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General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon

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The F-16 Fighting Falcon is a multi-role jet fighter aircraft developed by General Dynamics in the United States. Designed as a lightweight fighter, it evolved into a successful multi-role aircraft. In 1993 General Dynamics sold its aircraft manufacturing business to the Lockheed Corporation, now part of Lockheed Martin. The Falcon's versatility is a paramount reason it was a success on the export market, serving 24 countries.[1] The F-16 is the largest and probably most significant current Western fighter program, with over 4,000 aircraft built since production started in 1976. Though no longer produced for the United States Air Force, it is still produced for export.

The Fighting Falcon is regarded as a superb dogfighter, with innovations such as the bubble canopy, side-mounted control stick, and reclined seat. It was also the first US fighter aircraft to match the English Electric Lightning's ability to execute 9 g turns. Although the F-16's official name is "Fighting Falcon", it is known to its pilots as the "Viper."

Design characteristics

The F-16 is a single-engined, multi-role tactical aircraft. It is equipped with an M61 Vulcan cannon in the left wing root, and can be armed with air-to-air missiles and a large variety of missiles or bombs.

From the very beginning, the F-16 was intended to be a cost-effective "workhorse" that could perform various kinds of missions and maintain around-the-clock readiness. It is much simpler and lighter than its predecessors, but uses advanced aerodynamics and avionics (including the first use of fly-by-wire, earning it the nickname of "the electric jet") to maintain good performance.

F-16C Cockpit
F-16CJ Fighting Falcon

Ergonomics and visibility

The pilot sits high in the fuselage with the canopy support-bow behind him, out of his field of view. This and the bubble canopy give the pilot an unobstructed field of view, a feature vital during air-to-air combat. The seat is reclined 30 degrees (other seats are typically inclined ~13 degrees) to help the pilot better deal with high g's. The control stick is mounted on the right armrest rather than between the legs as is traditional, to aid in maneuvering during high-g turns. In addition, a Heads-Up Display (HUD) displays vital information in the pilot's field of view.

Fly by wire

The F-16 uses computerized fly-by-wire and has no mechanical linkages between the control stick and the flight surfaces. Computer control is necessary for flight as a result of the inherent negative stability of the aircraft, a trait which trades stable flight for increased maneuverability.

This lack of mechanical linkages between the control stick and the flight surfaces led to an unusual characteristic in the design of the control stick: originally, it did not move. The control stick instead detected pressure applied by the pilot and translated that pressure into control of the aircraft. This arrangement proved uncomfortable and difficult for pilots to adjust to, so the control stick was given a small amount (less than a quarter of an inch in any direction) of play.

The onboard computer makes thousands of calculations and corrections each second to keep the plane flying, freeing pilots to concentrate on tasks necessary to fulfill their intended role. The enhanced computer oversight also provides automatic flight coordination, utilizing all control surfaces (including the rudder) to keep the aircraft from entering performance hurting or even potentially dangerous situations such as unintentional slips or skids. A common saying from pilots about the F-16 was that, "you don't fly an F-16, it flys you".

Early critics of the F-16 felt that the completely electronic control system would dramatically decrease safety[citation needed], but a predicted rash of fly-by-wire based accidents never materialized.

Wing and Strake Configuration

Aerodynamic studies in the early 1960’s demonstrated that the phenomenon known as “vortex lift” could be beneficially harnessed by the utilization of highly swept wing configurations, such as found in the Concorde supersonic aircraft and the Swedish Viggen canard configured aircraft. These favorable effects affected the aircraft’s lift capability and allowed the close-coupled wing to be extended to create higher angles of attack through use of a strong leading-edge vortex flow of a slender lifting surface. The leading edge of the wing’s blended forebody would thus increase the strength of the vortices and give the aircraft additional lift.

The exploitation of this aerodynamic phenomenon shaped the design of the F-16, which boasts cropped delta wings and long wing-body strakes, and is considered to be one of the significant elements responsible for its enduring success as a highly maneuverable fighter.

Negative static stability

An aircraft with negative static stability will, in the absence of control input, depart from level and controlled flight. Most aircraft are designed with positive static stability, where a plane tends to return to its original attitude following a disturbance. However, positive static stability hampers maneuverability, as the tendency to remain in its current attitude opposes the pilot's effort to maneuver, and so a plane with negative static stability will be more maneuverable. With a fly-by-wire system, such a plane can be kept in stable flight, its instability kept in check by the flight computers.

The YF-16 was the world's first aircraft to be slightly aerodynamically unstable by design. This feature is officially called "relaxed static stability." At subsonic speeds, the aeroplane is constantly on the verge of going out of control. This tendency is constantly caught and corrected by the FLCC (Flight Control Computer) and later the DFLCC (Digital Flight Control Computer), allowing for stable flight. When supersonic, the airplane exhibits positive static stability due to aerodynamic forces shifting aft between subsonic and supersonic flight.

Combat service

File:F-16C01.jpg
F-16C with a SEAD weapons load.

Due to their ubiquity, the F-16s have participated in numerous conflicts, most of them in the Middle East.

In 1981, eight Israeli F-16s participated in a raid that destroyed Osiraq, an Iraqi nuclear reactor near Baghdad. During the same year, the Israeli Air Force obtained the first air-to-air "kills" for the entire F-16 series, shooting down a Syrian Mi-8 helicopter and a MiG-21 jet. The following year, during Operation Peace for Galilee (Lebanon War) Israeli F-16s engaged Syrian aircraft successfully on numerous occasions. F-16s were also used afterwards in their ground-attack role for strikes against targets in Lebanon.

During the Afghan war, Pakistan Air Force F-16s shot down at least seven Afghan and one Soviet ground attack and transport aircraft. [2] The same border clashes also saw the first combat loss of a Fighting Falcon, when an aircraft was, according to PAF, shot down by its own wingman, a case of friendly fire later traced back to a faulty air-to-air missile (AAM).[3]

In Operation Desert Storm of 1991, 249 USAF F-16s flew over 13,000 sorties in strikes against Iraq, the most of any Coalition aircraft, with five lost in combat, three to surface-to-air missiles (SAM), one to a premature bomb detonation, and one to an engine fire. F-16s returned to Iraq in force in 1998 as part of the Operation Desert Fox bombing campaign and again in the 2003 Operation Iraqi Freedom invasion, flying ground support and SEAD missions.

F-16s were also employed by NATO during Bosnian peacekeeping operations in 1994-95 (one was lost to a SAM, resulting in the evasion and recovery of Captain Scott O'Grady), in the 1999 Operation Allied Force in Yugoslavia (during which one was lost to ground fire), and by the United States in Afghanistan since 2001. Two air-to-air victories were scored by USAF F-16s in Operation Southern Watch, four in Bosnia, and two in Operation Allied Force (one by a Royal Netherlands Air Force F-16). F-16s would also participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. One F-16 crashed in June 2003 over Iraq due to fuel starvation.

On June 7, 2006, F-16s carried out two airstrikes which killed Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi, the leader of Al-Qaeda in Iraq, using two 500 lb. bombs to destroy the al-Qaeda safehouse he was in. Israeli F-16s were believed to have participated in the Israel-Lebanon conflict that began in July 2006, since the aircraft is known to be the bomber workhorse of the Israel Defense Forces. The exact extent of the F-16's role in that conflict was not known publicly as of late July 2006 but was widely believed to be extensive. A fully loaded IDF F-16I reportedly crashed on July 19 when one of its tires burst as it took off for Lebanon from an air base in the Negev. The pilots ejected safely and there were no casualties on the ground.

Versions

F-16 models are denoted by sequential block numbers to denote significant upgrades. The blocks cover both single- and two-seat versions. An intricate Multinational Staged Improvement Program (MSIP) was instituted to gradually upgrade the F-16 and retroactively implement the upgrades in delivered aircraft.

F-16 A/B

The F-16 A/B was initially equipped with the Westinghouse AN/APG-66 Pulse-doppler radar, Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-200 turbofan, rated at 14,670 lbf (64.9 kN), 23,830 lbf (106.0 kN) with afterburner. The USAF bought 674 F-16As and 121 F-16Bs, with delivery completed in March 1985.

  • Blocks 1
    Early blocks (Block 1/5/10) with relatively minor differences between each. Most were later upgraded to the Block 10 configuration in the early 80's. There were 94 Block 1, 197 Block 5, and 312 Block 10 aircraft produced. Block 1 is the early production model with the nose cone painted black.
  • Block 5
    It was discovered that the black nose cone became an obvious visual identification cue at long range for the Block 1 aircraft, so the color of the nose cone was consequently changed to the low visibility grey for Block 5 aircraft. During the operation of F-16 Block 1, it was discovered that rain water could accumulate in certain spots within the fuselage, so drainage holes were drilled in the forward fuselage and tail fin area for Block 5 aircraft.
  • Block 10
    The Soviet Union significantly reduced the export of titanium during the late 1970's, so manufacturers of the F-16 used aluminium instead. New methods were also used: the corrugated aluminium is bolted to the epoxy surface for Block 10 aircraft, replacing the old method of aluminium honeycomb being glued to the epoxy surface used in earlier aircraft.
  • Block 15
    The first major change in the F-16, the Block 15 aircraft featured larger horizontal stabilizers, the addition of two hardpoints to the chin inlet, improved AN/APG-66 radar, increased capacity of underwing hardpoints. The F-16 gained the Have Quick II secure UHF radio. To counter the additional weight of the new hardpoints, the horizontal stabilizers were enlarged by 30%. Block 15 is the most numerous variant of the F-16, with 983 produced. The last one was delivered in 1996 to Thailand.
  • Block 15 OCU
    From 1987 Block 15 aircraft were delivered to the Operational Capability Upgrade (OCU) standard, which featured improved F100-PW-220 turbofans with digital control interface, the ability to fire the AGM-65, AMRAAM, and AGM-119 Penguin missiles, countermeasures and cockpit upgrades, improved computers and data bus. Its maximum takeoff weight increased to 37,500 lb (17,000 kg). 214 aircraft received this upgrade, as well as some Block 10 aircraft, retroactively.
  • Block 20
    150 Block 15 OCUs for the Republic of China (Taiwan) with the addition of most of the F-16 C/D capability: carriage of AGM-45 Shrike, AGM-84 Harpoon, AGM-88 HARM, and the LANTIRN pod. The computers onboard Block 20 is siginificantly improved in comparison to that of the earlier versions, with the overall processing speed increased 740 times and the overall memory storage increased 180 times in comparison to that of Block 15 OCU.

F-16 C/D

  • Block 25
    The Block 25 F-16C first flew in June 1984 and entered USAF service in September. The aircraft are fitted with the Westinghouse AN/APG-68 radar, have a precision night attack capability and are fitted with the Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-220E turbofan, with digital control interface. The Air National Guard is the sole user of this variant, with 209 models delivered.
  • Block 30/32
    The first aircraft subject to the Alternative Fighter Engine project under which aircraft could be fitted with the traditional Pratt & Whitney engines or for the first time the General Electric F110. Blocks ending in '0' are powered by GE, blocks ending in '2' are fitted with Pratt & Whitney engines.
    The first Block 30 F-16 entered service in 1987. Major differences include the carriage of the AGM-45 Shrike and AGM-88 HARM missiles. From Block 30D aircraft were fitted with enlarged inlets for the increased thrust GE engine, Block 32s were not modified in this way. 733 were produced and delivered to six countries. The Block 32H/J aircraft assigned to the USAF Thunderbird flight demonstration squadron were built in 1986 and 1987 and are some of the oldest operational F-16's in the Air Force. The Block 30's were upgraded significantly with the addition of the Embedded Global Positioning Sattelite (GPS) Inertial Navigation System (EGI) allowing the use of JDAM and other GPS aided munitions (See Block 50 list below). This capability in combination with the Grumman LITENING targeting pod enhanced and extended the useability and lifespan of this block of the F-16C. This modification to the baseline Block 30 is commonly known by Viper Drivers as the F-16C++ (pronounced 'plus plus') version.
  • Block 40/42 (F-16 CG/DG)
    Entering service in 1988, the Block 40/42 is the improved all-day/all-weather strike variant with LANTIRN pod, the night capability gives rise to the name "Night Falcons". The block features strengthened and lengthened undercarriage for LANTIRN pods, improved radar, and a GPS receiver. From 2002 the Block 40/42 increases the weapon range available to the aircraft including JDAM, JSOW, WCMD and the (Enhanced) EGBU-27. Also incorporated in this block was the addition of ANVIS compatible lighting systems. The TCTO (Time Compliance Technical Order) that added the NVIS compatible systems was completed in 2004. 615 aircraft were delivered to 5 countries.
  • Block 50/52 (F-16 CJ/DJ)
    Block 50/52 was first delivered in late 1991, the aircraft are equipped with improved GPS/INS. The aircraft can carry a further batch of advanced missiles; the AGM-88 HARM missile, JDAM, JSOW and WCMD. Block 50 aircraft are powered by the F110-GE-129 while the Block 52 jets use the F100-PW-229.
  • Block 50/52 Plus (F-16U)
    Ordered by Polish Air Force. These aircraft are fitted with the latest avionics (including the ALE-50 Towed Decoy System) and provisions for Conformal Fuel Tanks (CFTs). The Greek Air Force ordered this version with the CFTs. All two-seat "Plus" airframes include the enlarged Avionics Dorsal Spine which adds 30 cubic feet (850 L) to the airframe for more avionics with only small increases in weight and drag. This version is sometimes called F-16U and is the foundation of F-16E/F Block 60[citation needed]. The Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) also ordered two-seat versions of the Block 52+. Singapore's most recent order consists of an aircraft model rumoured to be the exact same configuration as the venerable F-16I, but re-designated to avoid sensitivity. The latest D+ models ordered by the RSAF can be noted to have the exact same antennas, sensor locations, cockpit configurations as that of the F-16I. These planes are also fitted with DASH-3 Helmet-mouted sighting system, 600-Gallon tanks, CFTs, AMRAAM, HARM and laser-guided weapons, fully-configured for long-range strike.
  • F-16I
    Block 50/52 Plus for Israeli Defense Force - Air Force, with significant Israeli avionics replacing that of American firms (Such as Israeli Aerial Towed Decoy replacing the ALE-50). The addition of Israeli-built autonomous aerial combat maneuvering instrumentation systems enables the training exercises to be conducted without the dependence on the ground instrumentation systems, and the helmet-mounted sight is also standard equipment. The F-16I also has the Israeli-built removable conformal fuel tanks added.
  • F-16 CCIP
    The Common Configuration Implementation Program (CCIP) seeks to standardise all Block 40/42/50/52 F-16s to 50/52 configuration for simplified training and maintenance. The $2 billion program was initiated in September 2001. In addition, the CCIP will incorporate a Link-16 datalink capability with the MIDS for data-sharing with allied aircraft, and the Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System (JHMCS) for helmet-slaved aiming of the AIM-9X.[4]

F-16 E/F

  • Block 60
    Based on the F-16C/D, it features conformal fuel tanks and improved radar and avionics; it has only been sold to the United Arab Emirates. The General Electric F110-132 is a development of the -129 model and is rated at 32,500 lbf (144 kN). A major difference from previous Blocks is the Northrop Grumman AN/APG-80 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar. Block 60 allows the carriage of all Block 50/52 aircraft-compatible weaponry as well as ASRAAM and the AGM-84E Standoff Land Attack Missile (SLAM). The CFTs provide an additional 450 US gallons (2,045 litres) of fuel allowing increased range or time on station. This has the added benefit of freeing up hardpoints for weapons, i.e. hardpoints that would have been occupied by underwing fuel tanks. The MIL-STD-1553 data bus is replaced by MIL-STD-1773 fiber optic data bus which offers 1000 times increase in data handling capability. Theoretically, the aircraft could be purchased by the United States Air Force, but in practice the USAF has shown little interest in acquiring new F-16s given that it has an extensive "boneyard" fleet of the planes at the Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center and is planning to take delivery of the new F-35 Lightning II by the end of the decade.
    • A single-seat version of the F-16XL was to be designated F-16E, with the twin-seat variant designated F-16F. This was sidelined by the Air Force's selection of the F-15E Strike Eagle in the 1980s Enhanced Tactical Fighter flyoff.

Other variants

  • F-16/79 - Modified export-version F-16A designed for use with the outdated J79 turbojet engine in answer to President Jimmy Carter's directive to curtail arms proliferation by selling only reduced capability weapons. However, numerous exceptions were made, and with the later relaxation of the policy under President Carter and cancellation under President Ronald Reagan, no copies were ultimately sold.
  • F-16/101 - Modified F-16A designed for use with the General Electric F101 turbofan engine from the B-1A program. GE attempted to rework the engine for fighter usage, but it was never adopted for the F-16. Data from the F-16/101 assisted in the development of the F110 turbofan.
  • F-16ADF - Upgraded Block 15 for United States Air National Guard's fighter interception mission (hence the name Air Defense Fighter). Begun in 1989, 270 airframes were upgraded. Avionics were upgraded (including the addition of an IFF interrogator with "bird slicing" IFF antennas), and a spotlight fitted forward and below the cockpit, for night time identification. This was the only US version equipped with the AIM-7 Sparrow air-to-air missile. Beginning in 1994 these aircraft began to be replaced by newer F-16C variants. By 2005 only the North Dakota ANG was flying this example.
  • F-16AM - Upgraded single-seat fighter version of the F-16A. The F-16AM is in use with the Belgian Air Force, Portuguese Air Force, Royal Danish Air Force, Royal Netherlands Air Force and the Royal Norwegian Air Force.
  • F-16A(R) - A few F-16As of the Royal Netherlands Air Force were equipped with tactical reconnaissance pods. The aircraft were given the designation F-16A(R).
  • F-16BM - Upgraded two-seat training version of the F-16B. The F-16BM is in use with the Belgian Air Force, Portuguese Air Force, Royal Danish Air Force, Royal Netherlands Air Force and the Royal Norwegian Air Force.
  • F-16XL - A cranked-arrow delta-wing version used by NASA for aeronautical research, once conceived of as a possible competitor for the Enhanced Tactical Fighter program, which was later won by the F-15E Strike Eagle. If the F-16XL had gone into production, it would have been designated F-16E/F (single/twin seat). Two examples were built, one single-seat and one two-seat version.
  • F-16 MLU - (Mid Life Update) An update of the F-16 A/B to the Block 20 standard for the Royal Netherlands Air Force, the Belgian Air Force, the Royal Danish Air Force, the Royal Norwegian Air Force and the Portuguese Air Force. The aircraft are designated F-16AM and F-16BM respectively
  • F-16N - 22 Block 30 aircraft delivered to the U.S. Navy for use as aggressor trainers. These aircraft were delivered in 1987-1988. VF-126 and the Navy Fighter Weapons School (NFWS) operated them at NAS Miramar. East coast squadrons were VF-43 at NAS Oceana and VF-45 at NAS Key West. Each squadron had one TF-16N and 5 F-16N, with the exception of the NFWS which had 7. Due to the high stress of constant combat training, the wings of these aircraft began to crack and the Navy announced their retirement in 1994 and they were sent to AMARC by 1995. As adversary aircraft they were notable for their colorful appearance. Most F-16N's were painted in a three-tone blue and gray "ghost" scheme. Top Gun had some of the more colorful ones: a three-color desert scheme, a light blue one and a green splinter camo version with Marine markings. VF-126 also had a unique blue example. In 2002 the Navy began to receive 14 F-16 A and B models from AMARC, once again for adversary training and painted in exotic schemes.
  • TF-16N - Four two-seaters delivered to the U.S. Navy for use as aggressor trainers. Each of the four Navy F-16 adversary squadrons had one example of this version.
  • KF-16 - 120 aircraft built by Korean Aerospace Industries under license from Lockheed Martin in the 1990s. There are two variants of KF-16; the first 12 KF-16s were delivered to Republic of Korea Air Force in 1994, and were based on F-16C/D Block 32. The second variants, introduced in 1994, were advanced derivatives of F-16C/D Block 52. Almost 2,500 parts were changed from the original F-16C/D. The indigenous T-50/A-50 is based on F-16 techonolgy.
File:F-16 VISTA.jpg
The F-16 VISTA
  • F-16 VISTA / MATV / NF-16D - Lockheed-Martin's experimental F-16 with thrust vector control. The VISTA program is considered as successful but the thrust vector control (TVC) never made it into fighter versions.
  • AFTI/F-16
  • In addition, the British HS.1202-9 design from 1977 bears a striking resemblance to a twin-tailed F-16.

Operators

Main article: Operators of the F-16 Fighting Falcon

Total delivered or on order as of 2005:

  • Unit cost:
    • F-16A/B: 1998USD 14.6 million
    • F-16C/D: 1998USD 18.8 million
    • F-16E/F: 1998USD 26.9 million
    • F-16I: 2006USD ~70 million[5]

Current sales proposals

Recently Lockheed Martin entered in discussions with the Indian ministry of defence which is looking out for replacing its aging fleet of MiG-21s. But the signals coming out from the chambers of Indian Air Force indicate the move is not likely.

Following the devastating earthquake in Kashmir in October 2005, the Pakistan Government postponed the Pakistan Air Force's F-16 deal; which involved 50 new-built F-16 Block-52 Plus and 26 used F-16A/B. In April 2006, the Pakistani Cabinet approved the purchase of up to 77 new and used F-16s. The PAF has announced an order of up to 36 new-built F-16C/D Block-52 Plus with Conformal Fuel Tanks (CFT) and 26 used F-16A/B Block-15OCU (which were embargoed from Pakistan in the 1990s), plus Mid-Life Updates (MLUs) of all 34 F-16s in its existing inventory. However, the sales were made possible only after Pakistan agreed to substantial security measures imposed by the United States, which exceed the standards enforced by the US on its own security weapons systems.[6]

The Philippine Air Force (PhAF) also expressed its interest in the F-16 but its plan to purchase modern multi-role fighter aircraft to replace its retired F-5A/B Freedom Fighters has been shelved due to economic reasons and having counter-insurgency operations as its main priority. In the mid-1990s, the PhAF did not act on a US offer to sell 28 F-16A/B Block 15 OCU fighters, which were earlier embargoed from Pakistan.

The Republic of China (Taiwan)'s ROCAF, needing a next generation fighter to replace its fleet of F-16 A/B Block 20s, has expressed interest on the new F-35 Joint Strike Figher. However, due to political issues, it's unlikely the island nation will be able to acquire such an advanced fighter in the near future. As the result, the ROCAF has opted for up to 66 new F-16C/D Block50/52 as its interim replacement fighter.[7]

Manufacturers

Specifications (F-16C Block 30)

F-16 3 View Schematic

General characteristics

Performance

Armament

Flight Simulators

Due to its widespread adoption, the F-16 has been a popular model for PC flight simulators, appearing in over 20 games. Most notable among them is Falcon series, regarded as the most accurate F-16 simulation and arguably one of the most accurate military flight simulations. For example, it has the option of simulating the actual pre-flight checks, which consist of several minutes of button toggling before one can light the engine.

Other F-16 flight simulators include F-16 Fighting Falcon (1984), Jet (1989), Strike Commander by Origin Systems, Inc., iF-16 by Interactive Magic (1997), F-16 Multi-role Fighter by Novalogic (1998), and F-16 Aggressor by General Simulation (1999).

Thrustmaster makes an all-metal throttle/stick set of flight sim controllers named "HOTAS Cougar" as an exacting reproduction of those found in the F-16 Block 40/50.

See also

Dos Gringos

Television and Films

The F-16 can be seen in movies such as Blue Thunder, Jewel Of The Nile, Iron Eagle, X2, and The Sum Of All Fears. Also, can be seen as the Aerialbot Sky Dive in the cartoon The Transformers.

References

  1. ^ F-16 Fighting Falcon
  2. ^ "Pakistan Border Battles". Pakistan Military Consortium. Retrieved 2006-05-20.
  3. ^ Pakistan Air Force - PAF
  4. ^ *McGee, Chris (2006). "Largest Ever F-16 Modernization program Enhances Aircraft". DoD Transformation. Retrieved 2006-04-10.
  5. ^ *Harel, Amos (2006). "IDF fighter jet crashes during take-off in Negev; no injuries". Haaretz Newspaper. Retrieved 2006-07-20.
  6. ^ ""US conditions? Look what Pak has had to swallow for its F-16 supplies"". The Indian Express. Retrieved 2006-07-29.
  7. ^ Chang, Rich (May 17, 2006). "MND eyes purchase of fighter jets". The Taipei Times. p. 2.

Related content

Wikimedia Commons has media related to F-16 Fighting Falcon.

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