleep quality, and severity of cancer symptoms.[30] A yoga intervention program designed for overweight women showed significantly lower instances of binge-eating and higher instances of additional physical activity both during and after the intervention. Women lost weight and most became self-motivated to participate in other forms of exercise outside of the intervention.[31]

Applications

Anxiety and depression

The effect of yoga on symptoms of anxiety and depression is one of the most-well studied aspects of yoga's effect on the body and mind. Although researchers are optimistic about the effectiveness of yoga in alleviating depression, a 2010 review of research says that studies to date, while suggestive, are not yet conclusive.[25] However, some research says that regular yoga practice (at least once weekly) helps to decrease levels of depression significantly. Twice weekly yoga practice for two months showed a significant decrease in levels of depression as well as levels of both state and trait anxiety.[26] Some studies also indicate that Hatha yoga has a significant effect on lowering levels of anxiety and accompanying stress. Hatha yoga encourages an increased awareness of breath, internal centering, relaxation, and meditation. These strategies helped participants experience significantly lower stress and anxiety levels in addition to higher quality of life scores.[28]

A rigorous randomized control trial on yoga in literature compared kundalini yoga with the relaxation response and mindfulness meditation in obsessive compulsive disorder patients found a significant treatment difference in favor of kundalini yoga.[32] Moreover, a 2005 systematic review of the research on Yoga and anxiety presented encouraging results, particularly with anxiety-related disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder.[33] Similarly, a present study assessed state anxiety, depressive mood, and subjective well-being and analyses of variance for repeated measures revealed mood improvement following yoga sessions.[34] Other studies have shown that yoga practices reduce anxiety and depression, all the while improving well-being.[35]

In terms of its effects on individuals in educational institutions, recent research has found that yoga benefits to students, not only in reducing basal anxiety levels, but also in attenuating further increases in anxiety as they experience stressful situations like exams.[36] Additionally, differences in mood before and after class of college students taking different courses (swimming, body conditioning, hatha yoga, fencing exercise, and lecture) were analyzed and results suggest that courses which meet four requirements involving aerobics, non competitiveness, predictability, and repetitiveness may reduce stress.[37]

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

A 2010 Cochrane Review concludes that there is insufficient evidence to assess the effectiveness of meditative practices such as yoga in the management or improvement of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).[38] Other research shows that there is little support for yoga as treatment for ADHD alone, but it is has merit as a complementary treatment to medication.[39]

Back pain

There is fair evidence that yoga may be effective in the management of chronic, but not acute, low back pain.[40] A pilot study using a modified hatha yoga treatment showed that this was an effective treatment for chronic lower back pain, but further examination is needed specifically through studies with larger sample sizes.[41]

Cancer

Practice of yoga may improve quality-of-life measures in cancer patients. It is unclear what aspect(s) may be beneficial or what populations should be targeted.[42]

Other studies show improvements in how participants cope with symptoms from more physical conditions, like cancer. Learning breathing and relaxation techniques help patients manage pain, depression, anxiety, insomnia, and fatigue. The patients reported that their overall quality of life significantly improved in addition to mood, distress, sleep quality, and severity of cancer symptoms.[30] The positive effects of yoga can be soothing to survivors as well and help them to deal with post-cancer distress.[43]

Dementia

A 2008 Cochrane Review concludes that the evidence was insufficient to determine whether adding mild physical activity, such as yoga, to usual care is effective in managing or improving health outcomes in patients with dementia.[44]

Epilepsy

A Cochrane Review found no evidence to support the use of yoga in treatment of epilepsy as of 2009.[45] Another study found a greater than 50% seizure reduction in 6 out of 20 subjects.[46]

Menopause

Yoga has not been shown to have any specific effect for the treatment or management of symptoms of menopause.[47]

Pediatrics

A 2009 systematic review concludes that there is insufficient evidence to support the use of yoga for any indication in the pediatric population. No adverse events were reported, and most trials were positive but of low methodological quality.[48]

Stress

A study conducted with a group of medical school students revealed lowered stress overall in addition to less stress on the mornings of exams. Significantly less students in the experimental group (those who received the yoga treatment) failed their exams than in the control group. Students in the experimental group said that they had a better sense of well-being, improved concentration, self-confidence, and lower levels of irritability.[29]

Controversy

In regard to the practice of yoga itself, especially hatha (physically active) yoga, there are controversies over the legitimacy of “prescribing” yoga for individuals afflicted with particular conditions due to the risk of injury associated with the practice. There have been reports of yoga-related injuries and this is one reason why the practice of yoga as alternative therapy is questioned.[49] These include carotid artery tears, bulging intervertebral discs, rotator cuff injuries, ganglion cysts, compression of the spine (vertebral column), vertebral artery dissection, and hyperextension of the neck. According to Gary Kraftsow, author of Yoga for Transformation, many yoga positions aren't suitable for everyone. Orthopedic surgeon Jeffrey Halbrecht, medical director for the Institute for Arthroscopy and Sports Medicine in San Francisco, warns that both experienced and novice yoga practitioners can experience injuries. “Yoga is marketed as such an innocuous thing,” says Loren Fishman, assistant clinical professor of rehabilitation medicine at Columbia University in New York City. “But without care, injuries can absolutely happen.” 'Strenuous' yoga has been connected to a form of stroke in young women.[50] Practice of yoga has also been linked to causing hyperextension or rotation of the neck, which may be a precipitating factor in cervical artery dissection.[51]

While much of the medical community views the results of yoga research to be significant, others argue that there were many flaws that undermine results. Psychologists such as Max Weber have pointed to the “irrationality” of yoga as a reason to discount its affects. Much of the research on yoga has been in the form of preliminary studies or clinical trials of low methodological quality, including small sample sizes, inadequate blinding, lack of randomization, and high risk of bias.[52][53][54] As of 2011, evidence suggests that yoga may be at least as effective at improving health outcomes as other forms of mild physical exercise when added to standard care. What is found most concerning regarding the legitimacy of yoga as a method of healing is the current lack of specificity and standardization regarding the practice of yoga. One recent study examined the difficulties of implementing yoga-based therapies and methods of healing without any detailed, standardized and vetted descriptions of the postures promoted as being beneficial for healing. This research calls for the creation of supported intervention practices that could be distributed and applied for use in clinical practice for patients.[20]

See also

References

  1. ^ McCall, Timothy (2007). Yoga as Medicine: the yogic prescription for health and healing: a yoga journal book, p. xvii. Bantam, New York. ISBN 978-0-553-38406
  2. ^ Syman, Stefanie (2010). The Subtle Body: The Story of Yoga in America. Macmillan. pp. 268–273.
  3. ^ Ross, A.; Thomas, S. (2010). “The Health Benefits of Yoga and Exercise: A Review of Comparison Studies.” The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. January 2010, 16(1): 3-12. doi:10.1089/acm.2009.0044. [1]
  4. ^ Feuerstein, Georg (2006). ""Yogic Meditation"". In Jonathan Shear (ed.). The Experience of Meditation. St. Paul, Minnesota: Paragon House. p. 90. While not every branch or school of yoga includes meditation in its technical repertoire, most do. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |origmonth=, |month=, |chapterurl=, |origdate=, and |coauthors= (help)
  5. ^ "which Yoga is for you?". Yoga Journal. Beginner’s Guide: 80–85. 2010. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ Murphy, Jen (2011). "Headstands with the Greatest of Ease". Wall Street Journal.
  7. ^ Raub, J. A. (2002). “Psychophysiologic Effects of Hatha Yoga on Musculoskeletal and Cardiopulmonary Function: A Literature Review”. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 8(6): 797-812. doi:10.1089/10755530260511810. [2] “In the practice of yoga, the whole life-energy of the universe is called prana. In Hatha Yoga,therefore, prana is absorbed by the breath, through the breathing. The manner in which we breathe sets off energy vibrations that influence our entire being..”
  8. ^ http://nccam.nih.gov/news/2008/121008.htm
  9. ^ Barnes PM, Bloom B, Nahin R. CDC National Health Statistics Report #12. Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use Among Adults and Children: United States, 2007
  10. ^ a b Shaw, Eric. 35 mOMents, Yoga Journal, 2010-09.
  11. ^ Cushman, Cushman (2000). "The New Yoga". Yoga Journal.com. p. 68. Retrieved 05-02-2011. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |author= and |last= specified (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  12. ^ Silva, Mira, and Mehta, Shyam. (1995). Yoga the Iyengar Way, p. 9. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 0-89381-731-7
  13. ^ Desikachar, T. K. V. (2005). Health, healing and beyond: Yoga and the living tradition of Krishnamacharya, (cover jacket text). Aperture, USA. ISBN 13: 9780893817312
  14. ^ Barnes P, Powell-Griner E, McFann K, Nahin R. CDC Advance Data Report #343. Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use Among Adults: United States, 2002
  15. ^ Walsh, R. N. (1883). "Meditation practice and research". Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 23: 18–50.
  16. ^ Schure, M. B. (2008). "Mind-body medicine and the art of self-care: Teaching mindfulness to counseling students through yoga, meditation, and qigong". Journal of Counseling and Development. 86: 47–56. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ Marc Woolford [3]
  18. ^ Forbes Bo. "Yoga Therapy in Practice: Using Integrative Yoga Therapeutics in the Treatment of Comorbid Anxiety and Depression". International Journal of Yoga. 2008: 87.
  19. ^ a b Gable, Shelly L. (2005). "What (and Why) Is Positive Psychology?". Review of General Psychology. 9 (2): 103–110. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  20. ^ a b c d Salmon, Paul (2009). "Yoga and Mindfulness: Clinical Aspects of an Ancient Mind/Body". Cognitive and Behavioral Practice. 16 (1): 59–72. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  21. ^ Patanjali (1927). The Yoga-System of Patanjali. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  22. ^ a b Ludwig, David S. (17). "Mindfulness in Medicine". The Journal of the American Medical Association. 300 (11): 1350–1352. Retrieved 27 April 2011. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  23. ^ Bucksworth, J. (2003). "Human Kinetics". Exercise Psychology. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  24. ^ a b Benson, K (1975). "Behaviorally Induced Hypertension in the Squirrel Monkey Population". Psychiatry in Medicine. 6: 87–98. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  25. ^ a b Uebelacker LA, Epstein-Lubow G, Gaudiano BA, Tremont G, Battle CL, Miller IW (2010). "Hatha yoga for depression: critical review of the evidence for efficacy, plausible mechanisms of action, and directions for future research". Journal of Psychiatric Practice. 16 (1): 22–33. doi:10.1097/01.pra.0000367775.88388.96. PMID 20098228. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ^ a b Javnbakht, Kenari (2009). "Effects of yoga on depression and anxiety of women". Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice. 15 (2): 102–104. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  27. ^ Woolery, A. (2004). "A yoga intervention for young adults with elevated symptoms of depression". Alternative Therapies. 10 (2): 60–63. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  28. ^ a b Smith, C. (2007). "Randomised comparitive trial of yoga and relaxation to reduce stress and anxiety". Complementary Therapies and Medicine. 15 (2): 77–83. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  29. ^ a b Malathi, A. (1999). "Stress due to the exams of medical students - Role of yoga". Indian J Physiolpharmicol. 43 (2): 218–224. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  30. ^ a b DiStasio, S. A. (2008). "Integrating yoga into cancer care". Clinical Journal of Oncology Nursing. 12 (1): 125–130.
  31. ^ McIver, S. (2009). "Yoga as a treatment for binge eating disorder: A preliminary study". Complementary Therapies in Medicine. 17 (4): 196–202. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  32. ^ Connor, K (2009). "Complementary and alternative approaches to treating anxiety disorders". Oxford handbook of anxiety and related disorders: 451–460. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  33. ^ Kirkwood, G (2005). "Yoga for anxiety: a systematic review of the research evidence". British Journal of Sports Medicine. 39 (12): 884–891. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  34. ^ Netz, Yael (2003). "Mood Alterations in Mindful Versus Aerobic Exercise Modes". The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied. 137 (5): 409–419. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  35. ^ Narasimhan, L (2011). "Effect of integrated yogic practices on positive and negative emotions in healthy adults". Internatioanl Journal of Yoga. 4 (1): 13–19. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  36. ^ Malathi, A (1999). "Stress due to exams in medical students--role of yoga". Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 43 (2): 218–224. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  37. ^ Berger, Bonnie (1988). "Stress Reduction and Mood Enhancement in Four Exercise Modes: Swimming, Body Conditioning, Hatha Yoga, and Fencing". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  38. ^ Krisanaprakornkit T, Ngamjarus C, Witoonchart C, Piyavhatkul N (2010). "Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Online) (6): CD006507. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2. PMID 20556767.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ Jensen, P. S. (2004). "The effects of yoga on the attention and behavior of boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)". Journal of Attention Disorders. 7 (4): 205–216. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  40. ^ Chou R, Huffman LH (2007). "Nonpharmacologic therapies for acute and chronic low back pain: a review of the evidence for an American Pain Society/American College of Physicians clinical practice guideline". Annals of Internal Medicine. 147 (7): 492–504. doi:10.1001/archinte.147.3.492. PMID 17909210. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  41. ^ Galantino, M. L. (2004). "The impact of modified hatha yoga on low back pain: A pilot study". Alternative Therapies. 10 (2): 56–59. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  42. ^ Smith KB, Pukall CF (2009). "An evidence-based review of yoga as a complementary intervention for patients with cancer". Psycho-oncology. 18 (5): 465–75. doi:10.1002/pon.1411. PMID 18821529. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  43. ^ Bower, J. E. (2005). "Yoga for cancer patients and survivors". Cancer Care. 12 (3): 165–171. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  44. ^ Forbes D, Forbes S, Morgan DG, Markle-Reid M, Wood J, Culum I (2008). "Physical activity programs for persons with dementia". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Online) (3): CD006489. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006489.pub2. PMID 18646158.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  45. ^ Ramaratnam S, Sridharan K (2000). "Yoga for epilepsy". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Online) (3): CD001524. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001524. PMID 10908505.
  46. ^ Bhagavatheeswaran, Rajesh. (2006). "A pilot study of a yoga meditation protocol for patients with medically refractory epilepsy". The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 12 (4): 367–371. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  47. ^ Lee MS, Kim JI, Ha JY, Boddy K, Ernst E (2009). "Yoga for menopausal symptoms: a systematic review". Menopause (New York, N.Y.). 16 (3): 602–8. doi:10.1097/gme.0b013e31818ffe39. PMID 19169169.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  48. ^ Birdee GS, Yeh GY, Wayne PM, Phillips RS, Davis RB, Gardiner P (2009). "Clinical applications of yoga for the pediatric population: a systematic review". Academic Pediatrics. 9 (4): 212–220.e1–9. doi:10.1016/j.acap.2009.04.002. PMC 2844096. PMID 19608122.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  49. ^ July 2008. Bad karma: When yoga harms instead of heals MSNBC website. Retrieved 17/07/08.
  50. ^ Surprising Stroke Risk Factors for 30 Year Old Women
  51. ^ Caso V, Paciaroni M, Bogousslavsky J (2005). "Environmental factors and cervical artery dissection". Frontiers of Neurology and Neuroscience. 20: 44–53. doi:10.1159/000088134. PMID 17290110.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  52. ^ Ospina, M. B. (2008). "Clinical trials of meditation practices in health care: characteristics and quality". Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 14 (10): 199–213. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  53. ^ Krisanaprakornkit, T. (2010). "Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 6. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  54. ^ Uebelacker, L. A. (2010). "Hatha yoga for depression: critical review of the evidence for efficacy, plausible mechanisms of action, and directions for future research". Journal of Psychiatric Practice. 16 (1): 22–33. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yoga_as_therapy&oldid=439457876"