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Punjab Province (British India)

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This article is about a historical region in British India. For other uses of the name, see Punjab (disambiguation).
Punjab Province
Province of British India
1849–1947
Coat of arms of Punjab
Coat of arms

Maps of British Punjab
Capital
DemonymPunjabi
Government
 • TypeBritish Colonial Government
 • MottoCrescat e Fluviis
"Let it grow from the rivers"
Governor 
• 1849–1853
Henry Montgomery Lawrence (first)
• 1946–1947
Evan Meredith Jenkins (last)
Premier 
• 1937–1942
Sikandar Hayat Khan
• 1942–1947
Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana
Historical eraNew Imperialism
30 March 1849
• Delhi Territory transferred to Punjab from North-Western Provinces
1858
• North-West Frontier Province separated from Punjab
9 November 1901
• Delhi district separated from Punjab
1911
14–15 August 1947
Political subdivisionsRawalpindi Division,[a] Lahore Division,[b] Multan Division,[c] Jullundur Division,[d] Delhi Division,[e] and Princely States[f]
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
1849:
Sikh Empire
1858:
North-Western Provinces
1862:
Cis-Sutlej states
1901:
North-West Frontier Province
1947:
West Punjab
East Punjab
Today part ofIndia
Pakistan

Punjab was a province of British India. Most of the Punjab region was annexed by the East India Company in 2 April 1849, and declared a province of British Rule, it was one of the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to fall under British control. In 1858, the Punjab, along with the rest of British India, came under the direct rule of the British Crown. It had an area of 358,354.5 km2.

The province comprised four natural geographic regions – Indo-Gangetic Plain West, Himalayan, Sub-Himalayan, and the North-West Dry Area – along with five administrative divisions – Delhi, Jullundur, Lahore, Multan, and Rawalpindi – and a number of princely states.[1] In 1947, the Partition of India led to the province's division into East Punjab and West Punjab, in the newly independent dominions of India and Pakistan respectively.

Etymology

The region was originally called Sapta Sindhu,[2] the Vedic land of the seven rivers flowing into the ocean.[3] The Sanskrit name for the region, as mentioned in the Ramayana and Mahabharata for example, was Panchanada which means "Land of the Five Rivers", and was translated to Persian as Punjab after the Muslim conquests.[4][5] The later name Punjab is a compound of two Persian words[6][7] Panj (five) and āb (water) and was introduced to the region by the Turko-Persian conquerors[8] of India and more formally popularised during the Mughal Empire.[9][10] Punjab literally means "(The Land of) Five Waters" referring to the rivers: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas.[11] All are tributaries of the Indus River, the Chenab being the largest.

Geography

Geographically, the province was a triangular tract of country of which the Indus River and its tributary the Sutlej formed the two sides up to their confluence, the base of the triangle in the north being the Lower Himalayan Range between those two rivers. Moreover, the province as constituted under British rule also included a large tract outside these boundaries. Along the northern border, Himalayan ranges divided it from Kashmir and Tibet. On the west it was separated from the North-West Frontier Province by the Indus, until it reached the border of Dera Ghazi Khan District, which was divided from Baluchistan by the Sulaiman Range. To the south lay Sindh and Rajputana, while on the east the rivers Jumna and Tons separated it from the United Provinces.[1] In total Punjab had an area of approximately 357 000 km square about the same size as modern day Germany, being one of the largest provinces of the British Raj.

It encompassed the present day Indian states of Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi, and some parts of Himachal Pradesh which were merged with Punjab by the British for administrative purposes (but excluding the former princely states which were later combined into the Patiala and East Punjab States Union) and the Pakistani regions of the Punjab, Islamabad Capital Territory and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

In 1901 the frontier districts beyond the Indus were separated from Punjab and made into a new province: the North-West Frontier Province. Subsequently, Punjab was divided into four natural geographical divisions by colonial officials on the decadal census data:[12]: 2 [13]: 4 

  1. Indo-Gangetic Plain West geographical division (including Hisar district, Loharu State, Rohtak district, Dujana State, Gurgaon district, Pataudi State, Delhi, Karnal district, Jalandhar district, Kapurthala State, Ludhiana district, Malerkotla State, Firozpur district, Faridkot State, Patiala State, Jind State, Nabha State, Lahore District, Amritsar district, Gujranwala District and Sheikhupura District);
  2. Himalayan geographical division (including Nahan State, Simla district, Simla Hill States, Kangra district, Mandi State, Suket State, and Chamba State);
  3. Sub-Himalayan geographical division (including Ambala district, Kalsia State, Hoshiarpur district, Gurdaspur district, Sialkot District, Gujrat District, Jhelum District, Rawalpindi District, and Attock District;
  4. North-West Dry Area geographical division (including Montgomery District, Shahpur District, Mianwali District, Lyallpur District, Jhang District, Multan District, Bahawalpur State, Muzaffargarh District, and Dera Ghazi Khan District).

History

Company rule

See also: Company rule in India
The Durbar, or assembly of native princes and nobles, convened by Sir John Lawrence at Lahore

On 21 February 1849, the East India Company decisively defeated the Sikh Empire at the Battle of Gujrat bringing to an end the Second Anglo-Sikh War. Following the victory, the East India Company annexed the Punjab on 2 April 1849 and incorporated it within British India. The province whilst nominally under the control of the Bengal Presidency was administratively independent. Lord Dalhousie constituted the Board of Administration by inducting into it the most experienced and seasoned British officers. The Board was led by Sir Henry Lawrence, who had previously worked as British Resident at the Lahore Durbar and also consisted of his younger brother John Lawrence and Charles Grenville Mansel.[14] Below the Board, a group of acclaimed officers collectively known as Henry Lawrence's "Young Men" assisted in the administration of the newly acquired province. The Board was abolished by Lord Dalhousie in 1853; Sir Henry was assigned to the Rajputana Agency, and his brother John succeeded as the first Chief Commissioner.

Recognising the cultural diversity of the Punjab, the Board maintained a strict policy of non-interference in regard to religious and cultural matters.[15] Sikh aristocrats were given patronage and pensions and groups in control of historical places of worship were allowed to remain in control.[15]

During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Punjab remained relatively peaceful, apart from rebellion led by Ahmad Khan Kharral.[16] In May, John Lawrence took swift action to disarm potentially mutinous sepoys and redeploy most European troops to the Delhi ridge.[17] Finally he recruited new regiments of Punjabis to replace the depleted force, and was provided with manpower and support from surrounding princely states such as Jind, Patiala, Nabha and Kapurthala and tribal chiefs on the borderlands with Afghanistan. By 1858, an estimated 70,000 extra men had been recruited for the army and militarised police from within the Punjab.[16]

British Raj

See also: British Raj
The Punjab in 1880

In 1858, under the terms of the Queen's Proclamation issued by Queen Victoria, the Punjab, along with the rest of British India, came under the direct rule of the British Crown.[18] Delhi Territory was transferred from the North-Western Provinces to the Punjab in 1858, partly to punish the city for the important role the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, and the city as a whole, played in the 1857 Rebellion.[19]

Sir John Lawrence, then Chief Commissioner, was appointed the first Lieutenant-Governor on 1 January 1859. In 1866, the Judicial Commissioner was replaced by a Chief Court. The direct administrative functions of the Government were carried by the Lieutenant-Governor through the Secretariat, comprising a Chief Secretary, a Secretary and two Under-Secretaries. They were usually members of the Indian Civil Service.[20] The territory under the Lieutenant consisted of 29 Districts, grouped under 5 Divisions, and 43 Princely States. Each District was under a Deputy-Commissioner, who reported to the Commissioner of the Division. Each District was subdivided into between three and seven tehsils, each under a tahsildar, assisted by a naib (deputy) tahsildar.[21]

In 1885 the Punjab administration began an ambitious plan to transform over six million acres of barren waste land in central and western Punjab into irrigable agricultural land. The creation of canal colonies was designed to relieve demographic pressures in the central parts of the province, increase productivity and revenues, and create a loyal support amongst peasant landholders.[22] The colonisation resulted in an agricultural revolution in the province, rapid industrial growth, and the resettlement of over one million Punjabis in the new areas.[23] A number of towns were created or saw significant development in the colonies, such as Lyallpur, Sargodha and Montgomery. Colonisation led to the canal irrigated area of the Punjab increasing from three to fourteen million acres in the period from 1885 to 1947.[24]

The beginning of the twentieth century saw increasing unrest in the Punjab. Conditions in the Chenab colony, together with land reforms such as the Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900 and the Colonisation Bill, 1906 contributed to the 1907 Punjab unrest. The unrest was unlike any previous agitation in the province as the government had for the first time aggrieved a large portion of the rural population.[25] Mass demonstrations were organised, headed by Lala Lajpat Rai, a leader of the Hindu revivalist sect Arya Samaj.[25] The unrest resulted in the repeal of the Colonisation Bill and the end of paternalist policies in the colonies.[25]

During the First World War, Punjabi manpower contributed heavily to the Indian Army. Out of a total of 683,149 combat troops, 349,688 hailed from the province.[26] In 1918, an influenza epidemic broke out in the province, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 962,937 people or 4.77 percent of the total estimated population.[27] In March 1919 the Rowlatt Act was passed extending emergency measures of detention and incarceration in response to the perceived threat of terrorism from revolutionary nationalist organisations.[28] This led to the infamous Jallianwala Bagh massacre in April 1919, where Colonel Reginald Edward Harry Dyer ordered detachments of the 9th Gorkha Rifles and the 59th Scinde Rifles under his command to fire into a group of some 10,000 unarmed protesters and Baisakhi pilgrims, killing 379.[29]

Administrative reforms

The Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms enacted through the Government of India Act 1919 expanded the Punjab Legislative Council and introduced the principle of dyarchy, whereby certain responsibilities such as agriculture, health, education, and local government, were transferred to elected ministers. The first Punjab Legislative Council under the 1919 Act was constituted in 1921, comprising 93 members, seventy per cent to be elected and rest to be nominated.[30] Some of the British Indian ministers under the dyarchy scheme were Sir Sheikh Abdul Qadir, Sir Shahab-ud-Din Virk and Lala Hari Kishen Lal.[31][32]

The Government of India Act 1935 introduced provincial autonomy to Punjab replacing the system of dyarchy. It provided for the constitution of Punjab Legislative Assembly of 175 members presided by a Speaker and an executive government responsible to the Assembly. The Unionist Party under Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan formed the government in 1937. Sir Sikandar was succeeded by Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana in 1942 who remained the Premier till partition in 1947. Although the term of the Assembly was five years, the Assembly continued for about eight years and its last sitting was held on 19 March 1945.[33]

Partition

See also: Partition of India

The struggle for Indian independence witnessed competing and conflicting interests in the Punjab. The landed elites of the Muslim, Hindu and Sikh communities had loyally collaborated with the British since annexation, supported the Unionist Party and were hostile to the Congress party led independence movement.[34] Amongst the peasantry and urban middle classes, the Hindus were the most active National Congress supporters, the Sikhs flocked to the Akali movement whilst the Muslims eventually supported the Muslim League.[34]

Since the partition of the sub-continent had been decided, special meetings of the Western and Eastern Section of the Legislative Assembly were held on 23 June 1947 to decide whether or not the Province of the Punjab be partitioned. After voting on both sides, partition was decided and the existing Punjab Legislative Assembly was also divided into West Punjab Legislative Assembly and the East Punjab Legislative Assembly. This last Assembly before independence, held its last sitting on 4 July 1947.[35]

Demographics

Population history
YearPop.±%
185517,600,000—    
186819,700,000+11.9%
188120,800,995+5.6%
189122,915,894+10.2%
190124,367,113+6.3%
191123,791,841−2.4%
192125,101,514+5.5%
193128,490,869+13.5%
194134,309,861+20.4%
Source: Census of India
[13]: 8 [36]: 6 [37]: 86 

The first British census of the Punjab was carried out in 1855. This covered only British territory to the exclusion of local princely states, and placed the population at 17.6 million. The first regular census of British India carried out in 1881 recorded a population of 20.8 million people. The final British census in 1941 recorded 34.3 million people in the Punjab, which comprised 29 districts within British territory, 43 princely states, 52,047 villages and 283 towns.[37]

In 1881, only Amritsar and Lahore had populations over 100,000. The commercial and industrial city of Amritsar (152,000) was slightly larger than the cultural capital of Lahore (149,000). Over the following sixty years, Lahore increased in population fourfold, whilst Amritsar grew two-fold. By 1941, the province had seven cities with populations over 100,000 with emergence and growth of Rawalpindi, Multan, Sialkot, Jullundur and Ludhiana.[37]

The colonial period saw large scale migration within the Punjab due to the creation of canal colonies in western Punjab. The majority of colonists hailed from the seven most densely populated districts of Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Jullundur, Hoshiarpur, Ludhiana, Ambala and Sialkot, and consisted primarily of Khatris, Jats, Arains, Sainis, Kambohs and Rajputs. The movement of many highly skilled farmers from eastern and central Punjab to the new colonies, led to western Punjab becoming the most progressive and advanced agricultural region of the province. The period also saw significant numbers of Punjabis emigrate to other regions of the British Empire. The main destinations were East Africa - Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, Southeast Asia - Malaya and Burma, Hong Kong and Canada.[37]

Religion

Main article: Religion in the Punjab

The Punjab was a religiously eclectic province, comprising three major groups: Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs. By 1941, the religious Muslims constituting an absolute majority at 53.2%, whilst the Hindu population was at 29.1%. The period between 1881 and 1941 saw a significant increase in the Sikh and Christian populations, growing from 8.2% and 0.1% to 14.9% and 1.9% respectively.[37] The decrease in the Hindu population has been attributed to the conversion of Hindus mainly to Sikhism and Islam, and also to Christianity.[37]

Population trends for major religious groups in the Punjab Province of the British India(1881–1941)[37]
Religious
group 		Population
% 1881 		Population
% 1891 		Population
% 1901 		Population
% 1911[g] 		Population
% 1921 		Population
% 1931 		Population
% 1941
Islam 47.6% 47.8% 49.6% 51.1% 51.1% 52.4% 53.2%
Hinduism 43.8% 43.6% 41.3% 35.8% 35.1% 30.2% 29.1%
Sikhism 8.2% 8.2% 8.6% 12.1% 12.4% 14.3% 14.9%
Christianity 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.8% 1.3% 1.5% 1.5%
Other religions / No religion 0.3% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.1% 1.6% 1.3%

Indo−Gangetic Plain West geographical division

Including Hisar district, Loharu State, Rohtak district, Dujana State, Gurgaon district, Pataudi State, Delhi, Karnal district, Jalandhar district, Kapurthala State, Ludhiana district, Malerkotla State, Firozpur district, Faridkot State, Patiala State, Jind State, Nabha State, Lahore District, Amritsar district, Gujranwala District, and Sheikhupura District.[12]: 2 [13]: 4 

Population trends for major religious groups in the
Indo−Gangetic Plain West geographical division of Punjab Province(1901—1941)[13]: 48 
Religion Percentage
1901 		Percentage
1911 		Percentage
1921 		Percentage
1931 		Percentage
1941
Hinduism 43.79% 42.62% 41.37% 36.04% 33.54%
Islam 37.36% 37.81% 38.0% 39.72% 40.41%
Sikhism 18.35% 18.73% 19.10% 21.88% 23.11%
Christianity 0.18% 0.51% 1.23% 1.54% 1.60%
Jainism 0.32% 0.33% 0.29% 0.27% 0.28%
Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Religion in Hisar District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Hinduism [i] 652,842 64.85%
Islam 285,208 28.33%
Sikhism 60,731 6.03%
Christianity 1,235 0.12%
Others[j] 6,693 0.66%
Total Population 1,006,709 100%
Religion in Rohtak District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Hinduism [i] 780,474 77.53%
Islam 166,569 16.55%
Sikhism 1,466 0.15%
Christianity 1,026 0.1%
Others[j] 6,864 0.68%
Total Population 956,399 100%
Religion in Gurgaon District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Hinduism [i] 560,573 65.84%
Islam 285,992 33.59%
Sikhism 637 0.07%
Christianity 1,457 0.17%
Others[j] 2,799 0.33%
Total Population 851,458 100%
Religion in Karnal District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Hinduism [i] 666,301 66.99%
Islam 304,346 30.6%
Sikhism 19,887 2%
Christianity 1,223 0.12%
Others[j] 2,818 0.28%
Total Population 994,575 100%
Religion in Jalandhar District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 509,804 45.23%
Hinduism [i] 311,010 27.59%
Sikhism 298,741 26.5%
Christianity 5,971 0.53%
Others[j] 1,664 0.15%
Total Population 1,127,190 100%
Religion in Ludhiana District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Sikhism 341,175 41.68%
Islam 302,482 36.95%
Hinduism [i] 171,715 20.98%
Christianity 1,632 0.2%
Others[j] 1,611 0.2%
Total Population 818,615 100%
Religion in Firozpur District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 641,448 45.07%
Sikhism 479,486 33.69%
Hinduism [i] 287,733 20.22%
Christianity 11,031 0.78%
Others[j] 3,378 0.24%
Total Population 1,423,076 100%
Religion in Lahore District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 1,027,772 60.62%
Sikhism 310,646 18.32%
Hinduism [i] 284,689 16.79%
Christianity 67,686 3.99%
Others[j] 4,582 0.27%
Total Population 1,695,375 100%
Religion in Amritsar District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 657,695 46.52%
Sikhism 510,845 36.13%
Hinduism [i] 217,431 15.38%
Christianity 25,330 1.79%
Others[j] 2,575 0.18%
Total Population 1,413,876 100%
Religion in Gujranwala District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 642,706 70.45%
Hinduism [i] 108,115 11.85%
Sikhism 99,139 10.87%
Christianity 60,380 6.62%
Others[j] 1,894 0.21%
Total Population 912,234 100%
Religion in Sheikhupura District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage (1941)
Islam 542,344 63.62%
Sikhism 160,706 18.85%
Hinduism [i] 89,182 10.46%
Christianity 59,985 7.04%
Others[j] 291 0.03%
Total Population 852,508 100%


Himalayan geographical division

Including Nahan State, Simla district, Simla Hill States, Kangra district, Mandi State, Suket State, and Chamba State.[12]: 2 

Population trends for major religious groups in the
Himalayan geographical division of Punjab Province(1901—1941)[13]: 48 
Religion Percentage
1901 		Percentage
1911 		Percentage
1921 		Percentage
1931 		Percentage
1941
Hinduism 94.60% 94.53% 94.50% 94.25% 94.35%
Islam 4.53% 4.30% 4.45% 4.52% 4.27%
Sikhism 0.23% 0.46% 0.44% 0.49% 0.60%
Christianity 0.20% 0.26% 0.26% 0.14% 0.10%
Jainism 0.03% 0.02% 0.02% 0.02% 0.03%
Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Religion in Kangra District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Hinduism [i] 846,567 94.13%
Islam 43,249 4.81%
Sikhism 4,809 0.53%
Christianity 590 0.07%
Others[j] 4,162 0.46%
Total Population 899,377 100%


Sub−Himalayan geographical division

Including Ambala district, Kalsia State, Hoshiarpur district, Gurdaspur district, Sialkot District, Gujrat District, Jhelum District, Rawalpindi District, and Attock District.[12]: 2 

Population trends for major religious groups in the
Sub−Himalayan geographical division of Punjab Province(1901—1941)[13]: 48 
Religion Percentage
1901 		Percentage
1911 		Percentage
1921 		Percentage
1931 		Percentage
1941
Islam 60.62% 61.19% 61.44% 61.99% 62.29%
Hinduism 33.09% 27.36% 26.66% 22.85% 21.98%
Sikhism 5.68% 9.74% 9.77% 11.65% 11.89%
Christianity 0.48% 1.59% 2.01% 2.05% 1.74%
Jainism 0.12% 0.12% 0.12% 0.11% 0.12%
Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Religion in Ambala District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Hinduism [i] 412,658 48.68%
Islam 268,999 31.73%
Sikhism 156,543 18.47%
Christianity 4,892 0.58%
Others[j] 4,653 0.55%
Total Population 847,745 100%
Religion in Hoshiarpur District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Hinduism [i] 584,080 49.91%
Islam 380,759 32.53%
Sikhism 198,194 16.93%
Christianity 6,060 0.52%
Others[j] 1,230 0.11%
Total Population 1,170,323 100%
Religion in Gurdaspur District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 589,923 51.14%
Hinduism [i] 290,774 25.21%
Sikhism 221,261 19.18%
Christianity 51,522 4.47%
Others [j] 31 0%
Total Population 1,153,511 100%
Religion in Sialkot District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 740,218 62.18%
Hinduism [i] 231,319 19.43%
Sikhism 139,409 11.71%
Christianity 73,846 6.2%
Others[j] 5,705 0.48%
Total Population 1,190,497 100%
Religion in Gujrat District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 945,609 85.58%
Hinduism [i] 84,643 7.66%
Sikhism 70,233 6.36%
Christianity 4,391 0.4%
Others[j] 76 0.01%
Total Population 1,104,952 100%
Religion in Jhelum District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 563,033 89.42%
Hinduism [i] 40,888 6.49%
Sikhism 24,680 3.92%
Christianity 730 0.12%
Others[j] 327 0.05%
Total Population 629,658 100%
Religion in Rawalpindi District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 628,193 80%
Hinduism [i] 82,478 10.5%
Sikhism 64,127 8.17%
Christianity 4,212 0.54%
Others[j] 6,221 0.79%
Total Population 785,231 100%
Religion in Attock District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 611,128 90.42%
Hinduism [i] 43,009 6.36%
Sikhism 20,120 2.98%
Christianity 504 0.07%
Others[j] 1,114 0.16%
Total Population 675,875 100%


North−West Dry Area geographical division

Including Montgomery District, Shahpur District, Mianwali District, Lyallpur District, Jhang District, Multan District, Bahawalpur State, Muzaffargarh District, and Dera Ghazi Khan District.[12]: 2 

Population trends for major religious groups in the
North−West Dry Area geographical division of Punjab Province(1901—1941)[13]: 48 
Religion Percentage
1901 		Percentage
1911 		Percentage
1921 		Percentage
1931 		Percentage
1941
Islam 79.01% 80.00% 78.95% 78.22% 77.85%
Hinduism 17.84% 13.58% 14.23% 12.80% 13.21%
Sikhism 2.91% 5.62% 5.64% 6.73% 6.74%
Christianity 0.23% 0.79% 1.17% 1.18% 1.17%
Jainism 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01%
Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Religion in Montgomery District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 918,564 69.11%
Hinduism [i] 210,966 15.87%
Sikhism 175,064 13.17%
Christianity 24,101 1.81%
Others[j] 408 0.03%
Total Population 1,329,103 100%
Religion in Shahpur District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 835,918 83.68%
Hinduism [i] 102,233 10.23%
Sikhism 48,046 4.81%
Christianity 12,620 1.26%
Others[j] 104 0.01%
Total Population 998,921 100%
Religion in Mianwali District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 436,260 86.16%
Hinduism [i] 62,824 12.41%
Sikhism 6,865 1.36%
Christianity 324 0.06%
Others[j] 48 0.01%
Total Population 506,321 100%
Religion in Lyallpur District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 877,518 62.85%
Sikhism 262,737 18.82%
Hinduism [i] 204,059 14.61%
Christianity 51,694 3.7%
Others[j] 297 0.02%
Total Population 1,396,305 100%
Religion in Jhang District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 678,736 82.61%
Hinduism [i] 129,889 15.81%
Sikhism 12,238 1.49%
Christianity 744 0.09%
Others[j] 24 0%
Total Population 821,631 100%
Religion in Multan District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 1,157,911 78.01%
Hinduism [i] 249,872 16.83%
Sikhism 61,628 4.15%
Christianity 13,270 0.89%
Others[j] 1,652 0.11%
Total Population 1,484,333 100%
Religion in Muzaffargarh District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 616,074 86.42%
Hinduism [i] 90,643 12.72%
Sikhism 5,882 0.83%
Christianity 218 0.03%
Others[j] 32 0%
Total Population 712,849 100%
Religion in Dera Ghazi Khan District (1941)[13]: 42 
Religion Population Percentage
Islam 512,678 88.19%
Hinduism [i] 67,423 11.6%
Sikhism 1,072 0.18%
Christianity 137 0.02%
Others[j] 40 0.01%
Total Population 581,350 100%


Language

As with religion, Punjab was a linguistically eclectically diverse province and region. In 1837, Persian had been abolished as the official language of Company administration and replaced by local Indian vernacular languages. In the Sikh Empire, Persian continued to be the official state language.[38] Shortly after annexing the Punjab in 1849, the Board of Administration canvassed local officials in each of the provinces's six divisions to decide which language was "best suited for the Courts and Public Business".[39] Officials in the western divisions recommended Persian whilst eastern officials suggested a shift to Urdu.[39] In September 1849 a two-language policy was instituted throughout the province. The language policy in the Punjab differed from other Indian provinces in that Urdu was not a widespread local vernacular. In 1849 John Lawrence noted "that Urdu is not the language of these districts and neither is Persian".[39]

In 1854, the Board of Administration abruptly ended the two-language policy and Urdu was designated as the official language of government across the province. The decision was motivated by new civil service rules requiring all officials pass a test in the official language of their local court. In fear of potentially losing their jobs, officials in Persian districts petitioned the board to replace Persian with Urdu, believing Urdu the easier language to master.[40] Urdu remained the official administrative language until 1947.

Officials, although aware that Punjabi was the colloquial language of the majority, instead favoured the use of Urdu for a number of reasons. Criticism of Punjabi included the belief that it was simply a form of patois, lacking any form of standardisation, and that "would be inflexible and barren, and incapable of expressing nice shades of meaning and exact logical ideas with the precision so essential in local proceedings."[40] Similar arguments had earlier been made about Bengali, Oriya and Hindustani; however, those languages were later adopted for local administration. Instead it is believed the advantages of Urdu served the administration greater. Urdu, and initially Persian, allowed the Company to recruit experienced administrators from elsewhere in India who did not speak Punjabi, to facilitate greater integration with other Indian territories which were administered with Urdu, and to help foster ties with local elites who spoke Persian and Urdu and could act as intermediaries with the wider populace.[40]

As per the 1911 census, speakers of the Punjabi language along with the mutually intelligible Lahnda languages and dialects[l] formed just over three-quarters (75.93 per cent) of the total provincial population.

Linguistic Demographics of Punjab Province
Language Percentage
1911[12]: 370 
Punjabi 58.34%
Lahnda[l] 17.59%
Western Hindi[m] 15.82%
Western Pahari 4.11%
Rajasthani 3.0%
Balochi 0.29%
Pashto 0.28%
English 0.15%
Other 0.42%

Indo−Gangetic Plain West geographical division

Including Hisar district, Loharu State, Rohtak district, Dujana State, Gurgaon district, Pataudi State, Delhi, Karnal district, Jalandhar district, Kapurthala State, Ludhiana district, Malerkotla State, Firozpur district, Faridkot State, Patiala State, Jind State, Nabha State, Lahore District, Amritsar district, and Gujranwala District.

Linguistic Demographics of the Indo−Gangetic Plain West geographical division
Language Percentage
1911[12]: 370 
Punjabi 63.49%
Western Hindi[m] 29.56%
Rajasthani 6.26%
Lahnda[l] 1.0%
Western Pahari 0.87%
English 0.11%
Pashto 0.07%
Other 0.13%

Himalayan geographical division

Including Nahan State, Simla district, Simla Hill States, Kangra district, Mandi State, Suket State, and Chamba State.

Linguistic Demographics of the Himalayan geographical division
Language Percentage
1911[12]: 370 
Western Pahari 50.22%
Punjabi 45.15%
Western Hindi[m] 1.39%
English 0.2%
Rajasthani 0.02%
Pashto 0.01%
Other 3.0%

Sub−Himalayan geographical division

Including Ambala district, Kalsia State, Hoshiarpur district, Gurdaspur district, Sialkot District, Gujrat District, Jhelum District, Rawalpindi District, and Attock District.

Linguistic Demographics of the Sub−Himalayan geographical division
Language Percentage
1911[12]: 370 
Punjabi 74.01%
Lahnda[l] 14.76%
Western Hindi[m] 8.81%
Western Pahari 1.49%
Pashto 0.5%
English 0.3%
Rajasthani 0.01%
Other 0.12%

North-West Dry Area geographical division

Including Montgomery District, Shahpur District, Mianwali District, Lyallpur District, Jhang District, Multan District, Bahawalpur State, Muzaffargarh District, and Dera Ghazi Khan District.

Linguistic Demographics of the North-West Dry Area geographical division
Language Percentage
1911[12]: 370 
Lahnda[l] 60.31%
Punjabi 36.14%
Balochi 1.25%
Rajasthani 0.62%
Western Hindi[m] 0.56%
Pashto 0.53%
English 0.05%
Western Pahari 0.01%
Other 0.53%

Castes and tribes

Punjab Province was diverse, with many castes, subcastes and tribes all forming parts of the various ethnic groups in the province, contemporarily known as Punjabis, Saraikis, Haryanvis, Hindkowans, Dogras, Paharis, and others.

Castes and Tribes of Punjab Province[12]: 478 
Caste or Tribe Population
1881 		%
1881 		Population
1891 		%
1891 		Population
1901 		%
1901 		Population
1911 		%
1911
Jat 4,167,000 20.03% 4,430,000 19.33% 4,942,000 20.28% 4,957,000 20.83%
Rajput 1,662,000 7.99% 1,759,000 7.68% 1,798,000 7.38% 1,635,000 6.87%
Chamar 1,066,000 5.12% 1,178,000 5.14% 1,208,000 4.96% 1,129,000 4.75%
Brahman 1,069,000 5.14% 1,107,000 4.83% 1,123,000 4.61% 1,018,000 4.28%
Arain 795,000 3.82% 889,000 3.88% 1,007,000 4.13% 978,000 4.11%
Chuhra 1,052,000 5.06% 1,188,000 5.18% 1,189,000 4.88% 926,000 3.89%
Arora 512,000 2.46% 570,000 2.49% 643,000 2.64% 674,000 2.83%
Tarkhan 563,000 2.71% 618,000 2.7% 681,000 2.79% 646,000 2.72%
Julaha 586,000 2.82% 625,000 2.73% 657,000 2.7% 635,000 2.67%
Gujar 552,000 2.65% 614,000 2.68% 632,000 2.59% 610,000 2.56%
Kumhar 467,000 2.25% 515,000 2.25% 569,000 2.34% 550,000 2.31%
Baloch 310,000 1.49% 359,000 1.57% 468,000 1.92% 532,000 2.24%
Khatri 393,000 1.89% 419,000 1.83% 436,000 1.79% 433,000 1.82%
Awan 332,000 1.6% 369,000 1.61% 421,000 1.73% 426,000 1.79%
Mochi 332,000 1.6% 380,000 1.66% 415,000 1.7% 419,000 1.76%
Bania 437,000 2.1% 442,000 1.93% 452,000 1.85% 404,000 1.7%
Kanet 346,000 1.66% 370,000 1.61% 390,000 1.6% 404,000 1.7%
Jhinwar 426,000 2.05% 468,000 2.04% 460,000 1.89% 360,000 1.51%
Nai 324,000 1.56% 357,000 1.56% 376,000 1.54% 350,000 1.47%
Sheikh 336,000 1.62% 332,000 1.45% 321,000 1.32% 339,000 1.42%
Lohar 291,000 1.4% 323,000 1.41% 351,000 1.44% 323,000 1.36%
Mussalli N/A N/A N/A N/A 57,000 0.23% 310,000 1.3%
Teli 261,000 1.25% 301,000 1.31% 322,000 1.32% 296,000 1.24%
Pathan 188,000 0.9% 195,000 0.85% 284,000 1.17% 292,000 1.23%
Faqir 114,000 0.55% 313,000 1.37% 386,000 1.58% 280,000 1.18%
Machhi 161,000 0.77% 189,000 0.82% 236,000 0.97% 280,000 1.18%
Sayyid 200,000 0.96% 215,000 0.94% 238,000 0.98% 247,000 1.04%
Mirasi 192,000 0.92% 229,000 1% 247,000 1.01% 227,000 0.95%
Ahir 173,000 0.83% 196,000 0.86% 205,000 0.84% 209,000 0.88%
Kashmiri 152,000 0.73% 196,000 0.86% 193,000 0.79% 178,000 0.75%
Dagi & Koli 176,000 0.85% 170,000 0.74% 155,000 0.64% 175,000 0.74%
Kamboh 130,000 0.62% 151,000 0.66% 174,000 0.71% 172,000 0.72%
Ghirath 160,000 0.77% 174,000 0.76% 170,000 0.7% 171,000 0.72%
Sunar 145,000 0.7% 163,000 0.71% 177,000 0.73% 158,000 0.66%
Dhobi 124,000 0.6% 139,000 0.61% 147,000 0.6% 156,000 0.66%
Meo 116,000 0.56% 121,000 0.53% 147,000 0.6% 130,000 0.55%
Chhimba 103,000 0.5% 145,000 0.63% 152,000 0.62% 129,000 0.54%
Qassab 92,000 0.44% 108,000 0.47% 118,000 0.48% 120,000 0.5%
Saini 153,000 0.74% 125,000 0.55% 127,000 0.52% 113,000 0.47%
Mali 66,000 0.32% 181,000 0.79% 113,000 0.46% 104,000 0.44%
Mughal 92,000 0.44% 118,000 0.51% 98,000 0.4% 99,000 0.42%
Rathi 85,000 0.41% 101,000 0.44% 88,000 0.36% 98,000 0.41%
Maliar N/A N/A N/A N/A 81,000 0.33% 90,000 0.38%
Dhanuk 66,000 0.32% 74,000 0.32% 77,000 0.32% 83,000 0.35%
Jogi-Rawal 90,000 0.43% 91,000 0.4% 76,000 0.31% 83,000 0.35%
Mahtam 52,000 0.25% 57,000 0.25% 83,000 0.34% 82,000 0.34%
Dumna 71,000 0.34% 69,000 0.3% 69,000 0.28% 79,000 0.33%
Mallah 62,000 0.3% 77,000 0.34% 73,000 0.3% 78,000 0.33%
Qureshi N/A N/A N/A N/A 53,000 0.22% 71,000 0.3%
Dogar 63,000 0.01% 70,000 0.01% 75,000 0.01% 68,000 0.29%
Barwala 55,000 0.26% 64,000 0.28% 69,000 0.28% 64,000 0.27%
Khoja 62,000 0.3% 90,000 0.39% 99,000 0.41% 63,000 0.26%
Khokhar 36,000 0.17% 130,000 0.57% 108,000 0.44% 60,000 0.25%
Bharai 56,000 0.27% 67,000 0.29% 66,000 0.27% 58,000 0.24%
Labana 47,000 0.23% 55,000 0.24% 56,000 0.23% 58,000 0.24%
Other 1,319,995 6.35% 1,229,894 5.37% 1,009,113 4.14% 1,162,841 4.89%
Total population 20,800,995 100% 22,915,894 100% 24,367,113 100% 23,791,841 100%

Literacy

Literacy Rate by Religious Community in Punjab Province (1941)[13]: 65 
Religion % Total Literacy % Total Male Literacy % Total Female Literacy
Jains 41.93% 29.03% 12.90%
Sikhs 17.03% 12.13% 4.90%
Hindus 16.35% 11.89% 4.46%
Christians 7.76% 4.69% 3.07%
Muslims 6.97% 5.52% 1.45%
Others 7.62% 6.85% 0.77%
Total 10.87% 8.13% 2.74%

Administrative divisions

Districts of Punjab with Muslim (green) and non-Muslim (pink) majorities, as per 1941 census
Punjab (British India): British Territory and Princely States
Division Districts in British Territory / Princely States
Rawalpindi Division
Lahore Division
Multan Division
Jullundur Division
Delhi Division
Total area, British Territory 97,209 square miles
Native States
Total area, Native States 36,532 square miles
Total area, Punjab 133,741 square miles

Agriculture

Within a few years of its annexation, the Punjab was regarded as British India's model agricultural province. From the 1860s onwards, agricultural prices and land values soared in the Punjab. This stemmed from increasing political security and improvements in infrastructure and communications. New cash crops such as wheat, tobacco, sugar cane and cotton were introduced. By the 1920s the Punjab produced a tenth of India's total cotton crop and a third of its wheat crop. Per capita output of all the crops in the province increased by approximately 45 percent between 1891 and 1921, a growth contrasting to agricultural crises in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa during the period.[41]

The Punjab Agricultural College and Research Institute became the first higher educational agricultural institution in the Punjab when established in 1906. Rapid agricultural growth, combined with access to easy credit for landowners, led to a growing crisis of indebtedness.[42] When landowners were unable to pay down their loans, urban based moneylenders took advantage of the law to foreclose debts of mortgaged land.[42] This led to a situation where land increasingly passed to absentee moneylenders who had little connection to the villages were the land was located. The colonial government recognised this as a potential threat to the stability of the province, and a split emerged in the government between paternalists who favoured intervention to ensure order, and those who opposed state intervention in private property relations.[41] The paternalists emerged victorious and the Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900 prevented urban commercial castes, who were overwhelmingly Hindu, from permanently acquiring land from statutory agriculturalist tribes, who were mainly Muslim and Sikh.[43]

Accompanied by the increasing franchise of the rural population, this interventionist approach led to a long lasting impact on the political landscape of the province. The agricultural lobby remained loyal to the government, and rejected communalism in common defence of its privileges against urban moneylenders.[41] This position was entrenched by the Unionist Party. The Congress Party's opposition to the Act led to it being marginalised in the Punjab, reducing its influence more so than in any other province, and inhibiting its ability to challenge colonial rule locally. The political dominance of the Unionist Party would remain until partition, and significantly it was only on the collapse of its power on the eve of independence from Britain, that communal violence began to spread in rural Punjab.[41]

Army

In the immediate aftermath of annexation, the Sikh Khalsa Army was disbanded, and soldiers were required to surrender their weapons and return to agricultural or other pursuits.[15] The Bengal Army, keen to utilise the highly trained ex-Khalsa army troops began to recruit from the Punjab for Bengal infantry units stationed in the province. However opposition to the recruitment of these soldiers spread and resentment emerged from sepoys of the Bengal Army towards the incursion of Punjabis into their ranks. In 1851, the Punjab Irregular Force also known as the 'Piffars' was raised. Initially they consisted of one garrison and four mule batteries, four regiments of cavalry, eleven of infantry and the Corps of Guides, totalling approximately 13,000 men.[44] The gunners and infantry were mostly Punjabi, many from the Khalsa Army, whilst the cavalry had a considerable Hindustani presence.[44]

During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, eighteen new regiments were raised from the Punjab which remained loyal to the East India Company throughout the crisis in the Punjab and United Provinces.[45] By June 1858, of the 80,000 native troops in the Bengal Army, 75,000 were Punjabi of which 23,000 were Sikh.[46] In the aftermath of the rebellion, a thorough re-organisation of the army took place. Henceforth recruitment into the British Indian Army was restricted to loyal peoples and provinces. Punjabi Sikhs emerged as a particularly favoured martial race to serve the army.[47] In the midst of The Great Game, and fearful of a Russian invasion of British India, the Punjab was regarded of significant strategic importance as a frontier province. In addition to their loyalty and a belief in their suitability to serve in harsh conditions, Punjabi recruits were favoured as they could be paid at the local service rate, whereas soldiers serving on the frontier from more distant lands had to be paid extra foreign service allowances.[48] By 1875, of the entire Indian army, a third of recruits hailed from the Punjab.[49]

In 1914, three fifths of the Indian army came from the Punjab, despite the region constituting approximately one tenth of the total population of British India.[49] During the First World War, Punjabi Sikhs alone accounted for one quarter of all armed personnel in India.[47] Military service provided access to the wider world, and personnel were deployed across the British Empire from Malaya, the Mediterranean and Africa.[47] Upon completion of their terms of service, these personnel were often amongst the first to seek their fortunes abroad.[47] At the outbreak of the Second World War, 48 percent of the Indian army came from the province.[50] In Jhelum, Rawalpindi and Attock, the percentage of the total male population who enlisted reached fifteen percent.[51] The Punjab continued to be the main supplier of troops throughout the war, contributing 36 percent of the total Indian troops who served in the conflict.[52]

The huge proportion of Punjabis in the army meant that a significant amount of military expenditure went to Punjabis and in turn resulted in an abnormally high level of resource input in the Punjab.[53] It has been suggested that by 1935 if remittances of serving officers were combined with income from military pensions, more than two thirds of Punjab's land revenue could have been paid out of military incomes.[53] Military service further helped reduce the extent of indebtedness across the Province. In Hoshiarpur, a notable source of military personnel, in 1920 thirty percent of proprietors were debt free compared to the region's average of eleven percent.[53] In addition, the benefits of military service and the perception that the government was benevolent towards soldiers, affected the latter's attitudes towards the British.[46] The loyalty of recruited peasantry and the influence of military groups in rural areas across the province limited the reach of the nationalist movement in the province.[46]

Communications and transport

In 1853, the Viceroy Lord Dalhousie issued a minute stressing the military importance of railways across India.[54] In the Punjab, however, it was initially strategic commercial interests which drove investment in railways and communications from 1860.[54]

Independent railway companies emerged, such as the Scinde, Punjab and Delhi railways to build and operate new lines. In 1862, the first section of railway in the Punjab was constructed between Lahore and Amritsar, and Lahore Junction railway station opened. Lines were opened between Lahore and Multan in 1864, and Amritsar and Delhi in 1870.[54] The Scinde, Punjab and Delhi railways merged to form the Scinde, Punjab & Delhi Railway in 1870, creating a link between Karachi and Lahore via Multan. The Punjab Northern State Railway linked Lahore and Peshawar in 1883. By 1886, the independent railways had amalgamated into North Western State Railway.[54]

The construction of railway lines and the network of railway workshops generated employment opportunities, which in turn led to increased immigration into cantonment towns.[54] As connectivity increased across the province, it facilitated the movement of goods, and increased human interaction. It has been observed that the Ferozpur, Lahore and Amritsar began to develop into one composite cultural triangle due to the ease of connectivity between them.[54] Similarly barriers of spoken dialects eroded over time, and cultural affinities were increasingly fostered.[54]

Education

In 1854, the Punjab education department was instituted with a policy to provide secular education in all government managed institutions.[55] Privately run institutions would only receive grants-in-aid in return for providing secular instruction.[55] By 1864 this had resulted in a situation whereby all grants-in-aid to higher education schools and colleges were received by institutions under European management, and no indigenous owned schools received government help.[55]

In the early 1860s, a number of educational colleges were established, including Lawrence College, Murree, King Edward Medical University, Government College, Lahore, Glancy Medical College and Forman Christian College. In 1882, Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner published a damning report on the state of education in the Punjab. He lamented the failure to reconcile government run schools with traditional indigenous schools, and noted a steady decline in the number of schools across the province since annexation.[56] He noted in particular how Punjabi Muslim's avoided government run schools due to the lack of religious subjects taught in them, observing how at least 120,000 Punjabis attended schools unsupported by the state and describing it as 'a protest by the people against our system of education.'[57] Leitner had long advocated the benefits of oriental scholarship, and the fusion of government education with religious instruction. In January 1865 he had established the Anjuman-i-Punjab, a subscription based association aimed at using a European style of learning to promote useful knowledge, whilst also reviving traditional scholarship in Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit.[58] In 1884, a reorganisation of the Punjab education system occurred, introducing measures tending towards decentralisation of control over education and the promotion of an indigenous education agency. As a consequence several new institutions were encouraged in the province. The Arya Samaj opened a college in Lahore in 1886, the Sikhs opened the Khalsa College whilst the Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam stepped in to organise Muslim education.[59] In 1886, the Punjab Chiefs' College, later renamed Aitchison College, was opened to further the education of the elite classes.

Government

See also: Prime Minister of the Punjab

Early administration

See also: List of Governors of Punjab (British India)

In 1849, a Board of Administration was put in place to govern the newly annexed province. The Board was led by a President and two assistants. Beneath them Commissioners acted as Superintendents of revenue and police and exercised the civil appellate and the original criminal powers of Sessions Judges, whilst Deputy Commissioners were given subordinate civil, criminal and fiscal powers.[60] In 1853, the Board of Administration was abolished, and authority was invested in a single Chief Commissioner. The Government of India Act 1858 led to further restructuring and the office of Lieutenant-Governor replaced that of Chief Commissioner.

Although The Indian Councils Act, 1861 laid the foundation for the establishment of a local legislature in the Punjab, the first legislature was constituted in 1897. It consisted of a body of nominated officials and non-officials and was presided over by the Lieutenant-Governor. The first council lasted for eleven years until 1909. The Morley-Minto Reforms led to an elected members complementing the nominated officials in subsequent councils.[61]

Punjab Legislative Council and Assembly

The Government of India Act 1919 introduced the system of dyarchy across British India and led to the implementation of the first Punjab Legislative Council in 1921. At the same time the office of lieutenant governor was replaced with that of governor. The initial Council had ninety three members, seventy per cent of which were elected and the rest nominated.[61] A president was elected by the Council to preside over the meetings. Between 1921 and 1936, there were four terms of the Council.[61]

Council Inaugurated Dissolved President(s)
First Council 8 January 1921 27 October 1923 Sir Montagu Butler and Herbert Casson
Second Council 2 January 1924 27 October 1926 Herbert Casson, Sir Abdul Qadir and Sir Shahab-ud-Din Virk
Third Council 3 January 1927 26 July 1930 Sir Shahab-ud-Din Virk
Fourth Council 24 October 1930 10 November 1936 Sir Shahab-ud-Din Virk and Sir Chhotu Ram

In 1935, the Government of India Act 1935 replaced dyarchy with increased provincial autonomy. It introduced direct elections, and enabled elected Indian representatives to form governments in the provincial assemblies. The Punjab Legislative Council was replaced by a Punjab Legislative Assembly, and the role of President with that of a Speaker. Membership of the Assembly was fixed at 175 members, and it was intended to sit for five years.[61]

First Assembly Election

See also: 1937 Punjab Provincial Assembly election

The first election was held in 1937 and was won outright by the Unionist Party. Its leader, Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan was asked by the Governor, Sir Herbert Emerson to form a Ministry and he chose a cabinet consisting of three Muslims, two Hindus and a Sikh.[62] Sir Sikandar died in 1942 and was succeeded as Premier by Khizar Hayat Khan Tiwana.

Position Name
Premier Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan
Revenue Minister Sir Sundar Singh Majithia
Development Minister Sir Chhotu Ram
Finance Minister Manohar Lal
Public Works Minister Khizar Hayat Khan Tiwana
Education Minister Mian Abdul Haye

Second Assembly Election

See also: 1946 Punjab Provincial Assembly election

The next election was held in 1946. The Muslim League won the most seats, winning 73 out of a total of 175. However a coalition led by the Unionist Party and consisting of the Congress Party and Akali Party were able to secure an overall majority. A campaign of civil disobedience by the Muslim League followed, lasting six weeks, and led to the resignation of Sir Khizar Tiwana and the collapse of the coalition government on 2 March 1947.[63] The Muslim League however were unable to attract the support of other minorities to form a coalition government themselves.[64] Amid this stalemate the Governor Sir Evan Jenkins assumed control of the government and remained in charge until the independence of India and Pakistan.[64]

Coat of arms

Arms of British Punjab

Crescat e Fluviis meaning, Let it grow from the rivers was the Latin motto used in the Coat of arms for Punjab Province. As per the book History of the Sikhs written by Khushwant Singh, it means Strength from the Rivers.

See also

Notes

References

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  3. ^ A.S. valdiya, "River Sarasvati was a Himalayn-born river" Archived 24 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Current Science Archived 10 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine, vol 104, no.01, ISSN 0011-3891.
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  28. ^ Sarkar 1921, p. 137
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  30. ^ http://www.pap.gov.pk/uploads/previous_members/S-1921-1923.htm Archived 2 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine Provincial Assembly of the Punjab
  31. ^ The Working Of Dyarchy In India 1919 1928. D.B.Taraporevala Sons And Company.
  32. ^ http://www.pap.gov.pk/uploads/previous_members/S-1924-1926.htm Archived 7 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine Provincial Assembly of the Punjab
  33. ^ http://www.pap.gov.pk/uploads/previous_members/S-1937-1945.htm Archived 2 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine Provincial Assembly of the Punjab
  34. ^ a b Pritam Singh, Federalism, Nationalism and Development: India and the Punjab Economy, Routledge, 19 February 2008, p.54
  35. ^ http://www.pap.gov.pk/uploads/previous_members/S-1946-1947.htm Archived 7 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine Provincial Assembly of the Punjab
  36. ^ "CCensus of India 1931. Vol. 17, Punjab. Pt. 2, Tables". Archived from the original on 6 June 2020. Retrieved 15 August 2021.
  37. ^ a b c d e f g Krishan, Gopal (2004). "Demography of the Punjab (1849–1947)" (PDF). Journal of Punjab Studies. 11 (1): 77–89. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 February 2018. Retrieved 8 February 2018.
  38. ^ Goud and Mookherjee, R. Sidda and Manisha (20 April 2014). India and Iran in Contemporary Relations. Allied Publishers. p. 64. ISBN 8184249098.
  39. ^ a b c Mir, Farina (2010). The Social Space of Language: Vernacular Culture in British Colonial Punjab. University of California Press. pp. 35–50. ISBN 0520262697.
  40. ^ a b c Mir, Farina (2010). The Social Space of Language: Vernacular Culture in British Colonial Punjab. University of California Press. pp. 37–50. ISBN 0520262697.
  41. ^ a b c d Talbot, Ian A. (2007). "Punjab Under Colonialism: Order and Transformation in British India" (PDF). Journal of Punjab Studies. 14 (1): 3–10. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 February 2018. Retrieved 8 February 2018.
  42. ^ a b Islam, M. Mufakharul. "The Punjab Land Alienation Act and the Professional Moneylenders." Modern Asian Studies 29, no. 2
  43. ^ Robert W. Stern, Democracy and Dictatorship in South Asia, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, p.53
  44. ^ a b Septimus Smet Thorburn, The Punjab in Peace and War, William Blackwood and Sons (1904), p.293
  45. ^ Harsh V. Pant, Handbook of Indian Defence Policy: Themes, Structures and Doctrines, Routledge, 6 October 2015, p.18
  46. ^ a b c Rajit K. Mazumder, The Indian Army and the Making of Punjab, Orient Blackswan, 2003, p.3
  47. ^ a b c d Robin Cohen, The Cambridge Survey of World Migration - "Darshan Singh Tatla - Sikh free and military migration during the colonial period", Cambridge University Press, 2 November 1995, p.69
  48. ^ Ian Talbot, British Rule in the Punjab, page 207
  49. ^ a b Ian Talbot, Punjab and the Raj, 1988, page 41
  50. ^ Kalim Siddiqui, Conflict, Crisis and War in Pakistan, Springer, 18 June 1972, p.92
  51. ^ Tan Tai Yong, The Garrison State: Military, Government and Society in Colonial Punjab, 1849-1947,, SAGE Publications India, 7 April 2005, p.291
  52. ^ Tan Tai Yong, The Garrison State: Military, Government and Society in Colonial Punjab, 1849-1947, SAGE Publications India, 7 April 2005, p.291
  53. ^ a b c Rajit K. Mazumder, The Indian Army and the Making of Punjab, Orient Blackswan, 2003, p.23
  54. ^ a b c d e f g Bhupinder Singh, Amandeep Kaur (2015). Railway Development in Colonial Punjab: Social and Cultural Assimilation, Vol. 3, Issue 1. International Journal of Social Science and Humanities Research. pp. (80–84).
  55. ^ a b c Robert Ivermee, Secularism, Islam and Education in India, 1830–1910, Routledge, 28 July 2015, p.96
  56. ^ Gottlieb William Leitner, History of indigenous education in the Punjab since annexation and in 1882, Republican Books, 1882
  57. ^ Robert Ivermee, Secularism, Islam and Education in India, 1830–1910, Routledge, 28 July 2015, p.97
  58. ^ Robert Ivermee, Secularism, Islam and Education in India, 1830–1910, Routledge, 28 July 2015, p.91
  59. ^ Robert Ivermee, Secularism, Islam and Education in India, 1830–1910, Routledge, 28 July 2015, p.105
  60. ^ Panjab Administration Report, p.24
  61. ^ a b c d The Punjab Parliamentarians 1897-213, Provincial Assembly of the Punjab, Lahore - Pakistan, 2015
  62. ^ Bakhshish Singh Nijjar, History of the United Panjab, Volume 3, Atlantic Publishers & Dist, 1 January 1996, p.159
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  64. ^ a b Lionel Knight, Britain in India, 1858–1947, Anthem Press, 1 November 2012, p.154
  1. ^ Including Attock District, Jhelum District, Rawalpindi District, and Shahpur District
  2. ^ Including Amritsar District, Gujranwala District, Gujrat District, Gurdaspur District, Lahore District, Lyallpur District,
  3. ^ Including Dera Ghazi Khan District, Jhang District, Mianwali District, Multan District, and Muzaffargarh District
  4. ^ Including Firozpur district, Hoshiarpur district, Jalandhar district, Kangra district, and Ludhiana district
  5. ^ Including Ambala district, Delhi district, Gurgaon district, Hisar district, Karnal district, Rohtak district, and Shimla. Later renamed Ambala Division in 1911, following separation of Delhi district from Punjab Province.
  6. ^ Including Patiala State, Jind State, Nabha State, Bahawalpur State, Sirmur State, Loharu State, Dujana, Pataudi State, Kalsia, Simla Hill States, Kapurthala State, Mandi State, Malerkotla State, Suket State, Faridkot State, Siba State, Chamba State, and Kahlur (Bilaspur)
  7. ^ Delhi district is made into a separate territory
  8. ^ 1941 figure reached by combining total population of all districts (Lahore, Sialkot, Gujranwala, Sheikhupura, Gujrat, Shahpur, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, Attock, Mianwali, Montgomery, Lyallpur, Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargargh, Dera Ghazi Khan), one tehsil (Shakargarh -- then part of Gurdaspur District), and one princely state (Bahawalpur) in Punjab Province, British India, as per 1941 census data. These districts, tehsil, and princely state would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab Province, Pakistan (contemporarily known as Punjab Province, Pakistan), following the partition of India in 1947. The districts and princely state in 1941 that made up Punjab Province, Pakistan have since undergone various bifurcations at several points throughout the post-independence era, due to the rapid population growth witnessed across the province.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad Including Ad-Dharmis
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad Including Jainism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Tribals, others, or not stated
  11. ^ 1941 figure reached by combining total population of all districts (Hisar, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Karnal, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Firozpur, Amritsar, Simla, Kangra, Ambala, Hoshiarpur, and Gurdaspur(minus Shakargarh Tehsil), and princely states (Loharu, Dujana, Pataudi, Kapurthala, Malerkotla, Faridkot, Patiala, Jind, Nabha, Nahan, Simla Hill, Mandi, Suket, Chamba, and Kalsia) in Punjab Province, British India, as per 1941 census data. These districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh, and Bilaspur State (contemporarily known as Punjab, India, Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh), immediately following the partition of India in 1947. The districts and princely states in 1941 that made up Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh in India have since undergone various bifurcations at several points throughout the post-independence era, due to the rapid population growth witnessed across the province.
  12. ^ a b c d e Western Punjabi languages and dialects including Saraiki, Hindko and Pahari-Pothwari, and other related languages or dialects
  13. ^ a b c d e Including Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu), Braj Bhasha, Haryanvi, and other related languages or dialects


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