History of the Philippine Army

Philippine Commonwealth Army
*Hukbong Katihan ng Komonwelt ng Pilipinas*
*Ejercito Mancomunidad Filipina*
菲律宾联邦军, 菲律賓聯邦軍
*Fēilǜbīn Liánbāng Jūn*
Philippine Commonwealth Army; Hukbong Katihan ng Komonwelt ng Pilipinas; Ejercito Mancomunidad Filipina ; 菲律宾联邦军, 菲律賓聯邦軍; Fēilǜbīn Liánbāng Jūn
	File:Philippine Commonwealth Army.logo.jpg Philippine Commonwealth Army Emblem and Insignia from 1935 to 1946
Active	December 21, 1935 – June 30, 1946
Country	Commonwealth of the Philippines
Type	Army
Role	Military ground force
Size	100,000–300,000 troops (1935–1942) ; 400,000–600,000 troops (1942–1944) ; 500,000–800,000 troops (1944–1946)
Part of	Armed Forces of the Philippines (1935–1946) ; United States Armed Forces in the Far East(1941–1946) ; United States Armed Forces in the Philippines – Northern Luzon (1942–1946)
Engagements	World War II Philippines Campaign (1941–42); Japanese occupation of the Philippines; Philippines Campaign (1944–45);
Decorations	Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal; Philippine Defense Medal; Philippine Independence Medal; Philippine Liberation Medal; Philippine Medal of Valor; Philippine Presidential Unit Citation; WWII Victory Medal
Commanders
Field Marshal	General Douglas MacArthur (USAFFE)
Notable; commanders	Major General Jose J. Delos Reyes, AFP (1936) ; Major General Paulino Santos, AFP (1936) ; Major General Basilio J. Valdez, AFP (1939–1945) ; Major General Rafael Jalandoni, AFP (1945–1946)

Template:Military Operations of the Philippine Commonwealth Army

The Philippine Commonwealth Army (PCA), also known as Commonwealth Army of the Philippines (official name Hukbong Katihan ng Komonwelt ng Pilipinas or Hukbong Katihan ng Malasariling Pamahalaan ng Pilipinas in Filipino), was the main ground force of the Armed Forces of the Philippines from 1935 to 1946. It was founded on December 21, 1935 at the general headquarters in Manila, with units and formations based throughout the provinces of the Philippines. The Commonwealth forces came under the control of the United States Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE) from 1941 to 1946, following the entry of the U.S. into World War II. After the occupation of the Philippines by the Japanese, surviving military units operating as a resistance force in the Philippines, in conjunction with troops of the Philippine Constabulary and local guerrilla units, came under the United States Armed Forces in the Philippines – Northern Luzon (USAFIP-NL) from 1942 to 1946.

Origin

Prior to the establishment of the Commonwealth Government in 1935 no effort had been made for self-defense by Philippine forces with the United States assuming all responsibility for defense of the islands.^[1] An immediate concern of the Commonwealth Government was defense of an emerging nation.^[2] President-elect Manuel L. Quezon convinced his personal friend, General Douglas MacArthur, then Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army, to organize a new national army with President Roosevelt's agreement in the summer of 1935.^[2] MacArthur had unusually broad authority, with authority to deal directly with the Secretary of War and the Chief of Staff, as Military Adviser to the Commonwealth Government to organize a new national army of the Philippines.^[2]

MacArthur was given wide authority to deal directly with the United States Secretary of War, his successor as the Army Chief of Staff and the United States Army Philippine Department and its commander Major General Lucius R. Holbrook who had been directed that his most important peace time mission was assisting MacArthur in forming a Philippine force capable of defending the islands.^[2] MacArthur selected Majors Dwight D. Eisenhower and James B. Ord as his assistants who, with a special committee at the Army War College, prepared plans to form the national defense of the Philippine Commonwealth with a completion target of independence in 1946.^[2] That plan called for a small regular army with divisions of about 7,500 men, conscription with all men between twenty-one and fifty years of age eligible, with a ten year training program to build a reserve army, a small air force and a fleet of torpedo boats capable of repelling an enemy.^[3]

Philippine National Assembly's first act was passage of the National Defense Act on 21 December 1935 incorporating the initial plans that called for a 10,000 man regular force based on incorporation of the Philippine Constabulary and a 400,000 man reserve force effective by 1946 with a military academy based on West Point to be established at Baguio on Luzon.^[4] President Quezon noted that there were not adequate funds nor time to build an effective naval defense force and the act provided for no navy as such, but an Off Shore Patrol within the Army.^[5] The Off Shore Patrol would be based on British designed fast torpedo boats with an anticipated thirty-six boats under contract by 1946.^[6] The Philippine Army Air Corps would by that time have about 100 bombers and additional tactical aircraft in support to be used with the Off Shore Patrol in coastal defense.^[6] The Commonwealth would have ten military districts, comparable to the corps areas in the United States, that were each to provide an initial reserve division growing to three on full development of the reserve force.^[4] In a 1936 speech MacArthur described the force's function as to make an invasion so costly that no nation would make the attempt and emphasized the island's terrain as making any penetration nearly impossible.^[7]

Development was slow with 1936 largely being devoted to building camps and facilities with the first conscripts being called up 1 January 1937.^[8] A maor problem was formation of a military officer corps with the well trained Constabulary officers being trained in law enforcement and limited numbers of Philippine Scouts officers becoming senior officers in the new force.^[8] By the close of 1939 the reserve force numbered 104,000 men and 4,800 officers.^[8] The Philippine Army Air Corps had about forty planes and a hundred trained pilots by 1940.^[9] The Off Shore Patrol's development was more problematic with only two of the British boats being delivered before war in Europe cut off all further deliveries and a struggling effort to build boats under license locally produced only one boat by October 1941.^[9] President Quezon and others fully recognized that the naval defense was inadequate protection against any first rate naval power but the Philippines had neither the money nor industrial base to provide adequate naval force and thus had to rely on unstated, but presumed assumptions that the United States Navy would not idly stand by with the Philippines under attack.^[9]

When war with the Japanese began the Philippine Commonwealth Army was six years from its founding in December 1935 and about five years from the 1946 date at which it was to be fully operational.^[10] The naval force that was to protect it against a first rate naval power was now in ruins at Pearl Harbor^[10] and the Japanese had pilots standing by fueled and loaded bombers in Formosa preparing to strike the Philippines.^[11]

History

Philippine Commonwealth era (1935–41)

The Commonwealth of the Philippines was formed on November 15, 1935 as an interim position to move the Philippines to independence from the United States that had governed the islands since 1898. The Commonwealth Army was the initially organized under the National Defense Act of 1935 (Commonwealth Act No. 1). The act specified that in so far as may be practicable, original appointments by the President in grades above third lieutenant should be made from among former holders of reserve commissions in the United States Army, from among former officers of the Philippine Scouts and Philippine Constabulary.

After the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines on November 15, 1935 under the American colonial regime at the Legislative Building in Manila, President Manuel L. Quezon the first president of the Commonwealth sought the services of General Douglas MacArthur to evolve a national defense plan. On December 21, 1935, the Philippine Commonwealth Army was renamed the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) which effected the organization of a Council of National Defense and an Army of the Philippines. The act set forth the organizational structure of the army in some detail, set forth enlistment procedures, and established mobilization procedures.

The development of the Philippine Commonwealth Army was slow. 1936 was devoted to the building of general headquarters, camps, organization of cadres, and the special training of instructors, drawn largely from the Philippine Constabulary. The commander of the Philippine Department provided Philippine Scouts as instructors and detailed U.S. Army officers to assist in the inspection, instruction, and administration of the program. By the end of the year instructors had been trained and camps included general headquarters had been founded and established.

The first group of 20,000 to 40,000 men was called up on January 1, 1937 and by the end of 1939 there were 4,800 officers and 104,000 men in the reserves. Infantry training was given at camps scattered throughout the Philippines; field artillery training was concentrated in the vicinity of the U.S. Army's Fort Stotsenburg near Angeles City in the province of Pampanga, about fifty miles north of Manila, and specialized training was given at Fort William McKinley just south of Manila. Coast artillery instruction was carried out at Fort Stotsenburg and at Grande Island in Subic Bay by personnel supplied largely by the American commander at Corregidor.

With the threat of war with the Empire of Japan becoming imminent, on July 26, 1941 a new U.S. command in the Far East was created, known as the United States Army Forces Far East under the command of General Douglas MacArthur who also became the Field Marshal of the Commonwealth Army. On the same date, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a Presidential Order (6 Fed. Reg. 3825) which called the Philippine Commonwealth Army into the service of the Armed Forces of the United States. The Presidential Order did not order all the military forces of the Philippine Commonwealth government into the service of the United States Armed Forces. Only those units and personnel indicated in orders issued by a general officer of the United States Army were mobilized and made an integral part of the USAFFE and only those members of a unit who physically reported for duty were inducted. With an annual appropriation of almost 16 million pesos, the mobilized units trained new Filipino members in defending the nation.

World War II and the Japanese invasion (1941–42)

The Japanese strike at Pearl Harbor, came hours before a general attack across Southeast Asia that on the west side of the international date line fell on 8 December. That opening strike was announced at 0800 Hawaii time with the message "Air Raid on Pearl Harbor. This is no drill." that was intercepted by Navy operators in the Philippines at 0230 Philippine time.^[10] Japanese naval and air forces had struck Kota Bharu in Malaya less than an hour before Pearl Harbor and would strike by air Thailand, Singapore, Guam, Hong Kong, Wake and the Philippines all within the space of hours.^[12]^[13] By 0900 Philippine time Japanese bombers were striking targets in the islands including barracks and other installations at Baguio where President Quezon was present.^[14]

The Commonwealth of the Philippines declared war against the Empire of Japan and Nazi Germany.^{[citation needed]} President Quezon committed the Commonwealth government to joining the Allies against the Axis Powers.^{[citation needed]}

At this time, there were two regular and ten reserve divisions of the Philippine Commonwealth Army with about 100,000 to 300,000 active troops and officers in the general headquarters, camps in Manila and across the provinces of the Philippines. This included North Luzon Force (under then Major General Jonathan M. Wainwright), South Luzon Force (activated December 13, 1941) under Brig. Gen. George M. Parker Jr., the Visayan-Mindanao Force under Colonel W.F. Sharp in the southern islands (61st, 81st, and 101st Infantry Divisions plus three other infantry regiments), and the Reserve Force. North Luzon Force included the 11th, 21st, and 31st Infantry Divisions, all reserve. South Luzon Force include the 1st Division (regular), and the 41st, 51st, and 71st (reserve) Infantry Divisions. These divisions were incorporated into the United States Army Forces in the Far East.

The Philippine Commonwealth government went into exile in 1942 to 1944; moving to Washington D.C. in the United States, while the Philippines was under Japanese occupation. President Quezon and his family, Vice President Sergio Osmena and Major General Basilio J. Valdes (Commanding General of the Commonwealth Army and Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines) and other members of the Commonwealth government and military were transported by submarine to Australia and then on to the United States. General MacArthur and his family and American officers escaped by PT Boats from besieged Corredigor arriving in Australia in March 1942.

Battle of Bataan (January 7, to April 9, 1942)

While the Battle of Bataan on January 7, through April 9, 1942, the military and combat clearing operations of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and the USAFFE in Bataan Peninsula was catching to supporting the Philippine Scouts, Philippine Constabulary and the American ground troops of the United States Armed Forces was routed to ground attack from the Japanese Imperial Armed Forces under General Masaharu Homma. While the fighting and main battleground retreat of all stronghold troops of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and the USAFFE has around to Bataan Peninsula are included the Layac Line from 1941 through the junction battles and sieges of Layac Line, Porac and Guagua Line, Abucay-Mauban Line, Battle of Trail 2, Battle of the Pockets and Points, Orion-Bagac Line and the Fall of Bataan from the invading Japanese Imperial forces.

On April 3, 1942, the invasion of the Imperial Japanese forces was lined the battlegrounds at Mount Samat was operated by attacking the defenders of all stronghold Filipino and American forces on Orion-Bagac Line in Bataan and included the military force of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and USAFFE units has forced to clearing are becomes to retreating.

In the aftermath of the Battle of Bataan on April 9 came the Bataan Death March. All 60,000–80,000 Filipino and American troops taken as prisoners-of-war by the Japanese on Bataan Peninsula were marched to internment camps. From Mariveles, Bataan to San Fernando, Pampanga, from the railway station in San Fernando are those prisoners of war are ride the train are loading the boxes are brought and going to the Japanese internment camps at Camp O'Donnell in Capas, Tarlac are finally to ground to march are inactive.

Approximately 2,500–10,000 Filipino and 100–650 American prisoners of war died due to maltreatment before they reached their destination in Bataan.

Battle of Corregidor (May 5–6, 1942)

After the Battle of Bataan was sustaining of defeat and surrender of all defending Filipino and American forces from the Japanese hands on last four month on inch year. While the military and combat clearing operations of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and the USAFFE in the island of Corregidor from the engaging are fought against the enemy ground force and begins the Battle of Corregidor. Japanese forces landed at Corregidor and from the conquest inside the main island by the attack of all stronghold Filipino and American forces including the Commonwealth Army and USAFFE units are invaded battles to attack from the Japanese forces on May 5, 1942. Meanwhile, the fall of the island of Corregidor led to the surrender of all defending Filipino and American forces on May 6, 1942. Approximately 4,000 of the 11,000 American and Filipino prisoners-of-war from the island of Corregidor were marched through the streets of Manila to incarceration at Fort Santiago in Intramuros and Bilibid Prison in Muntinlupa, Rizal, criminal detention centers turned into Japanese camps.

Aftermath of the Japanese invasion

After the Fall of the Philippines on May 6, 1942, the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces are headed to General Masaharu Homma has sustained to become taken and captured around in the Philippines from the defeated and surrendering Filipino and American military forces. Many individuals continued fighting as guerrillas and later as troops of the Philippine Commonwealth Army units and later Philippine Constabulary from 1944 from the conflicts against the Japanese occupation.

Resistance during the Japanese occupation and Allied liberation (1942–45)

While the aftermath of the Japanese invasion of the Philippines from 1941 and 1942 are goes to defeated and surrendering Filipino and American military forces in this country from the enemy of the Japanese military hands, while the Empire of Japan goes to invaded and occupied the Commonwealth of the Philippines was around to taken captive from the enemy hands.

The Japanese occupation of the Philippines from 1942 to 1944 and later in 1945 led to fighting sieges, invasions and battles between the Japanese Imperial forces, the Bureau of Constabulary under Japanese control (until 1944) and the Makapili militias and the joint force of the incoming and ongoing Filipino soldiers under the Philippine Commonwealth Army and incoming Philippine Constabulary units (from 1944) and the guerrillas.

The American and Allied liberation force landing in the Philippines from October 17, 1944 were aided by the local Filipino military forces under the Philippine Commonwealth Army and Philippine Constabulary units and the guerrillas in the liberation of the Philippines against the Imperial Japanese forces under General Tomoyuki Yamashita.

Operations against the Japanese occupation

The Philippine Commonwealth Army was maintained the sending military and combat clearing operations are almost of all 400,000 to 600,000 active troops and military officers has around from the parts in this country in the Philippines is sustained the engagements of the enemy conflicts and counter-insurgencies from Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao are supporting the joint ground force of the incoming Philippine Constabulary units, the groups of the guerrilla unit and the American military forces through to before the Liberation are become the conquests to attack by the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces and the Kempeitai gendarmerie forces are aided by the ground forces of the Japanese-formed Bureau of Constabulary and the Makapili militia groups are beginning the three year battles and sieges from 1942 to last ended on 1945.

Meanwhile, followed by the groups of the guerrillas before to needing help by the local ground forces of the Commonwealth Army and Constabulary units was aftermath of almost three years are sustained by repeated and capturing from the Japanese Imperial forces including infantry, tanks and fighters and bombers, while the strong guerrilla resistance forces are surrender by the Japanese troops and initially from the strong military force of the Commonwealth Army and Constabulary units are did not and never surrender from the enemy force and continued until the Liberation from the Allied Forces before 1944 and the American liberation forces returns in this country by helping the local Filipino soldiers and guerrilla resistance fighters by cause the enemy against the Imperial Japanese forces.

President Quezon died on August 1, 1944 in Saranac Lake, New York and was replaced by Vice President Sergio Osmena as president of the exiled government. The Second Philippine Republic was created as effectively a puppet state of the Empire of Japan on October 14, 1943 with Jose P. Laurel as its President.

During the Allied liberation (1944–45)

The Allied Liberation of the Philippines began on October 17, 1944 when the American liberation forces was become return and given back from this country aiding support by the local Filipino troops under the Commonwealth Army and Constabulary units including the guerrilla force are fought the attacked and defeat of the Japanese Imperial forces. While General Douglas MacArthur and President Sergio Osmena including the Commonwealth government and military officials and cabinet are supported by Major General Basilio J. Valdes and Brigadier General Carlos P. Romulo is a Commanding General and Military Commander of the Commonwealth Army together. The U.S. military forces landed at Red Beach in Palo, Leyte on October 20, 1944.

President Sergio Osmena and Major General Basilio J. Valdes ordered the re-establishment of the Army. The general headquarters of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and the United States Army Forces in the Far East moved to Tacloban, Leyte on October 23, 1944. President Osmena's Executive Order 21 of October 28, 1944 between the went of the Philippine Constabulary are active service with the Philippine Commonwealth Army during the Liberation from the Allies.

While the Philippine Commonwealth Army was maintained the sending military and combat clearing operations are almost of all 500,000 to 800,000 civilian men and over the outgoing 100,000 to 400,000 male guerrillas and resistance officers are replaced are organized to joined the active troops and military officers has around from the parts in this country in the Philippines is sustained the engagements from the Allied Liberation and some parts of Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. From October 17, 1944 to September 2, 1945 the local troops of the Philippine Constabulary and the USAFIP-NL, guerrilla units and the American liberation forces fought the Imperial Japanese forces and Kempeitai gendarmerie troops supported by the Bureau of Constabulary and the Makapili militia forces.

Philippine Constabulary during the Liberation Campaign

The Philippine Constabulary reactivated ten infantry regiments between October 28, 1944 and June 30, 1946 which were deployed with the Philippine Commonwealth Army in Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao for combat operations. During these operations they operated with the guerrillas and allied military forces against the Japanese. Prior to this, under Japanese military command and the Second Philippine Republic the Bureau of Constabulary and Police had been dissolved between 1942 and 1944. Brigadier General Federico G. Ubuza was become Commanding General of the Philippine Constabulary under the restoration of the Commonwealth military and government was termed on October 28, 1944 through June 30, 1946.

Supporting the 1st and 2nd Filipino Infantry Regiment of the United States Army beginning the Liberation Campaign

While the local troops and military officers of the Philippine Commonwealth Army, including the Philippine Constabulary, continued to support the 1st and 2nd Filipino Infantry Regiment of the United States Army are projected the combat operations in this country and three island groups in the Philippines are fought against the Imperial Japanese ground troops. While the military engagements for the Philippine liberation campaign on October 17, 1944 to September 2, 1945 between the stronger and following battles in Leyte, Samar, Luzon, the recapture of Bataan and Corregidor and the Visayas was topping the conquest against the enemy.

Attached to United States Forces and later Philippine Commonwealth Forces during the Philippines Campaign

The local troops and military officers of the Philippine Commonwealth Army with the Philippine Constabulary has the supporting military attached and communicated by the American fighter and bomber planes under the United States Navy and the United States Army Air Forces from October 17, 1944 to September 2, 1945 and later by the Filipino fighter and bomber planes under the Philippine Army Air Corps (PAAC) and later the established of the Philippine Army Air Force (PAAF) during Liberation period, including 200 P-51 Mustangs and 460 P-47 Thunderbolts from May 15, to September 2, 1945 are combat operations in this archipelago on the Philippines between Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao has aiding them by the groups of the guerrilla units and American and Allied military forces against the Imperial Japanese forces.

Battle of Leyte, Samar and Mindoro (October–December 1944)

Allied liberation forces, chiefly American but including Australian naval and air force units, reached the Philippines on October 17, 1944. The resulting Battle of Leyte Gulf destroyed the Imperial Japanese Navy in the area. The Sixth United States Army landed on Leyte, fighting was mostly complete on New Year's Eve by December 31, 1944.

Supporting Filipino soldiers under the Commonwealth Army and Constabulary and the guerrillas against the Japanese during the Main Battles of Leyte and Samar. Almost of number of all 285,000 to 480,000 active troops and military officers was lead the military units of the Philippine Commonwealth Army from the General Headquarters and Military Camps are around the two main island provinces in Leyte and Samar in Eastern Visayas to the following the sending military and combat clearing operations and engagements of this of two main provinces are supported by the ongoing local troops of the Philippine Constabulary, local guerrilla forces led to Colonel Ruperto Kangleon and the American liberation forces of the United States Armed Forces was the conquest to invaded and attack of all and almost of number of over 70,000 Imperial Japanese Armed Forces was surrounded for around the main island province in Eastern Visayas.

While the local ground troops of the Philippine Commonwealth Army was supported by the 1st and 2nd Filipino Infantry Regiments of the United States Army are projected against the enemy. While the ended of the Battle for the Liberation of Leyte and Samar was aftermath on December 31, 1944 and the combined Filipino and Allied military forces are become the successfully victory to captured and retaken in two island provinces in Eastern Visayas from the defeat of all Japanese Imperial forces.

Almost of military and guerrilla casualties of over 45,790 Filipino troops under the Commonwealth Army and Constabulary units including the United States Army 1st and Filipino Infantry Regiments of over 25,450 Filipino and Filipino-American troops were killed and wounded in action, 4,800 local guerrillas are died and wounded in battle, while the American troops under the United States Armed Forces are over 28,549 killed, wounded and missing in main battle including the Australian troops of the Australian forces of over almost 12,400 killed and wounded in battle and over 80,600 Imperial Japanese forces are killed without wounded and captured in action.

While again by the American liberation forces are landing beaches in the island province of Mindoro on December 13 to December 16, 1944 and aiding them by the Filipino soldiers under the Commonwealth Army and Constabulary and the guerrillas against the Japanese Imperial forces are start the battle. The General Headquarters and Military Camps of the Philippine Commonwealth Army here is this island province of Mindoro and almost of all 86,000 active troops and military officers under the Commonwealth Army including the Constabulary troops of over 17,000 are sending military and combat clearing operations in this of main island provinces and help them by the local guerrilla forces and the American liberation forces of the United States Armed Forces was the conquest to invaded and attack of all and almost of number of over 7,000 Japanese troops was surrounded. After the Battle of Mindoro, Filipino and American forces led to victory and captive in the island province of Mindoro and almost of all casualties of over 600 Filipino troops and guerrillas died and injured in battle, 105 American troops killed and wounded in action and over 1.800 Japanese troops killed, wounded and captured in action.

Battle of Luzon (January 9, to September 2, 1945)

The liberating forces landed on beaches of the Lingayen Gulf in the province of Pangasinan and around in Luzon on January 9. Supported by the soldiers of the Commonwealth Army and Constabulary units and the local guerrilla force units they engaged the Imperial Japanese forces.

Almost of number of all 300,000 to 700,000 civilian men and almost 60,000 to 150,000 guerrilla men and resistance officers are outgoing replaced are organized to joining the active troops and military officers was lead the military units of the Philippine Commonwealth Army from the General Headquarters and military camps are around the major islands of Luzon including the main of plain provinces of Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union, Pangasinan, Abra, Mountain Province, Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Tarlac, Zambales, Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Rizal, Tayabas, Albay, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur and Sorsogon and other main of island provinces of Batanes, Marinduque, Romblon, Palawan and Masbate are supported by the local guerrilla forces the Communist Hukbalahap resistance force and the American liberation forces of the United States Armed Forces was the conquest to invaded and attack of all and almost of number of over 400,000 Imperial Japanese Armed Forces was surrounded for around the major islands and main lslands of Luzon.

The joint military force of the local ground troops of the Commonwealth Army and Constabulary units and the American forces of the United States Armed Forces including the guerrilla fighters was surrounded to supporting Hukbalahap Communist fighters are protected them around the parts in Central Luzon against the Japanese. When the fall for the liberated in Luzon was ending aftermath, Filipino and Allied military forces are captured and retaking of some parts of Luzon in the main and major provinces in this region by defeated and surrendering Imperial Japanese troops.

Over 68,000 Filipino troops (Commonwealth Army and Constabulary) were killed and wounded in battle, 27,000 guerrillas around the plains on Luzon and 16,000 Hukbalahap Communists in Central Luzon were killed and wounded in action, over 40,700 troops of the United States armed forces were killed and injured in the main battle and almost 378,000 Imperial Japanese troops were killed, wounded and captured in the action.

Transfers to USAFIP-NL during the Northern Luzon campaign

In Northern Luzon during the liberating Battle of Luzon, the military units of the Philippine Commonwealth Army were transferred to the command of United States Army Forces in the Philippines - Northern Luzon (USAFIP-NL). USAFIP-NL was a military and guerrilla unit led by Colonel Russell W. Volckmann with a mix of Filipino and American military and guerrilla officers. Completed of clearing operations in Northern Luzon and some of eight provinces of Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union, Abra, Mountain Province (now Apayao, Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga and Mountain Province), Cagayan, Isabela and Nueva Vizcaya including Baguio City consisted of five infantry regiments—the 11th, 14th, 15th, 66th, and the 121st—under the Commonwealth Army are sustaining force played an instrumental role in the Ilocos Campaign, Battle of Abra, Mountain Province Campaign, Battle of Baguio, Battle for La Union, Battle of Bacsil Ridge, Battle of Bessang Pass, Battle of Mayoyao Ridge, Battle of Kiangan and Cagayan Valley Campaign under the surrender of General Tomoyuki Yamashita from the Allies.

The Philippine Commonwealth Army and USAFIP-NL military units were supported by the Philippine Constabulary, various Ilocano, Igorot and Cordilleran resistance fighters and the American forces of the Sixth United States Army and Eighth United States Army was fought to attack by the Japanese Imperial forces. The fall of liberated in Northern Luzon was ended and aftermath, some Filipino and American military and guerrilla victories and successfully from the operated in action and defeating Japanese forces and re-captive on the North and almost of all Allied and Japanese military and guerrillas are casualties in action.

Supporting the 201st Fighter Squadron of the Mexican Expeditionary Air Force during Luzon Campaign

While the supported and attaching communicated by the currently local troops and military officers of the Philippine Commonwealth Army with the Philippine Constabulary has the supporting military attached and communicated by the Mexican fighter and bomber pilots under the 201st Fighter Squadron of the Mexican Expeditionary Air Force of all several of those over 25 P-47D, aircraft, 30 pilots and 300 personnel are combat operated in some parts of Luzon by aiding recognized guerrillas and the American and Allied ground forces were attacked and defeating Japanese Imperial forces.

Recapture of Bataan and Corregidor and the invasion of Palawan (January–April 1945)

During the summer of 1945, U.S. and Filipino soldiers of the United States Army and Philippine Commonwealth Army, including the Philippine Constabulary, recaptured Bataan and Corregidor between January and February, before invading Palawan between February April, aided by the local guerrilla resistance fighters. The General Headquarters and military Camps of the Philippine Commonwealth Army were located in Central Luzon and Palawan and almost of stronghold of all over 150,000 to 275,000 active troops and military officers under the Commonwealth Army including of all 89,000 troops under the Philippine Constabulary were sending the clearing operations from the engagement of fall of the enemy and supporting the local guerrila fighters and American liberation ground force in Bataan was recaptured on January 31, to February 21, 1945 and Palawan was invaded on February 28, to April 22, 1945 against the Imperial Japanese forces led by Lieutenant General Rikichi Tsukada and General Sosaku Suzuki. The supplying of all 12,000 local troops of the Commonwealth Army are sending operations in the island of Corregidor from February 16, to February 26, 1945 are supporting the American paratrooper forces of the United States Army's 503rd Infantry Regiment was invading them against the Japanese are become recaptured. The aftermath for the recaptured on Bataan Peninsula and invasion of Palawan was ended, while of combined Filipino and American troops and aiding local guerrilla force to cleared and taken from Bataan and Palawan from the Japanese soldiers are become defeated. Almost of casualties for the recaptured on Bataan Peninsula and invasion of the island province of Palawan of over 9,000 Filipino soldiers under the Commonwealth Army and Constabulary units including the guerrillas were killed and wounded in action, 1,500 American troops died and injured in battle and almost 6,000 Japanese Imperial forces were killed, wounded and captured in action. In the island of Corregidor was recaptured and the casualties of all 1,900 Filipino soldiers under the Commonwealth Army units without Constabulary are killed and wounded in action, 1,400 American paratrooper force are died and injured in main battle and almost 8,700 Japanese forces are died, injured and captive on main battle.

Clearing operations during the Liberation of Manila (February – March 1945)

The Battle of Manila (February 3 to March 3, 1945) was fought between the combined U.S. and Philippine Commonwealth ground troops aiding the guerrillas and the Imperial Japanese Marines and Army forces led by Admiral Sanji Iwabuchi in the City of Manila.

Almost of number of all 48,000 to 85,000 active troops and military officers was lead the military units of the Philippine Commonwealth Army from the General Headquarters are around the main provinces in Central and Southern Luzon to sending military and combat clearing operations and engagements in the capital city of Manila between the districts of Binondo, Ermita, Intramuros, Malate, Paco, Pandacan, Port Area, Quiapo, Sampaloc, San Andres Bukid, San Miguel, San Nicolas, Santa Ana, Santa Cruz, Santa Mesa and Tondo supported by local guerrilla forces and the American liberation forces of the Sixth United States Army and Eighth United States Army was the conquest to invaded and attack of all and over 25,000 Imperial Japanese marine and army forces was surrounded for around the capital city.

While the Fall of the Old Spanish Walled City of Intramuros from February 23 to February 26, 1945, joint military force of the American troops of the United States Sixth and Eighth Army and the Filipino troops of the Philippine Commonwealth Army through supporting by the leading the group of the local guerrilla units entering Intramuros was chasing attack from the Japanese Marines and Army troopers and retaken them around the city.

While the ended of the Battle for the Liberated in Manila was aftermath on March 3, 1945 and taken by joint Filipino and American troops are recaptured and successfully victories around the city. Casualties of over 10,000 Filipino troops and guerrillas killed and wounded in action, 6,575 American troops killed and wounded in battle, 16,665 Japanese killed in action. Over 100,000 civilians in and around Manila were killed by Japanese military during the Manila Massacre.

The general headquarters of the Philippine Commonwealth Army (including the Philippine Constabulary) was relocated to the capital city on March 1945 to June 1946 after the end of the Battle of Manila.

Operations during the Battle of the Visayas (March – July, 1945)

The American liberation forces are landed beaches and entering of some parts from the Visayas region and supporting Filipino soldiers under the Commonwealth Army and Constabulary military units and the local Visayan guerrilla resistance fighters are fought the invaded against the Imperial Japanese forces under Lieutenant General Sosaku Suzuki are become the conflicts and conquests of main battles from March 18 to July 30, 1945.

While the almost the stronghold of all over 125,000 to 380,000 civilian men and almost 8,000 to 11,000 outgoing guerrilla men and resistance officers were replaced are the organization to joined the active troops and military officers are lead the military units of the Philippine Commonwealth Army from the General Headquarters and Military Camps are around the isolated islands of the Visayas region was the military located including the provinces of Antique, Capiz, Iloilo, Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, Cebu, Bohol, Samar and Leyte are aided and supported by the local Visayan guerrilla resistance fighters under Colonel Macario Peralta, Jr. from Panay Island, Lieutenant Colonel James M. Cushing from Cebu and other Visayan guerrilla resistance officers and the American liberation forces of the United States Armed Forces was the conquest to invaded and attack of all and almost of number of over 40,000 Japanese Imperial Armed Forces was led by Lieutenant General Sosaku Suzuki. The stronghold troops of the Commonwealth Army units were sending operated from the island of Guimaras and Siquijor and aiding from the local guerrillas and Americans was fought by the Japanese.

When the fall for the liberated in Visayas region was ending aftermath, Filipino and American military forces including the Visayan resistance groups were victorious and they captured some parts of Visayas in the all some of main provinces in this region from defeated and surrendering Imperial Japanese troops, while to Lieutenant General Sosaku Suzuki was killed in battle by Allied forces in Cebu on April 19, 1945 and almost of military and guerrilla casualties over 5,800 Filipino troops under the Commonwealth Army and Constabulary units were killed and injured in battle, 2,400 Cebuano and Visayan guerrilla resistance were killed and wounded in action, 4,700 troops of the U.S. Armed Forces were killed and wounded in battle and over 30,000 Imperial Japanese troops were killed, wounded or taken prisoner.

Battle of Mindanao and Sulu (March 10 to August 15, 1945)

Started for the Battle of Mindanao and Sulu from March 10 to August 15, 1945 between the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces led by General Gyosaku Morozumi and Lieutenant General Jiro Harada and the combined U.S. and Philippine Commonwealth ground troops are supported by the local Christian and Muslim guerrilla resistance fighters was defensed the main conquest in some parts of Mindanao and Sulu. While the U.S. liberation forces landed on Mindanao and Sulu and helps the local Filipino soldiers under the military units of the Commonwealth Army and Constabulary and the local Christian-Muslim resistance fighters are attacking Japanese troops.

While the Christians and Muslims are the almost the stronghold of all over 400,000 to 700,000 civilian men and almost 50,000 to 170,000 outgoing guerrilla men and resistance officers are replaced and become organization to joining the active troops and military officers are lead the military units of the Philippine Commonwealth Army from the General Headquarters and military camps located in Mindanao and Sulu and between the some of all provinces of Agusan, Bukidnon, Cotabato, Davao, Lanao, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, Surigao and Zamboanga, including Sulu are aided and supported by the local Christian and Muslim guerrilla resistance fighters under Colonel Wendell Fertig and other local Christian-Muslim guerrilla resistance officers and the American liberation forces of the United States Armed Forces was the conquest to invaded and attack of all and almost of number of over of 200,000 Japanese Imperial forces under by General Gyosaku Morozumi and Lieutenant General Jiro Harada. When the fall for the liberated in Mindanao and Sulu was ending aftermath, Filipino and American military forces including the local Christian and Muslim resistance groups are become successfully victory and captive them in Mindanao and Sulu by defeated and surrendering Imperial Japanese troops, while to General Gyosaku Morozumi and Lieutenant General Jiro Harada surrenders from the officially to the Allied forces and almost of military and guerrilla casualties of almost of over 278,000 Filipino and American troops are casualties in action, 69,000 local Christian and Muslim guerrilla and resistance fighters were died and injured in action and almost 149,000 Japanese Imperial forces were casualties in battle including an additional 25,000 deaths due to starvation and disease.

Aftermath of the Allied Liberation

The campaign to recapture the Philippines from October 17, 1944 to September 2, 1945 ended with victory for the combined U.S. and Philippine Commonwealth military ground troops and the liberation of the Philippines. President José P. Laurel subsequently issued an Executive Proclamation of the government in exile, dissolving the Second Philippine Republic, and ending his term as President, on August 17, 1945.

Following the surrender of General Tomoyuki Yamashita, Commanding General of the Japanese Fourteenth Area Army, the Japanese force was imprisioned at Kiangan, Mountain Province on September 2, 1945. The same day the Japanese Instrument of Surrender was signed on aboard the USS Missouri (BB-63) in Tokyo Bay ending World War II.

The Philippine Commonwealth Government was restored following its return from exile in the United States.

Post World War II-era and restoration of the Philippine Commonwealth (1945–46)

After the restoration and reestablishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines on October 20, 1944 the President, Sergio Osmena, and the government, military officials and cabinet returned from exile in the United States of America. The service of the Philippine Commonwealth Army as part of the United States Armed Forces was terminated as of midnight on June 30, 1946 by authority of General Order #168, Army Forces Western Pacific.

The Second Proclamation of Independence of the Third Philippine Republic from the United States of America was made on July 1, 1946 at the Independence Grandstand in Manila. President Manuel Roxas (last President of the Commonwealth and later Fifth President of the Republic of the Philippines) issued Executive Order No. 94 s. 1947 which, among other things, reorganized the Philippine Army into the Armed Forces of the Philippines. This resulted in the formation of the Philippine Air Force and reformation of the Philippine Navy as separate organizations after long years as part of the Philippine Army.

Commanders

The commanding generals of the Philippine Commonwealth Army included Major General Jose J. Delos Reyes (January– May 1936), Major General Paulino Santos (May–December 1936), Major General Basilio J. Valdez (1939–1945) and Major General Rafael Jalandoni (1945–1946). While the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines under the Philippine Commonwealth Army included President Manuel Luis Quezon (1935–1944), President Sergio Osmena (1944–1946) and President Manuel Roxas (1946) and the deputy-commander in chief included Vice President Sergio Osmena (1935-1944) and Vice President Elpidio Quirino (1946). The American General Douglas MacArthur was commander of the United States Armed Forces in the Far East (USAFFE) and became the Field Marshal of the Philippine Commonwealth Army.

Regular units

The Philippine Commonwealth Army had several regular units, including military districts, military areas, infantry divisions, regular divisions, reconnaissance battalions, replacement battalions and others which were tasked with counter-insurgency and conventional military operations. During the engagement of the anti-Imperial Japanese and axis forces in the Philippines between Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao during World War II they were supported by local troops of the Philippine Constabulary, local guerrilla resistance fighters, and U.S. and Allied military forces.

Size

The Philippine Commonwealth Army was drawn from local Christian and Muslim Filipinos including the native Filipinos, Filipino-Mestizos, Spanish-Filipinos, Chinese-Filipinos and Moro-Filipinos.

By the start of the Japanese invasion, the 10 reserve divisions had been partially (about two-thirds) mobilized giving a force of 100,000 "poorly equipped and trained" troops. The Philippine Scouts was around 12,000.^[15] The Philippine Commonwealth Army was mostly infantry with few engineers and artillery.^[16]

Number of troops	Year	Recruitment^{[clarification needed]}	Organizations joining^{[clarification needed]}
Pre-war (1935–1941)
100,000–150,000 local troops and military officers	1935	Civilian Men
160,000–200,000 local troops and military officers	1936	Civilian Men
200,000–215,000 local troops and military officers	1938	Civilian Men
220,000–245,000 local troops and military officers	1939	Civilian Men
246,000–250,000 local troops and military officers	1940	Civilian Men
255,000–300,000 local troops and military officers	1941 (before World War II and the Japanese invasion)	Civilian Men
Under the Japanese occupation (1941–1945)
315,000–350,000 local troops and military officers	1941 (Until the Retreat of Filipino and American troops by attacking Japanese during the Invasion)	Civilian Men and Guerrillas	Recognized Guerrillas and Return the Commonwealth Military
355,000–399,000 local troops and military officers	1942 (Until to Defeat of Filipino and American troops are surrender by the Japanese after the Invasion)	Civilian Men and Guerrillas	Recognized Guerrillas and Return the Commonwealth Military
400,000–450,000 local troops and military officers	1942 to 1943	Civilian Men Replacing Outgoing Guerrillas
455,000–498,000 local troops and military officers	1943 to 1944	Civilian Men Replacing Outgoing Guerrillas
500,000–700,000 local troops and military officers	1944 to 1945 (during the Allied Liberation era)	Civilian Men Replacing Outgoing Guerrillas
Post-World War II to end of Commonwealth (1945–1946)
715,000–750,000 local troops and military officers	1945	Civilian Men
755,00–800,000 local troops and military officers	1946	Civilian Men

Casualties

Hundreds of thousands of soldiers and officers were killed and wounded in action.

Location	Killed	Wounded	Captured	Total
Japanese invasion (1941–1942)
Bataan Peninsula	10,000	20,000	75,000	105,000
Corregidor Island	800	1,000	11,000	12,800
North and South Luzon	30,000	45,000	160,000	235,000
Central Luzon	15,000	28,000	125,000	168,000
Visayas and Mindanao	38,000	42,000	160,000	240,000
Japanese occupation (1942–1944)
Northern Luzon	1,500	3,300	nil	4,800
Central Luzon	1,800	2,575	nil	4,375
Southern Luzon and Bicol Peninsula	3,700	6,160	nil	9,860
Batanes, Mindoro, Marinduque, Palawan, Romblon, Masbate and Catanduanes	5,500	9,387	nil	14,887
Visayas Region	3,000	8,765	nil	11,765
Leyte and Samar	2,900	4,550	nil	7,450
Mindanao and Sulu	4,700	7,536	nil	12,236
Liberation (1944–1945)
City of Manila	3,079	6,150	nil	9,229
Northern Luzon	12,000	39,700	nil	51,700
Central Luzon	15,000	27,100	nil	42,100
Southern Luzon and Bicol Peninsula	20,000	42,700	nil	62,700
Batanes, Mindoro, Marinduque, Palawan, Romblon, Masbate and Catanduanes	45,000	64,000	nil	109,000
Visayas Region	12,000	36,300	nil	48,300
Leyte and Samar	7,000	15,000	nil	82,000
Mindanao and Sulu	15,000	32,100	nil	47,100

General headquarters and bases

The following is a list of all general headquarters, camps and bases, used by the Philippine Commonwealth Army during military operations in Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao during World War II against the Japanese occupation.

Luzon	Visayas	Mindanao
General Headquarters, City of Manila (until 1942 due to Japanese occupation and from 1945 due to Allied liberation and followed by the Battle for the liberation of Manila)	Antique	Agusan (now Agusan del Norte and Agusan del Sur)
General Headquarters, Quezon City, Rizal (now Quezon City, Metro Manila) (until 1942 due to Japanese Occupation and from 1945 due to Allied Liberation)	Capiz (now Aklan)	Bukidnon
General Headquarters, Pasay, Rizal (now Pasay City, Metro Manila) (until 1942 due to Japanese Occupation and from 1945 after Allied liberation)	Guimaras Island (until 1942 due to Japanese Occupation and built of the military garrison)	Cotabato (now Cotabato, South Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, Sarangani and Maguindanao)
General Headquarters, Taguig, Rizal (now Taguig City, Metro Manila) (until 1942, and from 1945 after Allied liberation)	Iloilo	Davao (now Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Occidental and Davao Oriental)
Ilocos Norte	Negros Occidental	Lanao (now Lanao del Norte and Lanao del Sur)
Ilocos Sur	Bohol	Misamis Occidental
La Union	Cebu	Misamis Oriental
Pangasinan	Negros Oriental	Surigao (now Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur and Dinagat Islands)
Abra	Siquijor Island (until 1942)	Zamboanga (now Zamboanga del Norte, Zamboanga del Sur and Zamboanga Sibugay)
Mountain Province (now Apayao, Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga and Mountain Province)	Birilan Island (until 1942)	Camiguin Island (until 1942 due to Japanese Occupation and built of the military garrison)
Batanes (until 1942)	Leyte (now Leyte and Southern Leyte)	Sulu (now Basilan, Sulu and Tawi-Tawi) (until 1942)
Cagayan	Samar (now Samar, Eastern Samar and Northern Samar)
Isabela
Nueva Vizcaya (now Quirino and Nueva Vizcaya)
Bataan (until April 9, 1942 followed by the Japanese Imperial forces after Fall of Bataan and from 1945 after Allied recapture of Bataan)
Bulacan
Nueva Ecija
Pampanga
Tarlac
Zambales
Cavite
Laguna
Batangas
Rizal
Tayabas (now Aurora and Quezon)
Mindoro (now Occidental Mindoro and Oriental Mindoro)
Marinduque (until 1942)
Romblon
Palawan
Albay
Camarines Norte
Camarines Sur
Catanduanes Island (During the Japanese occupation and base in Catanduanes Islands set up September 26, 1945)
Masbate
Sorsogon

Equipment

The Commonwealth Army was supplied by the United States, United Kingdom and other Allied countries.^{[citation needed]}

Its equipment included: pistols, rifles, assault rifles, sub-machine guns, machine guns, sniper rifles, shotguns, anti-tank weapons, flamethrowers, grenades, grenade launchers, mortars, knives, bolos, bayonets, tanks, self propelled artillery^{[citation needed]}, artillery, howitzers, armored vehicles and other equipment.

Uniforms