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The '''Georgian script''' is a graphically independent and unique [[alphabet]]ic [[writing system]] used to write the [[Georgian language]]. It is a [[phonemic orthography]] and the [[Georgian alphabet#Mkhedruli|current alphabet]] has 33 [[Letter (alphabet)|letters]].
The '''Georgian script''' is a graphically independent and unique [[alphabet]]ic [[writing system]] used to write the [[Georgian language]]. It is a [[phonemic orthography]] and the [[Georgian alphabet#Mkhedruli|current alphabet]] has 33 [[Letter (alphabet)|letters]].
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The origins of the Georgian alphabet are poorly known, and no full agreement exists among Georgian and foreign scholars as to its date of creation, who designed the script, and the main influences on that process. The oldest uncontested example of Georgian writing is an inscription in the ''Asomtavruli'' script dated 430 AD, in a church in [[Bethlehem]], Palestine. The oldest example of the script being used in Georgia is found in the church of [[Bolnisi Sioni]], dated 494 AD.<ref name="Haarmann2012">{{cite book|author=Harald Haarmann|editor=Matthias Hüning, Ulrike Vogl, Olivier Moliner|title=Standard Languages and Multilingualism in European History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HZqBCTDxqcgC&pg=PA299|accessdate=19 September 2013|year=2012|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=978-90-272-0055-6|page=299|chapter=Ethnic Conflict and standardisation in the Caucasus}}</ref><ref name="Hewitt1995">{{cite book|author=B. G. Hewitt|title=Georgian: A Structural Reference Grammar|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MUBtUcqOF-AC&pg=PA4|accessdate=19 September 2013|year=1995|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=978-90-272-3802-3|page=4}}</ref>
The origins of the Georgian alphabet are poorly known, and no full agreement exists among Georgian and foreign scholars as to its date of creation, who designed the script, and the main influences on that process. The oldest uncontested example of Georgian writing is an inscription in the ''Asomtavruli'' script dated 430 AD, in a church in [[Bethlehem]], Palestine. The oldest example of the script being used in Georgia is found in the church of [[Bolnisi Sioni]], dated 494 AD.<ref name="Haarmann2012">{{cite book|author=Harald Haarmann|editor=Matthias Hüning, Ulrike Vogl, Olivier Moliner|title=Standard Languages and Multilingualism in European History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HZqBCTDxqcgC&pg=PA299|accessdate=19 September 2013|year=2012|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=978-90-272-0055-6|page=299|chapter=Ethnic Conflict and standardisation in the Caucasus}}</ref><ref name="Hewitt1995">{{cite book|author=B. G. Hewitt|title=Georgian: A Structural Reference Grammar|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MUBtUcqOF-AC&pg=PA4|accessdate=19 September 2013|year=1995|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=978-90-272-3802-3|page=4}}</ref>


The scholarly consensus points to the Georgian alphabet being created in the early 5th century.<ref name="Rapp2010">{{cite book|author=Stephen H. Rapp Jr|editor=Ken Parry|title=The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=fWp9JA3aBvcC&pg=PA139|accessdate=19 September 2013|date=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-3361-9|page=139|chapter=Georgian Christianity}}</ref><ref name="Haarmann2012" /> The first version of the alphabet attested is the ''Asomtavruli'' script; the other scripts were formed in the following centuries. Most scholars link the creation of the Georgian alphabet to the process of Christianisation of the Georgian-speaking lands, that is [[Lazica]] (or [[Colchis]]) in the west, [[Kartli]] (or [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]]) in the east.<ref name="Hewitt1995" /> The alphabet was therefore most probably created between the conversion of Iberia under [[Mirian III of Iberia|Mirian III]] (326 or 337) and the Bethlehem inscription of 430. It was first used for translation of the Bible and other Christian literature into [[Old Georgian language|Georgian]], by monks in Georgia and Palestine.<ref name=Lig1>{{cite web |url=http://www.academia.edu/1355678/Werner_Seibt_The_Creation_of_the_Caucasian_Alphabets_as_Phenomenon_of_Cultural_History |title=The Creation of the Caucasian Alphabets as Phenomenon of Cultural History |first= Werner |last= Seibt}}</ref>
The scholarly consensus points to the Georgian alphabet being created in the 4th century AD,<ref name="Rapp2010">{{cite book|author=Stephen H. Rapp Jr|editor=Ken Parry|title=The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=fWp9JA3aBvcC&pg=PA139|accessdate=19 September 2013|date=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-3361-9|page=139|chapter=Georgian Christianity}}</ref> or at the latest in the early 5th century.<ref name="Haarmann2012" /> The first version of the alphabet attested is the ''Asomtavruli'' script; the other scripts were formed in the following centuries. Most scholars link the creation of the Georgian alphabet to the process of christianisation of the Georgian-speaking lands, that is [[Lazica]] (or [[Colchis]]) in the west, [[Kartli]] (or [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]]) in the east.<ref name="Hewitt1995" /> The alphabet was therefore most probably created between the conversion of Iberia under [[Mirian III of Iberia|Mirian III]] (326 or 337) and the Bethlehem inscription of 430. It was first used for translation of the Bible and other Christian literature into [[Old Georgian language|Georgian]], by monks in Georgia and Palestine.<ref name=Lig1>{{cite web |url=http://www.academia.edu/1355678/Werner_Seibt_The_Creation_of_the_Caucasian_Alphabets_as_Phenomenon_of_Cultural_History |title=The Creation of the Caucasian Alphabets as Phenomenon of Cultural History |first= Werner |last= Seibt}}</ref>


⚫
A point of contention among scholars is the role played by [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian clerics]] in that process. Armenian tradition holds [[Mesrop Mashtots]], generally acknowledged as the creator of the [[Armenian alphabet]], to have also created the Georgian and [[Caucasian Albanian alphabet]]s. This tradition originates in the works of [[Koryun]], a fifth century historian and biographer of Mashtots,<ref>[http://armenianhouse.org/koryun/mashtots-en.html Koryun's Life of Mashtots]</ref> and has been widely quoted in Western sources,<ref name="Donald Rayfield">[[Donald Rayfield]] ''The Literature of Georgia: A History (Caucasus World)''. RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-7007-1163-5. P. 19. "The Georgian alphabet seems unlikely to have a pre-Christian origin, for the major archaeological monument of the 1st century 4IX the bilingual Armazi gravestone commemorating Serafua, daughter of the Georgian viceroy of Mtskheta, is inscribed in Greek and Aramaic only. It has been believed, and not only in Armenia, that all the Caucasian alphabets — Armenian, Georgian and Caucaso-Albanian — were invented in the 4th century by the Armenian scholar Mesrop Mashtots.<...> The Georgian chronicles The Life of Kartli - assert that a Georgian script was invented two centuries before Christ, an assertion unsupported by archaeology. There is a possibility that the Georgians, like many minor nations of the area, wrote in a foreign language — Persian, Aramaic, or Greek — and translated back as they read."</ref><ref>[[Glen Warren Bowersock]], [[Peter Robert Lamont Brown]], [[Oleg Grabar]]. ''Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World''. Harvard University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-674-51173-5. P. 289. [[James R. Russell]]. Alphabets. "Mastoc' was a charismatic visionary who accomplished his task at a time when Armenia stood in danger of losing both its national identity, through partition, and its newly acquired Christian faith, through Sassanian pressure and reversion to paganism. By preaching in Armenian, he was able to undermine and co-opt the discourse founded in native tradition, and to create a counterweight against both Byzantine and Syriac cultural hegemony in the church. Mastoc' also created the Georgian and Caucasian-Albanian alphabets, based on the Armenian model."</ref> but has been criticized by scholars, both Georgian<ref name="Javakhishvili">Georgian: ივ. ჯავახიშვილი, ქართული პალეოგრაფია, გვ. 205-208, 240-245</ref> and Western,<ref name=Lig1 /> who judge the passage in Koryun unreliable or even a later interpolation. Other scholars quote Koryun's claims without taking a stance on its validity.<ref name="Thomson1996">{{cite book|author=Robert W. Thomson|title=Rewriting Caucasian history: the medieval Armenian adaptation of the Georgian Chronicles : the original Georgian texts and the Armenian adaptation|publisher=Clarendon Press, Oxford|isbn=0198263732|page=xxii-xxiii|}}</ref><ref name="Rapp2003">Stephen H. Rapp. ''Studies in medieval Georgian historiography: early texts and Eurasian contexts''. Peeters Publishers, 2003. ISBN 90-429-1318-5. P. 450. "There is also the claim advanced by Koriwn in his saintly biography of Mashtoc' (Mesrop) that the Georgian script had been invented at the direction of Mashtoc'. Yet it is within the realm of possibility that this tradition, repeated by many later Armenian historians, may not have been part of the original fifth-century text at all but added after 607. Significantly, all of the extant MSS containing The Life of Mashtoc* were copied centuries after the split. Consequently, scribal manipulation reflecting post-schism (especially anti-Georgian) attitudes potentially contaminates all MSS copied after that time. It is therefore conceivable, though not yet proven, that valuable information about Georgia trans¬mitted by pre-schism Armenian texts was excised by later, post-schism individuals."</ref> Many agree, however, that Armenian clerics, if not Mashtots himself, must have played a role in the creation of the Georgian script.<ref name="Rapp2010"/><ref>[http://www.csuohio.edu/class/english/faculty/greppin.html Greppin, John A.C.]: ''Some comments on the origin of the Georgian alphabet''. — Bazmavep 139, 1981, 449-456</ref>
The role played by [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian clerics]] in the process of creation of Georgian alphabet is a subject of continued dialogue among scholars. Armenian tradition holds [[Mesrop Mashtots]], the medieval scholar and evangelizer acknowledged as the creator of the [[Armenian alphabet]] in 405-406 AD, to have also created the Georgian and [[Caucasian Albanian alphabet]]s. This tradition originates in the major work of [[Koryun]], known as [http://www.vehi.net/istoriya/armenia/korun/english/index.html The Life of Mashtots] (Armenian: Վարք Մաշտոցի), a 5th-century historian and biographer of
Mashtots,<ref>[http://armenianhouse.org/koryun/mashtots-en.html Koryun's Life of Mashtots]</ref> and has been supported by many authors in Western sources,<ref name="Donald Rayfield">{{cite book|last=Rayfield|first=Donald|authorlink=Donald Rayfield|title=The Literature of Georgia: A History (Caucasus World)|publisher=[[RoutledgeCurzon]]|isbn=0-7007-1163-5|page=19|quote=The Georgian alphabet seems unlikely to have a pre-Christian origin, for the major archaeological monument of the 1st century 4IX the bilingual Armazi gravestone commemorating Serafua, daughter of the Georgian viceroy of Mtskheta, is inscribed in Greek and Aramaic only. It has been believed, and not only in Armenia, that all the Caucasian alphabets — Armenian, Georgian and Caucaso-Albanian — were invented in the 4th century by the Armenian scholar Mesrop Mashtots. [...] The Georgian chronicles The Life of Kartli - assert that a Georgian script was invented two centuries before Christ, an assertion unsupported by archaeology. There is a possibility that the Georgians, like many minor nations of the area, wrote in a foreign language — Persian, Aramaic, or Greek — and translated back as they read.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1=[[Glen Warren Bowersock|Bowersock, G. B.]]|editor2=[[Peter Robert Lamont Brown|Brown, Peter]]|editor3=[[Oleg Grabar|Grabar, Oleg]]|title=Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1999|isbn=0-674-51173-5|p=289|article=Alphabets|author=[[James R. Russell|Russell, James.]]|quote=Mastoc' was a charismatic visionary who accomplished his task at a time when Armenia stood in
⚫
danger of losing both its national identity, through partition, and its newly acquired Christian faith, through Sassanian pressure and reversion to paganism. By preaching in Armenian, he was able to undermine and co-opt the discourse founded in native tradition, and to create a counterweight against both Byzantine and Syriac cultural hegemony in the church. Mastoc' also created the Georgian and Caucasian-Albanian alphabets, based on the Armenian model.}}</ref><ref name="Routeldge">{{cite book|last=Campbell|first=George L.|title=The Routeldge Handbook of Scripts and Alphabets|year=2013|publisher=[[Routledge]]|location=Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon|isbn=9781135222970|page=[http://books.google.com/books?id=bLbN4O2EdcsC&pg=PA96&dq=georgian+alphabet+Mashtots&hl=en&sa=X&ei=uJOiUvq-N7WisAT4yYGIDg&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=georgian%20alphabet%20Mashtots&f=false 96]|edition=2nd|coauthors=Moseley, Christopher|quote=According to tradition, St Mesrop Mashtots, the creator of the Armenian script, was also, at least in part, responsible for the Georgian alphabet. Like the Armenian, the Georgian is clearly based on a Greek model.}}</ref> but has been criticized by some Georgian<ref name="Javakhishvili">Georgian: ივ. ჯავახიშვილი, ქართული პალეოგრაფია, გვ. 205-208, 240-245</ref> and Western<ref name=Lig1 /> scholars, who judge the passage in Koryun unreliable or even a later interpolation. Other scholars quote Koryun's claims without taking a stance on its validity.<ref name="Thomson1996">{{cite book|author=Robert W. Thomson|title=Rewriting Caucasian history: the medieval Armenian adaptation of the Georgian Chronicles : the original Georgian texts and the Armenian adaptation|publisher=Clarendon Press, Oxford|isbn=0198263732|page=xxii-xxiii|}}</ref><ref name="Rapp2003">Stephen H. Rapp. ''Studies in medieval Georgian historiography: early texts and Eurasian contexts''. Peeters Publishers, 2003. ISBN 90-429-1318-5. P. 450. "There is also the claim advanced by Koriwn in his saintly biography of Mashtoc' (Mesrop) that the Georgian script had been invented at the direction of Mashtoc'. Yet it is within the realm of possibility that this tradition, repeated by many later Armenian historians, may not have been part of the original fifth-century text at all but added after 607. Significantly, all of the extant MSS containing The Life of Mashtoc* were copied centuries after the split. Consequently, scribal manipulation reflecting post-schism (especially anti-Georgian) attitudes potentially contaminates all MSS copied after that time. It is therefore conceivable, though not yet proven, that valuable information about Georgia trans¬mitted by pre-schism Armenian texts was excised by later, post-schism individuals."</ref> Many agree, however, that Armenian clerics, if not Mashtots himself, must have played a role in the creation of the Georgian script.<ref name="Rapp2010"/><ref>[http://www.csuohio.edu/class/english/faculty/greppin.html Greppin, John A.C.]: ''Some comments on the origin of the Georgian alphabet''. — Bazmavep 139, 1981, 449-456</ref><ref name="Routeldge"/>


A competing Georgian tradition, first attested in medieval chronicles such as the ''Lives of the Kings of Kartli'' (c. 800),<ref name=Lig1 /> assigns a much earlier, pre-Christian origin to the Georgian alphabet, and names King [[Pharnavaz I of Iberia|Pharnavaz I]] (3rd century BC) as its inventor. This account is now considered legendary, and is rejected by scholarly consensus, as no archaeological confirmation has been found.<ref name="Donald Rayfield" /><ref name="Rapp2010" /><ref name=Lig1 /> Georgian linguist [[Tamaz Gamkrelidze]] offers an alternate interpretation of the tradition, in the pre-Christian use of foreign scripts (alloglotography in the [[Aramaic alphabet]]) to write down Georgian texts.<ref name="Kemertelidze1999">{{cite book|author=Nino Kemertelidze|editor=David Cram, Andrew R. Linn, Elke Nowak|title=History of Linguistics 1996: Volume 1: Traditions in Linguistics Worldwide|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OWdCAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA228|accessdate=20 September 2013|year=1999|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|isbn=978-90-272-8382-5|pages=228–|chapter=The Origin of Kartuli (Georgian) Writing (Alphabet)}}</ref>
A competing Georgian tradition, first attested in medieval chronicles such as the ''Lives of the Kings of Kartli'' (ca. 800),<ref name=Lig1 /> assigns a much earlier, pre-Christian origin to the Georgian alphabet, and names King [[Pharnavaz I of Iberia|Pharnavaz I]] (3rd century BC) as its inventor. This account is now considered legendary, and is rejected by scholarly consensus, as no archaelogical confirmation has been found.<ref name="Donald Rayfield" /><ref name="Rapp2010" /><ref name=Lig1 /> Georgian linguist [[Tamaz Gamkrelidze]] offers an alternate interpretation of the tradition, in the pre-Christian use of foreign scripts (alloglotography in the [[Aramaic alphabet]]) to write down Georgian texts.<ref name="Kemertelidze1999">{{cite book|author=Nino Kemertelidze|editor=David Cram, Andrew R. Linn, Elke Nowak|title=History of Linguistics 1996: Volume 1: Traditions in Linguistics Worldwide|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OWdCAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA228|accessdate=20 September 2013|year=1999|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|isbn=978-90-272-8382-5|pages=228–|chapter=The Origin of Kartuli (Georgian) Writing (Alphabet)}}</ref>


Another scientific controversy regards the main influences at play in the Georgian alphabet, as scholars have debated whether it was inspired more by the [[Greek alphabet]], or by [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] writing systems such as Aramaic.<ref name="Kemertelidze1999" /> Recent historiography focuses on greater similarities with the Greek alphabet than in the other Caucasian writing systems, most notably the order and numeric value of letters.<ref name=Lig1 /><ref name="Shanidze2000">{{cite book|author=Mzekala Shanidze|editor=Sylvain Auroux et al.|title=History of the Language Sciences / Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaften / Histoire des sciences du langage. 1. Teilband|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JqxnjTKaQvQC&pg=PA444|accessdate=20 September 2013|year=2000|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-019400-5|pages=444–|chapter=Greek influence in Georgian linguistics}}</ref> Some scholars have also suggested as a possible inspiration for particular letters certain pre-Christian Georgian cultural symbols or clan markers.<ref name="Haarmann2012" />
Another scientific controversy regards the main influences at play in the Georgian alphabet, as scholars have debated whether it was inspired more by the [[Greek alphabet]], or by [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] writing systems such as Aramaic.<ref name="Kemertelidze1999" /> Recent historiography focuses on greater similarities with the Greek alphabet than in the other Caucasian writing systems, most notably the order and numeric value of letters.<ref name=Lig1 /><ref name="Shanidze2000">{{cite book|author=Mzekala Shanidze|editor=Sylvain Auroux et al.|title=History of the Language Sciences / Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaften / Histoire des sciences du langage. 1. Teilband|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JqxnjTKaQvQC&pg=PA444|accessdate=20 September 2013|year=2000|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-019400-5|pages=444–|chapter=Greek influence in Georgian linguistics}}</ref> Some scholars have also suggested as a possible inspiration for particular letters certain pre-Christian Georgian cultural symbols or clan markers.<ref name="Haarmann2012" />
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===Decorative Asomtavruli===
===Decorative Asomtavruli===
{{multiple image
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[[File:მთავრული "მ".jpg|left|thumb|80px|Asomtavruli capital letter [[wikt:მ|მ]] (''mani''), 12th century]]
| footer =
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| image1 = მთავრული "მ".jpg
| width1 = 180
| alt1 =
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| caption1 = Asomtavruli capital letter [[wikt:მ|მ]] (''mani''), 12th century.
⚫
}}
In the Nuskhuri written manuscripts, Asomtavruli is found mainly in the form of titles and capital letters. Capital letters of Asomtavruli were written in the beginnings of the paragraphs which created an orientation for the readers. In the early stages of the development of the books they were not painted and it was distinguished only with large size in the text, sometimes with the color and such capital letters are often performed with [[cinnabar]].
In the Nuskhuri written manuscripts, Asomtavruli is found mainly in the form of titles and capital letters. Capital letters of Asomtavruli were written in the beginnings of the paragraphs which created an orientation for the readers. In the early stages of the development of the books they were not painted and it was distinguished only with large size in the text, sometimes with the color and such capital letters are often performed with [[cinnabar]].


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==Usage of ''Asomtavruli'' and ''Nuskhuri'' today==
==Usage of ''Asomtavruli'' and ''Nuskhuri'' today==
Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri alphabets are still used today in some section headings and book titles, and sometimes used in a pseudo-bicameral way by varying the glyph sizes for creating capitals. Since they are no longer universally used for writing Georgian, they've also been reused in a creative way for writing capital letters, along with letters of the Mkhedruli alphabet. Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are used by the [[Georgian Orthodox Church]] alongside with the Mkhedruli alphabet. Georgian linguist [[Akaki Shanidze]] made an attempt to reintroduce Asomtavruli into modern Georgian writing as capital letters, but it didn't catch on.<ref>Gillam, Richard ''Unicode Demystified: A Practical Programmer's Guide to the Encoding Standard'' p.252</ref>
Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri alphabets are still used today in some section headings and book titles, and sometimes used in a pseudo-bicameral way by varying the glyph sizes for creating capitals. Since they are no longer universally used for writing Georgian, they've also been reused in a creative way for writing capital letters, along with letters of the Mkhedruli alphabet. Georgian linguist [[Akaki Shanidze]] made an attempt in the 1950s to reintroduce Asomtavruli into modern Georgian writing as capital letters, but it didn't catch on<ref>Gillam, Richard ''Unicode Demystified: A Practical Programmer's Guide to the Encoding Standard'' p.252</ref> and failed to gain popularity.<ref>Julie D. Allen ''Unicode standard, version 5.0'' p.249</ref>

Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are officially used by the [[Georgian Orthodox Church]] alongside with the Mkhedruli alphabet.

Patriarch [[Ilia II of Georgia]] also called to use all 3 Georgian scripts.<ref>{{ka icon}} [http://saqinform.ge/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1039:2010-10-11-11-41-17&catid=110:religia1&Itemid=514#axzz2pFKm92n7 ილია მეორე ერს ქართული ენის დაცვისკენ კიდევ ერთხელ მოუწოდებს] საქინფორმ.გე</ref>


== ''Mkhedruli'' ==
== ''Mkhedruli'' ==
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!colspan="15"| ''Mkhedruli'' letters
!colspan="15"| ''Mkhedruli'' letters
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:240%;"
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:240%;"
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ა|ა]]
| [[wikt:ა|ა]] || [[wikt:ბ|ბ]] || [[wikt:გ|გ]] || [[wikt:დ|დ]] || [[wikt:ე|ე]] || [[wikt:ვ|ვ]] || [[wikt:ზ|ზ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ბ|ბ]]
| [[wikt:თ|თ]] || [[wikt:ი|ი]] || [[wikt:კ|კ]] || [[wikt:ლ|ლ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:გ|გ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:დ|დ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ე|ე]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ვ|ვ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ზ|ზ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:თ|თ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ი|ი]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:კ|კ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ლ|ლ]]
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:240%;"
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:240%;"
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:მ|მ]]
| [[wikt:მ|მ]] || [[wikt:ნ|ნ]] || [[wikt:ო|ო]] || [[wikt:პ|პ]] || [[wikt:ჟ|ჟ]] || [[wikt:რ|რ]] || [[wikt:ს|ს]] || [[wikt:ტ|ტ]]
| [[wikt:უ|უ]] || [[wikt:ფ|ფ]] || [[wikt:ქ|ქ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ნ|ნ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ო|ო]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:პ|პ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ჟ|ჟ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:რ|რ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ს|ს]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ტ|ტ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:უ|უ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ფ|ფ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ქ|ქ]]
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:240%;"
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:240%;"
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ღ|ღ]]
| [[wikt:ღ|ღ]] || [[wikt:ყ|ყ]] || [[wikt:შ|შ]] || [[wikt:ჩ|ჩ]] || [[wikt:ც|ც]] || [[wikt:ძ|ძ]] || [[wikt:წ|წ]] || [[wikt:ჭ|ჭ]] || [[wikt:ხ|ხ]] || [[wikt:ჯ|ჯ]] || [[wikt:ჰ|ჰ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ყ|ყ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:შ|შ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ჩ|ჩ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ც|ც]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ძ|ძ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:წ|წ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ჭ|ჭ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ხ|ხ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ჯ|ჯ]]
|bgcolor="#c8ff92"| [[wikt:ჰ|ჰ]]
|}
|}


===Other forms of some Mkhedruli letters===
===Other forms of some Mkhedruli letters===
{| class="toccolours" style="margin: 0em 0em 0em 0em; clear: left;"
|-
| [[File:Georgian letters (other forms).png|left|280px|]]
|-
|
Some Mkhedruli letters have alternative written forms:
Some Mkhedruli letters have alternative written forms:
⚫
*Different written form of letter <span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:დ|დ]]</span>


*Different written form of letter <span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:ლ|ლ]]</span>
[[File:დ (other form).png|40px]] different written form of letter <span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:დ|დ]]</span>


*Different written form of letter <span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:ჯ|ჯ]]</span>
[[File:ლ (other form).png|40px]] different written form of letter <span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:ლ|ლ]]</span>


*Different written form of letter <span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:რ|რ]]</span>
[[File:ჯ (other form).png|40px]] different written form of letter <span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:ჯ|ჯ]]</span>


*Different written form of letter <span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:ო|ო]]</span>
[[File:რ (other form).png|40px]] different written form of letter <span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:რ|რ]]</span>


*Different written form of letter <span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:წ|წ]]</span>
[[File:ო (other form).png|40px]] different written form of letter <span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:ო|ო]]</span>

⚫
|}
⚫
[[File:წ (other form).png|40px]] different written form of letter <span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:წ|წ]]</span>


=== Obsolete Mkhedruli letters===
=== Obsolete Mkhedruli letters===
{|border="1" class="wikitable" style="line-height:1.2;width:25em;"
{|border="1" class="wikitable" style="line-height:1.2;width:25em;"
|-
|-
!colspan="15"| obsolete ''Mkhedruli'' letters <br/>formerly used in [[Georgian language]]
!colspan="15"| Obsolete ''Mkhedruli'' letters <br/>formerly used in [[Georgian language]]
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:240%;"
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:240%;"
|bgcolor="#ffaaaa"| [[wikt:ჱ|ჱ]]
|bgcolor="#ffaaaa"| [[wikt:ჱ|ჱ]]
Line 232: Line 264:
The [[Society for the Spreading of Literacy Among Georgians]] founded by Prince [[Ilia Chavchavadze]] in 1879 discarded 5 letters which were either dropped entirely or replaced by the sounds they had become.
The [[Society for the Spreading of Literacy Among Georgians]] founded by Prince [[Ilia Chavchavadze]] in 1879 discarded 5 letters which were either dropped entirely or replaced by the sounds they had become.


*[[wikt:ჱ|ჱ]] (''he''), sometimes called "''ei''" or "''e-merve''" ("eighth ''e''"). As in Ancient Greek ([[Eta|Ήτα]], ''ēta''), it holds the eighth place in the Georgian alphabet. The name and shapes of the letter in ''Asomtavruli'' (Ⴡ) and ''Nuskhuri'' (ⴡ) also resemble Greek's tack-shaped archaic consonantal ''heta''. In old Georgian, ''he'' was interchangeable with the [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] (ეჲ). It represented {{IPA|[ei]}} or {{IPA|[ej]}}.
*<span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:ჱ|ჱ]]</span> (''he''), sometimes called "''ei''" or "''e-merve''" ("eighth ''e''"). As in Ancient Greek ([[Eta|Ήτα]], ''ēta''), it holds the eighth place in the Georgian alphabet. The name and shapes of the letter in ''Asomtavruli'' (Ⴡ) and ''Nuskhuri'' (ⴡ) also resemble Greek's tack-shaped archaic consonantal ''heta''. In old Georgian, ''he'' was interchangeable with the [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] (ეჲ). It represented {{IPA|[ei]}} or {{IPA|[ej]}}.
*[[wikt:ჲ|ჲ]] (''hie''), also called ''iot'a'', often marked [[Georgian grammar|Georgian nouns]] in the [[nominative case]]. In Old Georgian, it represented {{IPA|[i]}} or {{IPA|[j]}}.
*<span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:ჲ|ჲ]]</span> (''hie''), also called ''iot'a'', often marked [[Georgian grammar|Georgian nouns]] in the [[nominative case]]. In Old Georgian, it represented {{IPA|[i]}} or {{IPA|[j]}}.
*[[wikt:ჳ|ჳ]] (''vie'') represented the diphthong {{IPA|[ui]}} or {{IPA|[uj]}}. It holds the same position and numerical value as Ancient Greek's [[Upsilon|Υυ]] ''upsilon'', which its ''Asomtavruli'' (Ⴣ) and ''Nuskhuri'' (ⴣ) versions resemble. Its modern pronunciation is usually like (უ) {{IPA|[u]}} or (ი) {{IPA|[i]}}.
*<span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:ჳ|ჳ]]</span> (''vie'') represented the diphthong {{IPA|[ui]}} or {{IPA|[uj]}}. It holds the same position and numerical value as Ancient Greek's [[Upsilon|Υυ]] ''upsilon'', which its ''Asomtavruli'' (Ⴣ) and ''Nuskhuri'' (ⴣ) versions resemble. Its modern pronunciation is usually like (უ) {{IPA|[u]}} or (ი) {{IPA|[i]}}.
*[[wikt:ჴ|ჴ]] (''qar'', ''har'') represented {{IPA|[q]}} or {{IPA|[qʰ]}}, the non-ejective counterpart to (ყ) (''q'ar'') above. Although this consonant is still distinguished in [[Svan language|Svan]], its modern pronunciation in Georgian is identical to (ხ) {{IPA|[χ]}}.
*<span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:ჴ|ჴ]]</span> (''qar'', ''har'') represented {{IPA|[q]}} or {{IPA|[qʰ]}}, the non-ejective counterpart to (ყ) (''q'ar'') above. Although this consonant is still distinguished in [[Svan language|Svan]], its modern pronunciation in Georgian is identical to (ხ) {{IPA|[χ]}}.
*[[wikt:ჵ|ჵ]] (''hoe''), also called ''oh'', represented a long (ო), {{IPA|[oː]}}.
*<span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:ჵ|ჵ]]</span> (''hoe''), also called ''oh'', represented a long (ო), {{IPA|[oː]}}.


=== Additional Mkhedruli letters===
=== Additional Mkhedruli letters===
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| უ̌
| უ̌
|}
|}
*[[wikt:ჶ|ჶ]] (''fi'') was borrowed to represent the phoneme {{IPA|/f/}} in loanwords from Latin and Greek such as ჶილოსოჶია (''filosofia'', '[[philosophy]]'). Its name and shape derive from Greek. Its modern usage is a feature of [[Ossetian language|Ossetian]] and [[Laz language|Laz]] when written in the Georgian alphabet. In modern Georgian, (ფ) ''par'' replaces ''fi''.
*<span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:ჶ|ჶ]]</span> (''fi'') was borrowed to represent the phoneme {{IPA|/f/}} in loanwords from Latin and Greek such as ჶილოსოჶია (''filosofia'', '[[philosophy]]'). Its name and shape derive from Greek. Its modern usage is a feature of [[Ossetian language|Ossetian]] and [[Laz language|Laz]] when written in the Georgian alphabet. In modern Georgian, (ფ) ''par'' replaces ''fi''.
*[[wikt:ჷ|ჷ]] (''shva''), also called ''yn'', represents the [[mid central vowel]] {{IPA|[ə]}}. It appears in written [[Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]], [[Laz language|Laz]] and [[Svan language|Svan]].
*<span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:ჷ|ჷ]]</span> (''shva''), also called ''yn'', represents the [[mid central vowel]] {{IPA|[ə]}}. It appears in written [[Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]], [[Laz language|Laz]] and [[Svan language|Svan]].
*[[wikt:ჸ|ჸ]] (''elifi'') represents the glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}}. Its name and pronunciation derive from [[Aramaic]]. It is used in written [[Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]] and rarely in [[Laz language|Laz]].
*<span style="font-size:170%;">[[wikt:ჸ|ჸ]]</span> (''elifi'') represents the glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}}. Its name and pronunciation derive from [[Aramaic]]. It is used in written [[Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]] and rarely in [[Laz language|Laz]].
*უ̌ (''un-brjgu'') represented a short {{IPA|[u]}} in [[Old Georgian]]. It is still differentiated in [[Svan language|Svan]], [[Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]] and [[Laz language|Laz]]. In modern Georgian, it becomes (ვ) ''vin''.
*<span style="font-size:170%;">უ̌ </span>(''un-brjgu'') represented a short {{IPA|[u]}} in [[Old Georgian]]. It is still differentiated in [[Svan language|Svan]], [[Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]] and [[Laz language|Laz]]. In modern Georgian, it becomes (ვ) ''vin''.


=== Writing order and direction of Mkhedruli ===
=== Writing order and direction of Mkhedruli ===
The following table shows the method for writing of each Georgian Mkhedruli letter and the arrows indicate their written direction respectively.
The following table shows the method for writing of each Georgian Mkhedruli letter and the arrows indicate their written direction respectively.


[[File:მხედრულით წერის მიმართულება.png|450px|center]]
[[File:მხედრულით წერის მიმართულება.png|750px|center]]


== Ligatures, abbreviations and calligraphy ==
== Ligatures, abbreviations and calligraphy ==
Line 268: Line 300:
Asomtavruli is often highly stylized and writers readily formed [[Typographic ligature|ligatures]], intertwined letters, and placed letters within letters.
Asomtavruli is often highly stylized and writers readily formed [[Typographic ligature|ligatures]], intertwined letters, and placed letters within letters.


<center>[[Image:Ligatura-G+N2.jpg|60px]] → [[Image:Ligatura-G+N.jpg|60px]]<br/>
<center>[[File:გნ Asomtavruli.png|60px]]<br/>
<small>Initials of King [[Vakhtang I of Iberia]], გ (g) and ნ (n) form a [[Typographic ligature|ligature]] in Asomtavruli.</small><ref>[[Pavle Ingorokva|Ingorokva, Pavle]] [http://www.amsi.ge/istoria/pi/damcerlobis_Zegli.pdf ქართული დამწერლობის ძეგლები ანტიკური ხანისა (The monuments of ancient Georgian script)]</ref></center>
<small>Initials of King [[Vakhtang I of Iberia]], გ (g) and ნ (n) form a [[Typographic ligature|ligature]] in Asomtavruli.</small><ref>[[Pavle Ingorokva|Ingorokva, Pavle]] [http://www.amsi.ge/istoria/pi/damcerlobis_Zegli.pdf ქართული დამწერლობის ძეგლები ანტიკური ხანისა (The monuments of ancient Georgian script)]</ref></center>


<center>[[Image:Ligatura-da2.jpg|85px]] → [[Image:Ligatura-da.jpg|60px]]<br/>
<center>[[File:და in Asomtavruli.png|70px]]<br/>
<small>The word და (da) meaning "[[Conjunction (grammar)|and]]" written in Asomtavruli.</small></center>
<small>The word და (da) meaning "[[Conjunction (grammar)|and]]" written in Asomtavruli.</small></center>


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Mkhedruli, in the 11th to 17th centuries also came to employ digraphs to the point that they were obligatory, requiring adhesion to a complex system.
Mkhedruli, in the 11th to 17th centuries also came to employ digraphs to the point that they were obligatory, requiring adhesion to a complex system.
<center>[[Image:Mkhedruli-da.jpg|60px]]<br/>
<center>[[File:და.png|60px]]<br/>
<small>The word და (da) meaning "[[Conjunction (grammar)|and]]" written in Mkhedruli.</small></center>
<small>The word და (da) meaning "[[Conjunction (grammar)|and]]" written in Mkhedruli.</small></center>


Revision as of 14:53, 2 January 2014

Georgian alphabet
Script type
Time period
430[1] to present
DirectionLeft-to-right Edit this on Wikidata
LanguagesGeorgian and other Kartvelian languages
Related scripts
Parent systems
modeled on Greek
  • Georgian alphabet
Sister systems
Latin
Coptic
Armenian
Cyrillic
ISO 15924
ISO 15924Geor (240), ​Georgian (Mkhedruli and Mtavruli) Geok (241, Georgian scripts#Nuskhuri)
Unicode
Unicode alias
Georgian
U+10A0–U+10FF,
U+2D00–U+2D2F
 This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

Template:Contains Georgian text Template:World writing systems

The Georgian script is a graphically independent and unique alphabetic writing system used to write the Georgian language. It is a phonemic orthography and the current alphabet has 33 letters.

The Georgian script can also be used to write other Kartvelian languages (Mingrelian, Svan, sometimes Laz), and occasionally other languages of the Caucasus such as Ossetian and Abkhaz during the 1940s.[2] Historically Ingush,[3] Chechen[4] and Avar languages[5][6] were written in the Georgian script, later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times.

The Georgian word ანბანი (anbani) meaning "alphabet" is derived from the names of the first two letters of the three Georgian alphabets, which, although they look very different from one another, share the same alphabetic order and letter names. The alphabets can be seen mixed in some context, although Georgian is formally unicameral meaning there is normally no distinction between upper and lower case in any of the alphabets.

Origins

The oldest Georgian inscription in Bethlehem, 430 AD.
The second oldest Georgian inscription in Bolnisi Sioni, 494 AD.

The origins of the Georgian alphabet are poorly known, and no full agreement exists among Georgian and foreign scholars as to its date of creation, who designed the script, and the main influences on that process. The oldest uncontested example of Georgian writing is an inscription in the Asomtavruli script dated 430 AD, in a church in Bethlehem, Palestine. The oldest example of the script being used in Georgia is found in the church of Bolnisi Sioni, dated 494 AD.[7][8]

The scholarly consensus points to the Georgian alphabet being created in the 4th century AD,[9] or at the latest in the early 5th century.[7] The first version of the alphabet attested is the Asomtavruli script; the other scripts were formed in the following centuries. Most scholars link the creation of the Georgian alphabet to the process of christianisation of the Georgian-speaking lands, that is Lazica (or Colchis) in the west, Kartli (or Iberia) in the east.[8] The alphabet was therefore most probably created between the conversion of Iberia under Mirian III (326 or 337) and the Bethlehem inscription of 430. It was first used for translation of the Bible and other Christian literature into Georgian, by monks in Georgia and Palestine.[10]

A point of contention among scholars is the role played by Armenian clerics in that process. Armenian tradition holds Mesrop Mashtots, generally acknowledged as the creator of the Armenian alphabet, to have also created the Georgian and Caucasian Albanian alphabets. This tradition originates in the works of Koryun, a fifth century historian and biographer of Mashtots,[11] and has been widely quoted in Western sources,[12][13] but has been criticized by scholars, both Georgian[14] and Western,[10] who judge the passage in Koryun unreliable or even a later interpolation. Other scholars quote Koryun's claims without taking a stance on its validity.[15][16] Many agree, however, that Armenian clerics, if not Mashtots himself, must have played a role in the creation of the Georgian script.[9][17]

A competing Georgian tradition, first attested in medieval chronicles such as the Lives of the Kings of Kartli (ca. 800),[10] assigns a much earlier, pre-Christian origin to the Georgian alphabet, and names King Pharnavaz I (3rd century BC) as its inventor. This account is now considered legendary, and is rejected by scholarly consensus, as no archaelogical confirmation has been found.[12][9][10] Georgian linguist Tamaz Gamkrelidze offers an alternate interpretation of the tradition, in the pre-Christian use of foreign scripts (alloglotography in the Aramaic alphabet) to write down Georgian texts.[18]

Another scientific controversy regards the main influences at play in the Georgian alphabet, as scholars have debated whether it was inspired more by the Greek alphabet, or by Semitic writing systems such as Aramaic.[18] Recent historiography focuses on greater similarities with the Greek alphabet than in the other Caucasian writing systems, most notably the order and numeric value of letters.[10][19] Some scholars have also suggested as a possible inspiration for particular letters certain pre-Christian Georgian cultural symbols or clan markers.[7]

Asomtavruli

Manuscript in Asomtavruli, 10th century.
Coin of King George IV of Georgia
in Asomtavruli, 1210 AD.

Asomtavruli (Georgian: ასომთავრული) is a first and oldest script of the Georgian alphabet. Asomtavruli, literally meaning the "capital letters" derives from aso (ასო) meaning "letter" and mtavari (მთავარი) meaning "main, principal or head". It is also known as Mrgvlovani (Georgian: მრგვლოვანი) named because of its round shapes as the word mrgvali (მრგვალი) means "round". Despite its common Georgian name, this rounded alphabet is originally purely unicameral, just like the modern Georgian alphabet, Mkhedruli.

The oldest inscriptions in Asomtavruli are found from the 5th century. So far, the inscriptions found in Bethlehem[20] and the Bolnisi Sioni Cathedral[21] are the oldest ones written in the Asomtavruli script of the Georgian alphabet.

In the 9th century, Nuskhuri script gradually gets more dominant and the role of Asomtavruli is reduced in writing, although it still retains some value. In particular, the Georgian epigraphic monuments of the 10th to 18th centuries are still written in Asomtavruli script. Graphical features of Asomtavruli in the later period is characterized by acquiring more decorative purposes too. The 9th-century Georgian manuscripts, majority of which is written in the Nuskhuri script, Asomtavruli is used only for the titles and as the capital letters.[22] Although, some manuscripts written completely in Asomtavruli can be found till the 11th century.[23]

Graphics of Asomtavruli

In early Asomtavruli, the letters have the equal height and are placed in two-linear system. The writing direction is from left to the right and no other direction has been confirmed in any way in any of the inscriptions or the manuscripts. However, despite this, the Georgian historian and philologist Pavle Ingorokva believes that the Georgian alphabet like the Greek alphabet initially used the boustrophedon writing system.[24]

Letters of Asomtavruli are constructed with geometric graphic elements like straight lines of different length, circumferences and half-circle lines of different radius. It is always the right angles from where the graphical elements of the Asomtavruli letters are connected.

The only letter of Asomtavruli which violates the rule of connection of graphical elements at the right angle is the letter ჯ (jani), the constituent elements of which are cross-linked by straight lines with its sharp corners. This exception is explained by various scientists. According to Helen Machavariani, the outline and contour of letter ჯ (jani) is the initials of Jesus Christ resulted through the crosswise intersection of letters ი (ini) and ქ (kani) and represents the monogram of Jesus. According to Ramaz Pataridze the cross-like shape of letter ჯ (jani) indicates the end of the alphabet and has the same function as the similar-shaped Phoenician Taw , Greek Chi Χ and the Latin X.[25]

From the 7th century, the graphics of some Asomtavruli letters begin to change. In particular, in seven letters of ბ (bani), ჟ (zhani), ჳ (vie), ყ (qari), შ (shini), წ (tsili) and ჭ (chari) the closed circumference becomes more simple and an open arc takes its place from one side. Asomtavruli letter დ (doni) which is represented in the early monuments without the throat, then on the upper horizontal line the circle gets a smaller throat . The equal heights of the letters get violated, some letters become more long and thus can no longer be placed in the two-linear system.[26][27]

Decorative Asomtavruli

Asomtavruli capital letter მ (mani), 12th century.

In the Nuskhuri written manuscripts, Asomtavruli is found mainly in the form of titles and capital letters. Capital letters of Asomtavruli were written in the beginnings of the paragraphs which created an orientation for the readers. In the early stages of the development of the books they were not painted and it was distinguished only with large size in the text, sometimes with the color and such capital letters are often performed with cinnabar.

Later from the 10th century, painting of capital letters occurs, resulting in an important place in the ornamental decoration of the manuscripts of the Georgian books and the miniatures. Often the Asomtavruli capital letters with the beautifully written text identifies the style of the specific era. For example the Georgian manuscripts of the Byzantine era in the period of the Byzantine-Georgian relations, the art of the Asomtavruli capital letters is enriched with the images of birds and animals.[28]

From the 11th century "limb-flowery", "limb-arrowy" and "limb-spoty" decorative forms of Asomtavruli are developed. The first two are found in 11th- and 12th-century monuments, while the third one is used till the 18th century.[29][30]

The "Curly" decorative form of Asomtavruli is also used where the letters are wattled or intermingled on each other, or the smaller letters are written inside other letters. It was mostly used for the headlines of the manuscripts or the books, although there are compete inscriptions which were written in the Asomtavruli "Curly" form only.[31]


The title of Gospel of Matthew in Asomtavruli "Curly" decorative form.

Asomtavruli letters

Asomtavruli letters
Ⴀ || Ⴁ || Ⴂ || Ⴃ || Ⴄ || Ⴅ ||

Ⴆ

Ⴡ

Ⴇ || Ⴈ || Ⴉ || Ⴊ || Ⴋ ||

Ⴌ

Ⴢ

Ⴍ || Ⴎ || Ⴏ || Ⴐ || Ⴑ ||

Ⴒ

Ⴣ

ႭჃ, Ⴓ || Ⴔ || Ⴕ || Ⴖ || Ⴗ ||

Ⴘ

Ⴙ || Ⴚ || Ⴛ || Ⴜ || Ⴝ ||

Ⴞ

Ⴤ

Ⴟ ||

Ⴠ

Ⴥ

 
Some fonts for modern Georgian do not show the actual Asomtavruli forms for these letters, but instead show taller ("capitalized") variants of the modern Mkhedruli alphabet. You may also see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Asomtavruli letters as some systems do not show the actual Asomtavruli forms for these letters.

Nuskhuri

Nuskhuri of Ioane-Zosime, 979 AD.
Manuscript in Nuskhuri, 13th century

Nuskhuri (Georgian: ნუსხური) is a second script of the Georgian alphabet. Nuskhuri comes from the word nuskha (ნუსხა) which means "inventory or schedule". Nuskhuri is initially purely unicameral. Nuskhuri is often referred as Khutsuri (Georgian: ხუცური), as Nuskhuri being used along with Asomtavruli for the religious manuscripts it became an "ecclesiastical" alphabet mostly used in hagiography.[32]

Nuskhuri first appears in the 9th century. The oldest inscription in Nuskhuri is found in the Ateni Sioni Church which date back to 835 AD. Nuskhuri first appears in the manuscripts from 864 AD. Nuskhuri script gets more dominant over Asomtavruli from the 10th century.

In Nuskhuri-written manuscripts the titles and the capital letters are always written in Asomtavruli.

The forms of Nuskhuri letters may have been derived from the northern Arsacid variant of the Pahlavi script, which itself was derived from the older Aramaic, although the direction of writing which is left to right, the use of separate symbols for the vowel sounds, the numerical values assigned to the letters in earlier times, and the order of the letters all point to significant Greek influence on the script. However, the Georgian linguist Tamaz Gamkrelidze argues that the forms of the letters are freely invented in imitation of the Greek model rather than directly based upon earlier forms of the Aramaic alphabet, even though the Georgian phonological inventory is very different from Greek.

Graphics of Nuskhuri

In Nuskhuri, the letters are written in the four-linear system and they vary in height. Characteristic feature of Nuskhuri is the deviation of its letters to the right. In general, body of each letter is deviated, but the inclination is strengthened in those letters, which have the upper or lower limbs. Nuskhuri letters have the angular shape. In Nuskhuri the tendency to simplify the contour of its letters can be noticed when in Asomtavruli it is more strict. In Nuskhuri, the letters are created in a single outline. One of the reasons of formation of Nuskhuri was the need of quick writing.

→ →
Asomtavruli letters ო (oni) and ჳ (vie), with mixing of these letters in Nuskhuri resulted in creation of a new letter უ (uni)

Nuskhuri letters

Nuskhuri letters
ⴀ ⴁ ⴂ ⴃ ⴄ ⴅ ⴆ

ⴡ

ⴇ ⴈ ⴉ ⴊ ⴋ ⴌ

ⴢ

ⴍ ⴎ ⴏ ⴐ ⴑ ⴒ

ⴣ

ⴍⴣ, ⴓ ⴔ ⴕ ⴖ ⴗ ⴘ
ⴙ ⴚ ⴛ ⴜ ⴝ ⴞ

ⴤ

ⴟ ⴠ

ⴥ

You may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Nuskhuri letters as some systems do not show the actual Nuskhuri forms for these letters.

Usage of Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri today

Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri alphabets are still used today in some section headings and book titles, and sometimes used in a pseudo-bicameral way by varying the glyph sizes for creating capitals. Since they are no longer universally used for writing Georgian, they've also been reused in a creative way for writing capital letters, along with letters of the Mkhedruli alphabet. Georgian linguist Akaki Shanidze made an attempt in the 1950s to reintroduce Asomtavruli into modern Georgian writing as capital letters, but it didn't catch on[33] and failed to gain popularity.[34]

Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are officially used by the Georgian Orthodox Church alongside with the Mkhedruli alphabet.

Patriarch Ilia II of Georgia also called to use all 3 Georgian scripts.[35]

Mkhedruli

Coin of Queen Tamar of Georgia
in Mkhedruli, 1187 AD.
Royal charter of King Vakhtang VI of Kartli
in Mkhedruli, 1712 AD.

Mkhedruli (Georgian: მხედრული) is a third and current script of the Georgian alphabet. Mkhedruli, literally meaning the "cavalry" or "military" derives from mkhedari (მხედარი) meaning "horseman", "knight" and "warrior". Like the two other alphabets, Mkhedruli alphabet is also purely unicameral.

Mkhedruli first appears in the 10th century. The oldest Mkhedruli inscription is found in Ateni Sioni Church dating back to 982 AD. The second oldest Mkhedruli-written text is found in the 11th-century royal charters of King Bagrat IV of Georgia. Mkhedruli was mostly used then for the historical documents, manuscripts and inscriptions. Mkhedruli was used for non-religious purposes only.

Mkhedruli was becoming more and more dominant over the two other Georgian alphabets, even though Nuskhuri was still used till the 19th century, it completely replaced Nuskhuri. Since the 19th century, with the establishment and development of the printed Georgian fonts, Mkhedruli became widespread and universal for writing Georgian language.

Graphics of Mkhedruli

Mkhedruli inscriptions of the 10th and 11th centuries are characterized in rounding of angular shapes of Nuskhuri letters and making the complete outlines in all of its letters. Mkhedruli letters are written in the four-linear system, similar to Nuskhuri. Mkhedruli becomes more round and free in writing. It breaks the strict frame of the previous two alphabets, Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri. Mkhedruli letters begin to get coupled and more free calligraphy develops.


Example of one of the oldest Mkhedruli-written texts found in the royal charter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia, 11th century.

"Gurgen : King : of Kings : great-grandfather : of mine : Bagrat Curopalates"

Mkhedruli letters

Mkhedruli letters
ა ბ გ დ ე ვ ზ თ ი კ ლ
მ ნ ო პ ჟ რ ს ტ უ ფ ქ
ღ ყ შ ჩ ც ძ წ ჭ ხ ჯ ჰ

Other forms of some Mkhedruli letters

Some Mkhedruli letters have alternative written forms:

different written form of letter დ

different written form of letter ლ

different written form of letter ჯ

different written form of letter რ

different written form of letter ო

different written form of letter წ

Obsolete Mkhedruli letters

Obsolete Mkhedruli letters
formerly used in Georgian language
ჱ ჲ ჳ ჴ ჵ

The Society for the Spreading of Literacy Among Georgians founded by Prince Ilia Chavchavadze in 1879 discarded 5 letters which were either dropped entirely or replaced by the sounds they had become.

  • ჱ (he), sometimes called "ei" or "e-merve" ("eighth e"). As in Ancient Greek (Ήτα, ēta), it holds the eighth place in the Georgian alphabet. The name and shapes of the letter in Asomtavruli (Ⴡ) and Nuskhuri (ⴡ) also resemble Greek's tack-shaped archaic consonantal heta. In old Georgian, he was interchangeable with the digraph (ეჲ). It represented [ei] or [ej].
  • ჲ (hie), also called iot'a, often marked Georgian nouns in the nominative case. In Old Georgian, it represented [i] or [j].
  • ჳ (vie) represented the diphthong [ui] or [uj]. It holds the same position and numerical value as Ancient Greek's Υυ upsilon, which its Asomtavruli (Ⴣ) and Nuskhuri (ⴣ) versions resemble. Its modern pronunciation is usually like (უ) [u] or (ი) [i].
  • ჴ (qar, har) represented [q] or [qʰ], the non-ejective counterpart to (ყ) (q'ar) above. Although this consonant is still distinguished in Svan, its modern pronunciation in Georgian is identical to (ხ) [χ].
  • ჵ (hoe), also called oh, represented a long (ო), [oː].

Additional Mkhedruli letters

Additional Mkhedruli letters
that are used in Kartvelian languages
ჶ ჷ ჸ უ̌
  • ჶ (fi) was borrowed to represent the phoneme /f/ in loanwords from Latin and Greek such as ჶილოსოჶია (filosofia, 'philosophy'). Its name and shape derive from Greek. Its modern usage is a feature of Ossetian and Laz when written in the Georgian alphabet. In modern Georgian, (ფ) par replaces fi.
  • ჷ (shva), also called yn, represents the mid central vowel [ə]. It appears in written Mingrelian, Laz and Svan.
  • ჸ (elifi) represents the glottal stop [ʔ]. Its name and pronunciation derive from Aramaic. It is used in written Mingrelian and rarely in Laz.
  • უ̌ (un-brjgu) represented a short [u] in Old Georgian. It is still differentiated in Svan, Mingrelian and Laz. In modern Georgian, it becomes (ვ) vin.

Writing order and direction of Mkhedruli

The following table shows the method for writing of each Georgian Mkhedruli letter and the arrows indicate their written direction respectively.

Ligatures, abbreviations and calligraphy

The Georgian letter
ღ is often used as
a heart symbol
while communicating
online.
Part of a series on
Calligraphy
By culture

Asomtavruli is often highly stylized and writers readily formed ligatures, intertwined letters, and placed letters within letters.


Initials of King Vakhtang I of Iberia, გ (g) and ნ (n) form a ligature in Asomtavruli.[36]

The word და (da) meaning "and" written in Asomtavruli.

Nuskhuri, like Asomtavruli is also often highly stylized. Writers readily formed ligatures and abbreviations for nomina sacra, including diacritics called karagma, which resemble titla. Because writing materials such as vellum were scarce and therefore precious, abbreviating was a practical measure widespread in manuscripts and hagiography by the 11th century.[37]


The word რომელი (romeli) meaning "which" written in Nuskhuri.

The word იესო ქრისტე (ieso kriste) meaning "Jesus Christ" written in Nuskhuri.

Mkhedruli, in the 11th to 17th centuries also came to employ digraphs to the point that they were obligatory, requiring adhesion to a complex system.


The word და (da) meaning "and" written in Mkhedruli.

Punctuation

In Old Georgian punctuation system dots were used for division of the sentences. In the monuments and manuscripts of 5th to 10th centuries marks like -, = and =- were also used. In the 10th century, a new rule appears in Georgian punctuation, a rule of writing with one (.), two (:), three (:.) and six (:.:.) dots.

Georgian symbol (჻) was used as the paragraph separator and punctuation.

Starting in the 11th century an apostrophe and comma is used in Georgian. From the 12th century a semicolon appears as well.

Patriarch Anton I of Georgia also created the new system for the Georgian punctuation. He divided the sentences into complete, non-complete and ending parts and in these sentences one and two dots were used.[38]

For the most part, Georgian uses the same punctuation as is used with the Latin script.

Summary

Georgian letter ვ (v) is on the Logo of Wikipedia.
File:Alphabet tower batumi georgia.JPG
Georgian Alphabet Tower at night in the Georgian resort city of Batumi.

This table lists the three alphabets in parallel columns, including the letters that are now obsolete (shown with a blue background). "National" is the transliteration system used by the Georgian government, while "Laz" is the system used in northeastern Turkey for the Laz language. The table also shows the traditional numeric values of the letters.[39]

Letters Unicode
(mkhedruli) 		Name IPA Transcriptions Numeric
value
asomtavruli nuskhuri mkhedruli National ISO 9984 BGN Laz
Ⴀ ⴀ ა U+10D0 an /ɑ/ A a A a A a A a 1
Ⴁ ⴁ ბ U+10D1 ban b B b B b B b B b 2
Ⴂ ⴂ გ U+10D2 gan ɡ G g G g G g G g 3
Ⴃ ⴃ დ U+10D3 don d D d D d D d D d 4
Ⴄ ⴄ ე U+10D4 en ɛ E e E e E e E e 5
Ⴅ ⴅ ვ U+10D5 vin v V v V v V v V v 6
Ⴆ ⴆ ზ U+10D6 zen z Z z Z z Z z Z z 7
Ⴡ ⴡ ჱ U+10F1 he Error using {{IPA symbol}}: "eɪ" not found in list - - - - 8
Ⴇ ⴇ თ U+10D7 tan tʰ T t T' t' T' t' T t 9
Ⴈ ⴈ ი U+10D8 in i I i I i I i I i 10
Ⴉ ⴉ კ U+10D9 k'an kʼ K' k' K k K k K' k' 20
Ⴊ ⴊ ლ U+10DA las l L l L l L l L l 30
Ⴋ ⴋ მ U+10DB man m M m M m M m M m 40
Ⴌ ⴌ ნ U+10DC nar n N n N n N n N n 50
Ⴢ ⴢ ჲ U+10F2 hie i, j - - - - 60
Ⴍ ⴍ ო U+10DD on ɔ O o O o O o O o 70
Ⴎ ⴎ პ U+10DE p'ar pʼ P' p' P p P p P' p' 80
Ⴏ ⴏ ჟ U+10DF zhan ʒ Zh zh Ž ž Zh zh J j 90
Ⴐ ⴐ რ U+10E0 rae r R r R r R r R r 100
Ⴑ ⴑ ს U+10E1 san s S s S s S s S s 200
Ⴒ ⴒ ტ U+10E2 t'ar tʼ T' t' T t T t T' t' 300
Ⴣ ⴣ ჳ U+10F3 vie /uɪ/ - - - - 400*
Ⴓ ⴓ უ U+10E3 un u U u U u U u U u 400*
Ⴔ ⴔ ფ U+10E4 par pʰ P p P' p' P' p' P p 500
Ⴕ ⴕ ქ U+10E5 kan kʰ K k K' k' K' k' K k 600
Ⴖ ⴖ ღ U+10E6 ghan ɣ Gh gh

Ḡ ḡ || Gh gh || Ğ ğ || 700

Ⴗ ⴗ ყ U+10E7 q'ar qʼ Q' q' Q q Q q Q q 800
Ⴘ ⴘ შ U+10E8 shin ʃ Sh sh Š š Sh sh Ş ş 900
Ⴙ ⴙ ჩ U+10E9 chin tʃ[40] Ch ch Č' č' Ch' ch' Ç ç 1000
Ⴚ ⴚ ც U+10EA tsan ts[40] Ts ts C' c' Ts' ts' Ts ts 2000
Ⴛ ⴛ ძ U+10EB dzil dz Dz dz J j Dz dz Ž ž 3000
Ⴜ ⴜ წ U+10EC ts'il tsʼ Ts' ts' C c Ts ts Ts' ts' 4000
Ⴝ ⴝ ჭ U+10ED ch'ar tʃʼ Ch' ch' Č č Ch ch Ç' ç' 5000
Ⴞ ⴞ ხ U+10EE khan x Kh kh X x Kh kh X x 6000
Ⴤ ⴤ ჴ U+10F4 qar, har q, qʰ - - - - 7000
Ⴟ ⴟ ჯ U+10EF jan dʒ J j J̌ ǰ J j C c 8000
Ⴠ ⴠ ჰ U+10F0 hae h H h H h H h H h 9000
Ⴥ ⴥ ჵ U+10F5 hoe oː - - - - 10000
(none) (none) ჶ U+10F6 fi f ? ? ? ? (none)

* ჳ and უ have the same numeric value (400).

Unicode

The first Georgian script was added to the Unicode Standard in October, 1991 with the release of version 1.0.

History

In Unicode version 1.0 the U+10A0 – U+10CF range of the Georgian block represented Khutsuri (Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri). With the release of version 4.1 in March, 2005 Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri were "disunified". The U+10A0 – U+10CF range of the Georgian block now represents Asomtavruli and the Georgian Supplement block represents Nuskhuri.

Blocks

The Unicode block for Georgian is U+10A0 – U+10FF. Mkhedruli (modern Georgian) occupies the U+10D0 – U+10FF range and Asomtavruli occupies the U+10A0 – U+10CF range.

The Unicode block for Georgian Supplement is U+2D00 – U+2D2F and it encodes Nuskhuri.

Georgian[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
U+10Ax Ⴀ Ⴁ Ⴂ Ⴃ Ⴄ Ⴅ Ⴆ Ⴇ Ⴈ Ⴉ Ⴊ Ⴋ Ⴌ Ⴍ Ⴎ Ⴏ
U+10Bx Ⴐ Ⴑ Ⴒ Ⴓ Ⴔ Ⴕ Ⴖ Ⴗ Ⴘ Ⴙ Ⴚ Ⴛ Ⴜ Ⴝ Ⴞ Ⴟ
U+10Cx Ⴠ Ⴡ Ⴢ Ⴣ Ⴤ Ⴥ Ⴧ Ⴭ
U+10Dx ა ბ გ დ ე ვ ზ თ ი კ ლ მ ნ ო პ ჟ
U+10Ex რ ს ტ უ ფ ქ ღ ყ შ ჩ ც ძ წ ჭ ხ ჯ
U+10Fx ჰ ჱ ჲ ჳ ჴ ჵ ჶ ჷ ჸ ჹ ჺ ჻ ჼ ჽ ჾ ჿ
Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 15.1
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points
Georgian Supplement[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
U+2D0x ⴀ ⴁ ⴂ ⴃ ⴄ ⴅ ⴆ ⴇ ⴈ ⴉ ⴊ ⴋ ⴌ ⴍ ⴎ ⴏ
U+2D1x ⴐ ⴑ ⴒ ⴓ ⴔ ⴕ ⴖ ⴗ ⴘ ⴙ ⴚ ⴛ ⴜ ⴝ ⴞ ⴟ
U+2D2x ⴠ ⴡ ⴢ ⴣ ⴤ ⴥ ⴧ ⴭ
Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 15.1
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

Keyboard layout

Main article: Georgian keyboard layout

Most keyboards in Georgia are fitted with both Latin and Georgian letters.

Below is the Georgian QWERTY keyboard. While Georgian has no capital letters, because it has 33 letters and English has only 26, using the shift key is necessary to write Georgian.

Gallery

Gallery of Asomtavruli, Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli alphabets.

Gallery of Asomtavruli

Gallery of Nuskhuri

  • Nuskhuri of 8th to 10th centuries
    Nuskhuri of 8th to 10th centuries
  • Nuskhuri of Tbeti
    Nuskhuri of Tbeti
  • Nuskhuri of the 11th century
    Nuskhuri of the 11th century
  • Nuskhuri of Mokvi
    Nuskhuri of Mokvi
  • Nuskhuri of Modrekili
    Nuskhuri of Modrekili
  • Nuskhuri of the 10th century
    Nuskhuri of the 10th century

Gallery of Mkhedruli

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Georgian scripts.

References

  1. ^ date of the oldest found Georgian inscription; not a date of creation
  2. ^ Georgian alphabet (Mkhedruli), Omniglot.com, retrieved 2009-04-22
  3. ^ Язык, история и культура вайнахов, И. Ю Алироев p85
  4. ^ Чеченский язык, И. Ю. Алироев, p24
  5. ^ Грузинско-дагестанские языковые контакты, Маджид Шарипович Халилов p29
  6. ^ История аварцев, М. Г Магомедов p150
  7. ^ a b c Harald Haarmann (2012). "Ethnic Conflict and standardisation in the Caucasus". In Matthias Hüning, Ulrike Vogl, Olivier Moliner (ed.). Standard Languages and Multilingualism in European History. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 299. ISBN 978-90-272-0055-6. Retrieved 19 September 2013.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  8. ^ a b B. G. Hewitt (1995). Georgian: A Structural Reference Grammar. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 4. ISBN 978-90-272-3802-3. Retrieved 19 September 2013.
  9. ^ a b c Stephen H. Rapp Jr (2010). "Georgian Christianity". In Ken Parry (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity. John Wiley & Sons. p. 139. ISBN 978-1-4443-3361-9. Retrieved 19 September 2013.
  10. ^ a b c d e Seibt, Werner. "The Creation of the Caucasian Alphabets as Phenomenon of Cultural History".
  11. ^ Koryun's Life of Mashtots
  12. ^ a b Donald Rayfield The Literature of Georgia: A History (Caucasus World). RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-7007-1163-5. P. 19. "The Georgian alphabet seems unlikely to have a pre-Christian origin, for the major archaeological monument of the 1st century 4IX the bilingual Armazi gravestone commemorating Serafua, daughter of the Georgian viceroy of Mtskheta, is inscribed in Greek and Aramaic only. It has been believed, and not only in Armenia, that all the Caucasian alphabets — Armenian, Georgian and Caucaso-Albanian — were invented in the 4th century by the Armenian scholar Mesrop Mashtots.<...> The Georgian chronicles The Life of Kartli - assert that a Georgian script was invented two centuries before Christ, an assertion unsupported by archaeology. There is a possibility that the Georgians, like many minor nations of the area, wrote in a foreign language — Persian, Aramaic, or Greek — and translated back as they read."
  13. ^ Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar. Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World. Harvard University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-674-51173-5. P. 289. James R. Russell. Alphabets. "Mastoc' was a charismatic visionary who accomplished his task at a time when Armenia stood in danger of losing both its national identity, through partition, and its newly acquired Christian faith, through Sassanian pressure and reversion to paganism. By preaching in Armenian, he was able to undermine and co-opt the discourse founded in native tradition, and to create a counterweight against both Byzantine and Syriac cultural hegemony in the church. Mastoc' also created the Georgian and Caucasian-Albanian alphabets, based on the Armenian model."
  14. ^ Georgian: ივ. ჯავახიშვილი, ქართული პალეოგრაფია, გვ. 205-208, 240-245
  15. ^ Robert W. Thomson. Rewriting Caucasian history: the medieval Armenian adaptation of the Georgian Chronicles : the original Georgian texts and the Armenian adaptation. Clarendon Press, Oxford. p. xxii-xxiii. ISBN 0198263732. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  16. ^ Stephen H. Rapp. Studies in medieval Georgian historiography: early texts and Eurasian contexts. Peeters Publishers, 2003. ISBN 90-429-1318-5. P. 450. "There is also the claim advanced by Koriwn in his saintly biography of Mashtoc' (Mesrop) that the Georgian script had been invented at the direction of Mashtoc'. Yet it is within the realm of possibility that this tradition, repeated by many later Armenian historians, may not have been part of the original fifth-century text at all but added after 607. Significantly, all of the extant MSS containing The Life of Mashtoc* were copied centuries after the split. Consequently, scribal manipulation reflecting post-schism (especially anti-Georgian) attitudes potentially contaminates all MSS copied after that time. It is therefore conceivable, though not yet proven, that valuable information about Georgia trans¬mitted by pre-schism Armenian texts was excised by later, post-schism individuals."
  17. ^ Greppin, John A.C.: Some comments on the origin of the Georgian alphabet. — Bazmavep 139, 1981, 449-456
  18. ^ a b Nino Kemertelidze (1999). "The Origin of Kartuli (Georgian) Writing (Alphabet)". In David Cram, Andrew R. Linn, Elke Nowak (ed.). History of Linguistics 1996: Volume 1: Traditions in Linguistics Worldwide. John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 228–. ISBN 978-90-272-8382-5. Retrieved 20 September 2013.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  19. ^ Mzekala Shanidze (2000). "Greek influence in Georgian linguistics". In Sylvain Auroux; et al. (eds.). History of the Language Sciences / Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaften / Histoire des sciences du langage. 1. Teilband. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 444–. ISBN 978-3-11-019400-5. Retrieved 20 September 2013. {{cite book}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |editor= (help)
  20. ^ ქსე, ტ. 7, თბ., 1984, გვ. 651-652
  21. ^ შანიძე ა., ქართული საბჭოთა ენციკლოპედია, ტ. 2, გვ. 454-455, თბ., 1977 წელი
  22. ^ კ. დანელია, ზ. სარჯველაძე, ქართული პალეოგრაფია, თბილისი, 1997, გვ. 218-219
  23. ^ ე. მაჭავარიანი, მწიგნობრობაჲ ქართული, თბილისი, 1989
  24. ^ პ. ინგოროყვა, „შოთა რუსთაველი“, „მნათობი“, 1966, № 3, გვ. 116
  25. ^ რ. პატარიძე, ქართული ასომთავრული, თბილისი, 1980, გვ. 151, 260-261
  26. ^ ივ. ჯავახიშვილი, ქართული დამწერლობათა-მცოდნეობა ანუ პალეოგრაფია, თბილისი, 1949, 185-187
  27. ^ ე. მაჭავარიანი, ქართული ანბანი, თბილისი, 1977, გვ. 5-6
  28. ^ ელენე მაჭავარიანი, ენციკლოპედია „ქართული ენა“, თბილისი, 2008, გვ. 403-404
  29. ^ ვ. სილოგავა, ენციკლოპედია „ქართული ენა“, თბილისი, 2008, გვ. 269-271
  30. ^ ივ. ჯავახიშვილი, ქართული დამწერლობათა-მცოდნეობა ანუ პალეოგრაფია, თბილისი, 1949, 124-126
  31. ^ ივ. ჯავახიშვილი, ქართული დამწერლობათა-მცოდნეობა ანუ პალეოგრაფია, თბილისი, 1949, 127-128
  32. ^ კ. დანელია, ზ. სარჯველაძე, ქართული პალეოგრაფია, თბილისი, 1997, გვ. 219
  33. ^ Gillam, Richard Unicode Demystified: A Practical Programmer's Guide to the Encoding Standard p.252
  34. ^ Julie D. Allen Unicode standard, version 5.0 p.249
  35. ^ Template:Ka icon ილია მეორე ერს ქართული ენის დაცვისკენ კიდევ ერთხელ მოუწოდებს საქინფორმ.გე
  36. ^ Ingorokva, Pavle ქართული დამწერლობის ძეგლები ანტიკური ხანისა (The monuments of ancient Georgian script)
  37. ^ Shanidze, Akaki (2003), ქართული ენა (in Georgian), Tbilisi, ISBN 1-4020-1440-6 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  38. ^ ქართული საბჭოთა ენციკლოპედია, ტ. 8, გვ. 231, თბ., 1984 წელი.
  39. ^ Aronson (1990), pp. 30–31.
  40. ^ a b Aronson (1990) depicts the two affricates as aspirated, though other scholars, like Shosted & Chikovani (2006) describe them as tenuis. The language does not contrast these possibilities.

Bibliography

  • Aronson, Howard I. (1990), Georgian: a reading grammar (second ed.), Columbus, OH: Slavica
  • Shosted, Ryan K.; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006), "Standard Georgian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (2): 255–264, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002659
  • Javakhishvili, I. Georgian palaeography Tbilisi, 1949
  • Barnaveli, T. Inscriptions of Ateni Sioni Tbilisi, 1977
  • Pataridze, R. Georgian Asomtavruli Tbilisi, 1980
  • Machavariani, E. Graphics of the Georgian alphabet Tbilisi, 1982
  • Gamkrelidze, T. Writing system and the old Georgian script Tbilisi, 1989
  • Kilanawa, B. Georgian script in the writing systems Tbilisi, 1990

External links

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