Kingdom of Mysore

Kingdom of Mysore/Princely State of Mysore ಮೈಸೂರು ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ
1399–1947
Anthem: Kayou Sri Gowri
Extent of Kingdom of Mysore, 1784 CE
Status	Kingdom (Subordinate to Vijayanagara Empire until 1565). Princely state under the paramountcy of the British Raj after 1799
Capital	Mysore, Srirangapatna
Common languages	Kannada, English
Religion	Hindu
Government	Monarchy until 1799, Principality thereafter
Ruler
• 1399–1423 (first)	Yaduraya
• 1761–1799 (Peak)	Haidar Ali and Tippu Sultan
• 1940–1947 (last)	Jaya Chamaraja Wodeyar
History
• Established	1399
• Earliest records	1551
• Disestablished	1947
Preceded by Succeeded by Vijayanagara Empire British India India

The Kingdom of Mysore (Kannada ಮೈಸೂರು ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ ) (1399–1947 CE) was a kingdom of southern India founded in 1399 by Yaduraya in the region of the modern city of Mysore. The kingdom, which was ruled by the Wodeyar family, served as a feudatory of the Vijayanagara Empire until the empire's decline in 1565. Later, during a period when multiple feudatory rulers claimed independence in southern India, the Kingdom of Mysore consolidated. Under the rule of kings Narasaraja Wodeyar and Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar, the kingdom annexed large parts of what is now southern Karnataka and became one of the powerful ruling families in the region.

The kingdom reached the peak of its military power in the late 18th century under rulers Haider Ali and his son Tipu Sultan. During this time, it came into conflict with the Maratha Empire, the British Empire, the Nizam of Golconda and the rulers of Travancore and Malabar. However, their most well known conflicts were the four Anglo-Mysore wars. Success in the first two Anglo-Mysore wars was followed by failure in the third and fourth. This resulted in the British taking over large parts of the kingdom and ending the period of Mysorean hegemony over the southern Deccan. The British, however, restored the Wodeyars in the smaller princely state of Mysore under the paramountcy of the British Raj. The Wodeyars continued to rule the state until Indian independence in 1947, when Mysore was merged with the Union of India.

This period saw the development of the fine arts in southern India in the post Vijayanagara era. The Mysore court, which had such famous artists and musicians as Veena Sheshanna and T.Chowdiah, became a centre of Carnatic music. This period also saw the development of Mysore painting, Indo-European architecture and Kannada literature, including writings on both traditional religious themes and topics such as musical treatises, drama and theatre. Many Mysore kings were acclaimed writers and composers, and both the kings themselves and the classical artists they patronised had a lasting effect on the culture of southern India.

History

Main articles: Origin of Kingdom of Mysore and Anglo-Mysore wars

Mysore territory, 1792 – 1947

Tipu Sultan (1782 – 1799), took Mysore to the height of its military power

Origin

Sources for the history of the kingdom include inscriptions, written records in the Mysore palace and contemporary literary sources in the Kannada language such as the Kanteerava Narasaraja Vijayama and the Chikkadevaraja Vamshavali. The origins of the kingdom, however, remain obscure, notwithstanding legends. The first mention of the Wodeyar family is in 16th century Kannada literature from the time of the Vijayanagara king Achyuta Deva Raya, while the Mysore kingdom's own earliest available inscription is from the rule of the petty chief Timmaraja II in 1551. It is known that the kingdom originated as a small state based in the modern city of Mysore and was founded by two brothers, Yaduraya (also known as Vijaya) and Krishnaraya. The origin of the brothers, though, is still a matter of debate, with some historians claiming a northern origin at Dwaraka, while others claim a local Karnataka origin.

Autonomy, consolidation and growth

The kings who followed Yaduraya ruled as vassals of the Vijayanagara empire until the decline of the latter in 1565. boLa Chamaraja - the first ruler of any political significance among them, is said to have withheld tribute to the nominal Vijayanagara monarch Aravidu Ramaraya . Upon Ramaraya's death, the Wodeyars began to assert themselves further and Raja Wodeyar (1578-1617) wrested control of Srirangapatna from the the Vijayanagara mahamandaleshvara(resident) Aravidu Tirumalla - a development which elicited, if only ex post facto, the tacit acknowledgement of Venkatapati Raya - the incumbent of a stuttering Vijayanagar empire ruled from Chandragiri. Raja Wodeyar's period also saw some territorial expansion and territory was siezed from Jaggadeva Raya, the cheftain of Channapatna to the north.

Consequently, by 1612-13, the Wodeyars exercised a great deal of autonomy and even as they acknowledged inscriptions and proclamations of the overlordship of the Aravidus, transfers of revenue to Vijayanagara stopped. This was in marked contrast to the major Nayakas of the Tamil country who continued to pay off Chandragiri well into the 1630s. Chamaraja (1617-37) and his successor Kanthirava Narasaraja attempted to further expand northwards but were thwarted by the Bijapur sultanate and its Maratha subordinates. Expansionist ambitions then turned southwards into Tamil country and Kanthirava acquired Satyamangalam (northern Coimbatore) while his successor Doddadevaraja expanded further to take western Tamil country - Erode and Dharmapuri. This period was followed by a period of complex geopolitical changes, when in the 1670s both the Marathas and the Mughals pressed into the Deccan.

Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar (1672-1704) who ruled during much of this period, managed to not only survive the exigencies, but also further expanded territory, sometimes even by forging strategic alliances with the Marathas and the Mughals. Thus the kingdom soon grew to include Salem and Bangalore to the east, Hassan to the west, Tumkur to the North and the rest of Coimbatore to the south. Despite the expansion, however, the kingdom continued to remain landlocked and Chikkadevarja's attempt to remedy this brought Mysore into conflict with the Ikkeri and Kodagu - relatively minor but formidable opponents. The Keladi Nayakas of Ikkeri controlled the Kanara coast while the Kodagu Rajas dominated the considerable but sparsely populated hills of the Eastern ghats which lay in between. The conflict brought mixed results as while Mysore annexed Periyapatna, it suffered humiliating defeat at Palupare.

Nevertheless, by 1700, just before it passed on to Mukarasu Kanthirava's (1704-1713) hands, Mysore had grown to account for considerable territory in the heart of south india, extending from the Western ghats to the western fringes of the Coromandel plain. It also was now formally a tributary of the Mughal empire and the period also saw sweeping administrative reforms - much of which may have been the result of Mughal influence. By the 1720s however, with the Mughal empire in decline, further complications arose with Mughal residents at both Arcot and Sira claiming tribute. The years that followed saw Dodda Krishnaraja tread cautiously on the matter while also keeping the Kodagu rajas and the Marathas at bay. By the 1730s however, power fell into the hands of the Kalale brothers - Dalwai Nanjarajiah and Sarvadhikari Devarajiah and the Wodeyars were relegated to being titular heads. During the latter part of the rule of Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, Haider Ali, a captain in the army, rose to prominence. His victory against the Marathas at Bangalore in 1758, resulting in the annexation of their territory, made him an iconic figure. In honour of his achievements, the king gave him the title "Nawab Haider Ali Khan Bahadur".

Under Haider and Tipu

Template:Mysore Rulers Infobox Though illiterate, Haider Ali has earned an important place in the history of Karnataka for his fighting skills and administrative acumen. By 1761, the Maratha menace had diminished and by 1763, Haider Ali had captured the Keladi kingdom, defeated the rulers of Bilgi, Baidanur and Gutti and extended the Mysore kingdom up to Dharwad and Bellary. Between 1766 and 1796, Mysore was ruled by Nanjaraja Wodeyar, King Chamaraja Wodeyar VII and King Chamaraja Wodeyar VIII, who, like their immediate predecessors, were kings in title only. An alliance against Mysore had been formed by the Marathas, the Nizam of Golconda and the British, culminating in the first Anglo-Mysore war in 1767. The war was a victory for Haider Ali, who drove the British up to modern Chennai and dictated peace terms. By 1779, Haider Ali had captured parts of modern Tamil Nadu and Kerala in the south, extending the Kingdom's area to about 80,000 mi² (205,000 km²). Haider Ali befriended the French and by 1780 made alliances with the Marathas and the Nizam, only to be betrayed by them in a crucial war in the Tamil region. He died as fighting continued with the British, and was succeeded by his son Tipu Sultan. Tipu continued hostilities against the British in the second Anglo-Mysore war.

Tipu, popularly known as the "Tiger of Mysore", defeated the British in Wandiwash in 1783, but lost some regions in modern coastal Karnataka to them. He also lost the Kittur, Nargund and Badami territories to the Marathas. Tipu's attack on the Kingdom of Travancore, a British ally, resulted in the third Anglo-Mysore war. By 1792, the British besieged Srirangapatna, resulting in Tipu's defeat. Half his territories were seized and two of his sons were taken hostage. A humiliated but indomitable Tipu formed an alliance with the French, the Amir of Afghanistan and the Sultanate of Turkey, while the British were backed by the Marathas and Nizam of Golconda. In 1799, Tipu died fighting in the fourth Anglo-Mysore war, heralding the end of the Kingdom's independence. Modern Indian historians consider Tipu Sultan an inveterate enemy of the British, an able administrator and an innovator.

Princely State

Following Tipu's fall, a part of the kingdom of Mysore was annexed and divided between the Madras Presidency and the British vassals. The remaining territory was formed into a princely state and the five-year-old scion of the Wodeyar family, Krishnaraja Wodeyar III, was installed on the throne by the British. Because the ruler was a minor, the administration was run by Purniah, the first Diwan (minister) of Mysore. Mysore paid an annual tribute to the British Raj and a subsidy for maintaining a standing British army at Mysore.

As Diwan, Purniah earned praise from the British for his progressive and innovative administration. In 1811, he retired from service following the 16th birthday of the boy king. In 1831, dissatisfied with the economy of the princely state and citing mal-administration, a situation brought about by corrupt local officials (tashildars), the British took direct control of the princely state. Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III spent most of his time encouraging the fine arts, resulting in the development of Carnatic music and Kannada literature. For the next fifty years, Mysore was subject to the rule of commissioners, who were British-appointed officials. In 1876–77, towards the end of the direct British rule, Mysore was struck by a devastating famine with estimated mortality figures which ranged between 700,000 and 1,100,000, or nearly a fifth of the population. Shortly thereafter, Maharaja Chamaraja Wodeyar, who was educated in the British system, took over the Mysore administration in 1881, following the success of a lobby set up by the Wodeyar dynasty that was in favour of rendition. From then onwards, until Indian independence in 1947, Mysore remained a princely state under the British Raj with the Wodeyars continuing their rule.

After the demise of Maharaja Chamaraja Wodeyar IX, Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV, still a boy of eleven ascended the throne in 1895. His mother Maharani Kemparajammanniyavaru ruled as regent until Krishnaraja Wodeyar took over the reins on 8 February 1902. Under his rule, with Sir M. Vishweshwariah as his Diwan, the maharaja set about transforming Mysore into a progressive and modern state, particularly in industry, education, agriculture and art. Such were the strides that Mysore made that Mahatma Gandhi called the maharaja a Rajarishi (a saintly king). Paul Brunton, the British philosopher and orientalist, John Gunther, the American author, and British statesman Lord Samuel praised the ruler's efforts. Much of the pioneering work in educational infrastructure that took place during this period would serve Karnataka invaluably in the coming decades. The maharaja was an accomplished musician, and like his predecessors, avidly patronised the development of the fine arts. His reign is described by some historians as the "Golden age of Mysore". He was followed by his nephew Jayachamaraja Wodeyar who proved a worthy successor in the years leading up to Indian independence. The rule of the Wodeyar dynasty came to an end when Mysore joined the Indian union following the instrument of accession signed by Jayachamaraja Wodeyar on 9 August 1947.

Administration

Main article: Administration of the Kingdom of Mysore

There are no records relating to the administration of the Mysore territory during the Vijayanagara Empire's reign (1399–1565). The first sign that the kingdom had established itself in the area was the issuing of gold coins (Kanthirayi phanam) resembling those of the erstwhile Vijayanagara Empire during Narasaraja Wodeyar's rule. The kingdom's financial position improved further during the rule of King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar, who increased the value of the Treasury to 90,000,000 Pagoda (a unit of currency) and founded the Attara Kacheri, the central secretariat comprising eighteen departments. During Haider Ali's rule, the kingdom was divided into five provinces (Asofis) of unequal size, comprising 171 Paraganas (taluks) in total. When Tipu Sultan became the de facto ruler, the kingdom, which encompassed 160,000 km² (62,000 mi²), was divided into 37 Asofi and a total of 124 taluks (Amil). Each Asofi had a governor, or Asof, and one deputy Asof. The taluk was headed by an Amildar and a Patel was in charge of a group of villages. The central administration comprised six departments headed by ministers, each aided by an advisory council of up to four members.

When the princely state came under direct British rule in 1831, early commissioners Lushington, Briggs and Morrison were followed by Mark Cubbon, who took charge in 1834. He made Bangalore the capital and divided the princely state into four divisions, each under a British superintendent. The state was further divided into 120 taluks with 85 taluk courts, with all lower level administration in the Kannada language. The office of the commissioner had eight departments; revenue, post, police, cavalry, public works, medical, animal husbandry, judiciary and education. The judiciary was hierarchical with the commissioners' court at the apex, followed by the Huzur Adalat, four superintending courts and eight Sadar Munsiff courts at the lowest level. Lewin Bowring became the chief commissioner in 1862 and held the position until 1870. During his tenure, the property "Registration Act", the "Indian Penal code" and "Code of Criminal Procedure" came into effect and the judiciary was separated from the executive branch of the administration.

Rangacharlu, a native of Chennai, was made the Diwan. Under him, the first Representative Assembly of British India, with 144 members, was formed in 1881. He was followed by Sheshadri Iyer in 1883 during whose tenure gold mining at the Kolar Gold Fields began, the Shivanasamudra hydroelectric project was initiated in 1899 (the first such major attempt in India) and electricity and drinking water (the latter through pipes) was supplied to Bangalore. Sheshadri Iyer was followed by P.N. Krishna Murthy, who founded The Secretariat Manual to maintain records and the Co-operative Department in 1905, V.P. Madhava Rao who focussed on conservation of forests and T. Ananda Rao, who finalised the Kannambadi Dam project.

Sir M. Visveshwarayya, popularly known as the "Maker of Modern Mysore", holds a key place in the history of Karnataka. An engineer by education, he became the Diwan in 1909. Under his tenure, membership of the Mysore Legislative Assembly was increased from 18 to 24, and it was given the power to discuss the state budget. The Mysore Economic Conference was expanded into three committees; industry and commerce, education, and agriculture, with publications in English and Kannada. Important projects commissioned during his time included the construction of the Kannambadi Dam, the founding of the Mysore Iron Works at Bhadravathi, founding of the Mysore University in 1916 and the Visveshwarayya College of Engineering in Bangalore.

Sir Mirza Ismail took office as Diwan in 1926 and built on the foundation laid by his predecessor. Amongst his contributions were the expansion of the Bhadravathi Iron Works, the founding of a cement and paper factory in Bhadravathi and the launch of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited. A man with a penchant for gardens, he founded the Brindavan Gardens (Krishnaraja Sagar) and built the Kaveri River high-level canal to irrigate 120,000 acres (490 km²) in modern Mandya district.

Economy

Main article: Economy of the Kingdom of Mysore

The vast majority of the people lived in villages and agriculture was their main occupation. The economy of the kingdom was based on agriculture. Grains, pulses, vegetables and flowers were cultivated. Commercial crops included sugarcane and cotton. The agrarian population consisted of landlords (gavunda, zamindar, heggadde) who tilled the land by employing a number of landless labourers, usually paying them in grain. Minor cultivators were also willing to hire themselves out as labourers if the need arose. It was due to the availability of these landless labourers that kings and landlords were able to execute major projects such as palaces, temples, mosques, anicuts (dams) and tanks. Because land was abundant and the population relatively sparse, no rent was charged on land ownership. Instead, landowners paid tax for cultivation, which amounted to up to one-half of all harvested produce.

Tipu Sultan is credited to have founded state trading depots in various locations of his kingdom. In addition, he founded depots in foreign locations such as Karachi, Jeddah and Muscat, where Mysore products were sold. During Tipu's rule French technology was used for the first time in carpentry and smithy, Chinese technology was used for sugar production, and technology from Bengal helped improve the sericulture industry. State factories were established in Kanakapura and Taramandelpeth for producing cannons and gunpowder respectively. The state held the monopoly in the production of essentials such as sugar, salt, iron, pepper, cardamom, betel nut, tobacco and sandalwood, as well as the extraction of incense oil from sandalwood and the mining of silver, gold and precious stones. Sandalwood was exported to China and the Persian Gulf countries and sericulture was developed in twenty-one centres within the kingdom.

This system changed under the British, when tax payments were made in cash, and were used for the maintenance of the army, police and other civil and public establishments. A portion of the tax was transferred to England as the "Indian tribute". Unhappy with the loss of their traditional revenue system and the problems they faced, peasants rose in rebellion in many parts of south India. After 1800, the Cornwallis land reforms came into effect. Reade, Munro, Graham and Thackeray were some administrators who improved the economic conditions of the masses. However, the homespun textile industry suffered during British rule, with the exception of the producers of the finest cloth and the coarse cloth which was popular with the rural masses. This was due to the manufacturing mills of Manchester, Liverpool and Scotland being more than a match for the traditional handweaving industry, especially in spinning and weaving.

The economic revolution in England and the tariff policies of the British also caused massive de-industrialization in other sectors throughout India and Mysore. For example, the gunny bag weaving business had been a monopoly of the Goniga people, which they lost when the British began ruling the area. The import of a chemical substitute for saltpetre (potassium nitrate) affected the Uppar community, the traditional makers of saltpetre for use in gunpowder. The import of kerosene affected the Ganiga community which supplied oils. Foreign enamel and crockery industries had an impact on the native pottery business and mill-made blankets replaced the country-made blankets called kambli. This economic fallout led to the formation of community-based social welfare organisations to help those within the community to cope better with their new economic situation, including youth hostels for students seeking education and shelter. However, the British economic policies created a class structure consisting of a newly established middle class comprising various blue and white-collared occupational groups, including agents, brokers, lawyers, teachers, civil servants and physicians. Due to a more flexible caste hierarchy, the middle class contained a heterogeneous mix of people from different castes.

Culture

Religion

Temple pond at Shravanabelagola, built by King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar

Cheluva Narayana Swamy temple at Melkote

19th century Shweta Varahaswamy temple in the Mysore Palace grounds

The early kings of the Wodeyar dynasty worshipped the Hindu god Shiva. The later kings, starting from the 17th century, took to Vaishnavism (worship of the Hindu god Vishnu). According to musicologist Meera Rajaram Pranesh, King Raja Wodeyar I was a devotee of the god Vishnu, King Dodda Devaraja Wodeyar was honoured with the title Deva Brahmana Paripalaka ("Protector of Brahmins") for his support to Brahmins, and maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III was devoted to the goddess Chamundeshwari (a form of Hindu goddess Durga). Historian Suryanath Kamath claims King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar was a staunch Srivaishnava (follower of Sri Vaishnavism, a sect of Vaishnavism). Historians Aiyangar and Smith concur that some of the kings including the celebrated Narasaraja Wodeyar and Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar were Vaishnavas, but suggest this may not have been the case with all Wodeyar rulers. The rise of the modern day Mysore city as a centre of south Indian culture has been traced from the period of their sovereignty . Raja Wodeyar I initiated the celebration of the Dasara festival in Mysore, a proud tradition of the erstwhile Vijayanagara royal family. However, the kings were tolerant to other sects and religious faiths. This is evidenced by the high ranking non-Vaishnavites in their courts, including Kalale Nanjarajaiah, a staunch Shaiva, who served under Krishnaraja Wodeyar I, and Haider Ali, a Shia Muslim who rose to power and received much adulation in the court of Krishnaraja Wodeyar II.

Jainism, though in decline during the late medieval period, also enjoyed the patronage of the Mysore kings, who made endowments to the Jain monastic order at Shravanabelagola. This patronage may have been in part due to the friendship between the Mysore royal family and some Jain noble families, including the Urs and Paleygars, and also the fact that some Mysore queens were Jains. Inscriptions from 1634 prove that the Mysore kings made munificent grants for the renovation and restoration of Jain monoliths and temples. Chamaraja Wodeyar IV made a grant of four villages to the pontiff of Shravanabelagola and brought him back from Gerosoppa, where the pontiff had taken refuge to escape the wrath of a local tax collector. In 1611, Raja Wodeyar I began an annuity of 3,000 rupees for the maintenance of the Gomateshwara monolith and 33 other Jain temples in the area. The incumbent ruler of Mysore either performed the Mahamastakabhisheka or presided over it in the years 1672, 1675, 1800, 1925, and 1940. In 1830, King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III donated five villages in and around Shravanabelagola to the Jain monastic order.

The contact between South India and Islam goes back to the 7th century when trade between Hindu kingdoms and Islamic caliphates thrived. These Muslim traders settled on the Malabar coast and married local Hindu women, and their descendants came to be known as Mappillas. By the 14th century, Muslims had become a significant minority in the south, though the advent of Portuguese missionaries checked their growth. Haider Ali, though a devout Muslim, did not allow his faith to interfere with the administration of the predominantly Hindu kingdom. Historians are, however, divided on the intentions of Haider Ali's son, Tipu Sultan. It has been claimed that Tipu raised Hindus to prominent positions in his administration, made generous grants to Hindu temples and brahmins, and generally respected other faiths, and that any religious conversions that Tipu undertook were as punishment to those who rebelled against his authority. However, this has been countered by other historians who claim that Tipu Sultan treated the non-Muslims of Mysore far better than those of the Malabar, Raichur and Kodagu regions. They opine that Tipu was responsible for mass conversions of Christians and Hindus in these regions, either by giving them tax incentives and revenue benefits or by force.

The spread of Christianity in South India has been traced back to the arrival of the Portuguese on the west coast. It was through the patronage of these devout Roman Catholics that chaplains and missionaries went to various regions to encourage people to join the Christian faith. Some evidence, however, suggests that not all of these conversions were peaceful and that the Portuguese soldiers may also have undertaken coercive methods to achieve their ends. Saint Francis Xavier, perhaps the most respected Christian saint in India, gave a new boost to the growth of Christianity. He travelled from village to village, healing the sick, burying the dead and doing what he could to reduce the miseries of the poor and underprivileged. The institutions established in his name are a testimony to his popularity and achievements.

Lo Cinnami, a Jesuit from Goa, was the founder of the Mysore mission. The Portuguese patronage called Padraodo was suppressed by the Propaganda of the more hostile European powers, including the English, the French, the Dutch and the Danes. The Propaganda sent out Capuchins, the Discalced Carmelites, the Theatines and the missionaries of the Society of Paris. The foundation stone of the Protestant church in India was laid by the Danish settlement at Tranquebar. Ziegenbalg and Plutschan were the first missionaries to arrive in 1709, under the patronage of King Frederick IV of Denmark. The best known Lutheran missionary connected with the Danish royal mission was Christian Frederick Schwartz. After his death, the Lutheran church declined and was absorbed by the Anglican church, whose reach became significant after the rise of British power in India in the 19th century.

Society

Main article: Society of the Kingdom of Mysore

The Crawford Hall on Mysore University campus, houses the university offices

Mysore painting depicting the Hindu Goddess Lakshmi

Mural of Battle of Pollilur in Tipu's summer palace

Prior to the 18th century, the society of the kingdom followed age-old and deeply established norms of social interaction between people. Accounts by contemporaneous travellers indicate the widespread practice of the Hindu caste system and of animal sacrifices during the Mahanavami nine day celebrations. Later, fundamental changes occurred due to the struggle between native and foreign powers. Though wars between the Hindu kingdoms and the Sultanates continued, the battles between native rulers (including Muslims) and the newly arrived British, took centre stage. The spread of English education, the introduction of the printing press and the criticism of the prevailing social system by Christian missionaries helped make the society more flexible. The rise of modern nationalism throughout India also had its impact on Mysore.

With the advent of British power, English education gained prominence in addition to traditional education in local languages. These changes were orchestrated by Lord Elphinstone, the governor of the Madras Presidency. His plan became the constitution of the central collegiate institution or University Board in 1841. Accordingly, a high school department of the university was established. For imparting education in the interior regions, schools were raised in principal towns which eventually were elevated to college level, with each college becoming central to many zilla schools (local schools). The earliest English-medium schools appeared in 1833 in Mysore and spread across the region. In 1858, the department of education was founded in Mysore and by 1881, there were an estimated 2,087 English medium schools in the state of Mysore. Higher education became available with the formation of Bangalore Central College in Bangalore (1870), Maharaja's college (1879), Maharani's college (1901) and the Mysore University (1916) in Mysore and the St. Agnes college in Mangalore (1921).

Social reforms aimed at removing practices such as sati and at social discrimination based upon untouchability, as well as demands for the emancipation of the lower classes, swept across India and influenced Mysore territory. In 1894, the kingdom passed laws to abolish the marriage of girls below the age of eight. Remarriage of widowed women and marriage of destitute women was encouraged, and in 1923, women were granted the permission to exercise their franchise in elections. There were, however, uprisings against British authority in the Mysore territory, notably the Kodagu uprising in 1835 (after the British dethroned the local ruler Chikkaviraraja) and the Kanara uprising of 1837. The era of printing heralded by Christian missionaries resulted in the founding of printing presses across the kingdom. The publication of ancient and contemporary Kannada books (such as the Pampa Bharata and the Jaimini Bharata), a Kannada-language Bible, a bilingual dictionary and a Kannada newspaper (called Kannada Samachara) began in the early 19th century. Aluru Venkata Rao published a consolidated Kannada history glorifying the achievements of Kannadigas in his book Karnataka Gatha Vaibhava.

Classical English and Sanskrit plays, and native Yakshagana plays influenced the Kannada stage and produced famous dramatists like Gubbi Veeranna. The public began to enjoy Carnatic music through its broadcast via public address systems set up on the palace grounds. Mysore paintings, which were inspired by the Bengal Renaissance, were created by artists such as Sundarayya, Ala Singarayya, and B. Venkatappa.

Literature

Main article: Kannada literature, 1600–1900 CE

Opening page of the musical treatise Sritattvanidhi proclaiming Krishnaraja Wodeyar III as the author

A Yakshagana artist dressed as a Rakshasa or demon

The era of the Kingdom of Mysore is considered an important age of Kannada literature, especially in the field of musical treatises, compositions and dramas. Not only was the Mysore court adorned by famous Brahmin and Virashaiva writers and composers, but the kings themselves were accomplished in the fine arts and made important contributions. Though traditional literature in philosophy and religion was written, a wave of writings in such new genres as chronicles (vamshavali), biographies, histories, encyclopedias, novels, dramas, and treatises on music and musical compositions became popular. A unique and native form of poetic literature with dramatic representation called Yakshagana gained popularity in the 18th century. Another remarkable development of the later period was the influence of English literature and classical Sanskrit literature on Kannada literature.

Govinda Vaidya, a native of Srirangapatna, wrote a eulogy of his patron King Narasaraja Wodeyar called Kanteerava Narasaraja Vijayam. Written in sangatya metre (a composition meant to be rendered to the accompaniment of a musical instrument) and melodious Kannada, the book describes the lifestyle of the kingdom, the king's court, the popular music and the types of musical compositions of the age in twenty-six chapters (sandhis). King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar, the earliest composer of the dynasty, received the honorific Sahitya Vidyanikasha Prastharam for his interest in the fine arts. To him is ascribed the famous treatise on music in Kannada called Geetha Gopala. Though inspired by Jayadeva's Sanskrit writing Geetha Govinda, it had an originality of its own and was written in saptapadi metre (seven beats per line). This is the first writing that propagates the Vaishnava faith in the Kannada language. Contemporary poets who left their mark on the entire Kannada speaking region include the brahmin poet Lakshmisa and the itinerant Virashaiva poet Sarvajna. Female poets also played a role in the development of Kannada literature, with Cheluvambe (the queen of Krishnaraja Wodeyar I), Haridasa Helavanakatte Giriyamma, Sri Rangamma (1685) and Sanchi Honnamma (Hadibadeya Dharma, late 17th century) writing notable works.

The rule of King Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II is considered the age of Yakshagana compositions. A polyglot, he authored fourteen Yakshaganas in various languages though all are written in Kannada script. Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III was a prolific writer in Kannada for which he earned the honorific Abhinava Bhoja (a comparison to King Bhoja). Over forty writings are attributed to him of which a poetical romance called Saugandika Parinaya written in two versions, a sangatya and a drama, are popular. In this writing, the author imaginatively narrates the story of the sage Durvasa who curses Devendra (the Hindu god Indra) to be born as Sucharitra, the son of Sugandharaya, the king of Ratnapuri. Devendra's wife Shachidevi takes birth as Sougandhika and marries Sucharitra. He has written three landmark musical treatises called Sri Tatwanidhi (with iconography), Swara Chudamani and Sara Sangraha Bharata.

Basavappa Shastry, a native of Mysore and a luminary in the court of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III and Maharaja Chamaraja Wodeyar IX, is known as Kannada Nataka Pitamaha ("the father of Kannada theatre"). Shastri composed the first state anthem of the Mysore Kingdom called Kayou Sri Gowri for the coronation of Chamaraja Wodeyar IX. Because of his proficiency in Kannada and Sanskrit and his knowledge of the fine arts, he was appointed the head of Chamaraja Nataka Sabha (a drama consortium) in 1882. Basavappa Shastry authored dramas in Kannada and translated William Shakespeare's "Othello" to Shurasena Charite with the help of D.C. Subba Rao. Among his translations from Sanskrit to Kannada are Kalidasa, Abhignyana Shakuntala, Vikramorvasheeya, Malavikagnimitra, Uttara Rama Charite, Chanda Koushika Nataka, Malathi Madhava and Ratnavali.

Music

Main article: Musicians of the Kingdom of Mysore

Legendary Vainikas – Veene Subbanna and Veene Sheshanna (photographed in 1902)

Though most Mysore kings and rulers patronised music and many were noted musicians themselves, the golden age of Carnatic music in the Kingdom started from the reign of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III. In particular, the reign of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV is considered a high point. During this time Mysore developed a distinct school of music which gave importance to raga and bhava and became a seat of Carnatic music.

Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III was a musician, musicologist and composer of merit. His compositions bear the mudra (nom de plume) '"Chamundi'" or '"Chamundeshwari'", the name of the Wodeyar family deity. He composed javali (light lyrics) and devotional songs based on a philosophical theme in the Kannada language under the title Anubhava pancharatna. Javali in Carnatic music have their roots in Mysore and are first mentioned in the king's writings as javadi. Veena Sheshanna, considered one of the greatest exponents of the veena, was born in Mysore in 1852. He was appointed court musician during the rule of Maharaja Chamaraja Wodeyar IX. His achievements in classical music won Mysore a premier place in the art of instrumental Carnatic music and he was given the title "Vainika Shikhamani" by Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV.

Mysore Vasudevacharya was a noted musician and composer born on 28 May 1865 in Mysore. He holds the unique distinction of being patronised by four generations of Mysore kings and rulers and for being court musician to three of them. A master of both Carnatic and Hindustani raga, he delivered the opening Sanskrit shloka at the Indian National Congress convention at Belagavi in 1924, represented Mysore in the "Akhila Bharateeya Sangeeta Parishat" concert held in Gwalior and earned the titles "Sangeeta Shastra Ratna" ("gem of music") and "Sangeeta Shastra Visharada". Credited to him are compositions in Sanskrit and Telugu under the pen name Vasudeva and two books in Kannada.

H.L. Muthiah Bhagavatar was a famous musician and composer of carnatic music. A native of Tirunelveli (in modern Tamil Nadu) and a student of Samabasiva Iyer in Tiruvayyar, he was appointed as a court musician at Mysore in 1927 and was honoured with the title "Gayaka Shikamani" by his patron Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV. Four hundred compositions in Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu and Tamil under the pen name "Harikesha" are credited to him. In addition, he wrote an important treatise on music in Tamil called "Sangeeta Kalpadrumam" and a biography of Tyagaraja, "Srimat Tyagaraja Vijaya", in Sanskrit. He is considered one of the most important composers of the post-Tyagaraja period.

T. Chowdiah, a noted personality in the field of Carnatic music, was born on 1 January 1894 in Tirumakudalu Narasipura, near Mysore. As a student of the well-known musician Bidaram Krishnappa, Chowdiah emerged as an accomplished violinist. The ambidextrous Chowdiah is known to have played music with all the famous Carnatic musicians of his day. In 1939, he was appointed court musician by Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV and received such titles as "Sangeeta Ratna" and "Sangeeta Kalanidhi". He is credited with many compositions in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit under the pen name "Trimakuta".

Architecture

The Gopura (tower) of the Chamundeshwari Temple on the Chamundi Hills. The temple is dedicated to Mysore's patron deity

The architectural style of courtly and royal structures in the kingdom underwent profound changes during British rule–a mingling of European traditions with native elements. The Hindu temples in the kingdom were built in typical South Indian Dravidian style. When in power, Tipu Sultan constructed a palace and a mosque in Srirangapatna, his capital. However, it is the city of Mysore that is best known for its royal palaces, earning it the nickname "City of Palaces". The city's main palace, the Mysore Palace, also called the Amba Vilas Palace, was designed by the English architect Henry Irwin in 1897, though there is evidence that a royal structure had existed on the same site a few centuries earlier. The palace's exterior is Indo-Saracenic in style but the wealth of detail inside is distinctly Hoysala in nature. Domes, arches, colonnades and carved pillars, as well as its size, add to this palace's notability. The octagonal Kalyana mantapa (Marriage Hall) on the ground floor has 26 canvas paintings on its walls depicting the Dasara procession. On the first floor, a marble staircase leads to a grand colonnaded Durbar hall containing famous paintings, including one of the Hindu god Vishnu on the ceiling. The opulent Amba Vilas hall, with its carved teakwood ceiling, white marble floors, semi-precious inlay work in the Agra style, silver door with a depiction of the dashavatara and dikpalas (guardians), teak doors inlayed with ivory, Belgian stained glass, cast iron pillars from Glasgow, etched glass windows and chandeliers are worthy of mention.

The Jaganmohan Palace at Mysore – now an art gallery which is home to some of Raja Ravi Varma's masterpieces

Tipu Sultan's tomb at Srirangapatna

File:Lalitha-mahal-palace.jpg

Lalitha Mahal at Mysore – now a five-star hotel, plays host to visiting dignitaries and VIPs

The Lalitha Mahal Palace was built in 1921 by E.W. Fritchley under the commission of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV. The architectural style is called "Renaissance" and exhibits concepts from English manor houses and Italian palazzos. The central dome is believed to be modelled on St. Paul's Cathedral in London. Other important features are the Italian marble staircase, the polished wooden flooring in the banquet and dance halls, and the Belgian cut glass lamps. The Jaganmohan Palace was commissioned in 1861 and was completed in 1910. The three storeyed building with attractive domes, finials and cuppolas was the venue of many a royal celebration. It is now called the Chamarajendra Art Gallery and houses a rich collection of artifacts.

The Mysore University campus, also called "Manasa Gangotri", is home to several architecturally interesting buildings. Some of them are in European style and were completed in late 19th century. They include the Jayalakshmi Vilas mansion, the Crawford Hall, the Oriental Research Institute (built between 1887 and 1891) with its Ionic and Corinthian columns, and the Athara Kutchery (1887, "district offices"). The Athara Kutchery, which initially served as the office of the British commissioner, has an octogonel dome and a finial that adds to its beauty. The maharaja's summer palace, built in 1880, is called the Lokaranjan Mahal, and initially served as a school for royalty. The Rajendra Vilas Palace, built in the Indo-British style atop the Chamundi Hill, was commissioned in 1922 and completed in 1938 by Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV. Other royal mansions built by the Mysore rulers were the Chittaranjan Mahal in Mysore and the Bangalore Palace in Bangalore, a structure built on the lines of England's Windsor Castle. The Central Food Technical Research Institude (Cheluvamba Mansion), built in baroque European renaissance style, was once the residence of princes Cheluvambaamani Avaru, a sister of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV. Its extensive pilaster work and mosaic flooring are noteworthy.

Famous among the kingdom's temples is the Chamundeshwari Temple atop the Chamundi Hill. The earliest structure here was consecrated in the 12th century and was later patronised by the Mysore rulers. Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III added a Dravidian-style gopuram in 1827. The temple has silver-plated doors with images of deities. Other images include those of the Hindu god Ganesha and of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III with his three queens. Surrounding the main palace in Mysore and inside the fort are five temples, built in various periods. The Prasanna Krishnaswamy Temple was commissioned in 1829 by Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III. It contains sculpted images of Hindu deities, a statue of the king and his queens and a shrine for Sage Atri, with whom the Wodeyar dynasty have a legendary association. The Lakshmiramana Swamy Temple, the oldest of the fort temples, existed prior to 1499. Legend has it that King Raja Wodeyar survived after having been poisoned at the temple because of his faith in Vishnu, the temple's deity. The Trinesvara Swamy Temple, built for the three-eyed god Shiva, has existed since the time of King Raja Wodeyar and was renovated by successive kings. The Shweta Varaha Swamy Temple is unique in that it contains many aspects of Hoysala architecture. Built by Purniah, the Diwan of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III, it is believed to contain structures taken from a then-existing Hoysala temple. The Prasanna Venkataramana Swami Temple, a Vishnu temple containing 12 murals of the Wodeyar rulers, was built by Subbaraya Dasa, an officer of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III, in 1836.

Tipu Sultan built a wooden colonnaded palace called the Dariya Daulat Palace (lit, "garden of the wealth of the sea") in Srirangapatna in 1784. Built in the Indo-Saracenic style, the palace is known for its intricate woodwork comprising of ornamental arches, striped columns and floral designs, and paintings. The west wall of the palace is covered with murals depicting Tipu Sultan's victory over Colonel Baillie's army at Pollilur, near Kanchipuram in 1780. One mural shows Tipu enjoying the fragrance of a bouquet of flowers while the battle is in progress. In that painting, the French soldiers' moustaches distinguish them from the cleanshaven British soldiers. Also in Srirangapatna is the Gumbaz mausoleum, built by Tipu Sultan in 1784. It houses the graves of Tipu and Haider Ali. The granite base is capped with a dome built of brick and pilaster.

See also

• List of Indian Princely States

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