Manchu people: Difference between revisions
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|related = [[Evenks]] • [[Nani people|Nanai]] • [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] • [[Udege people|Udege]] • [[Sibe]]<br>and other [[Tungusic peoples]] |
|related = [[Evenks]] • [[Nani people|Nanai]] • [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] • [[Udege people|Udege]] • [[Sibe]]<br>and other [[Tungusic peoples]] |
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The '''Manchus'''<ref group=n> Also known as "'''Man'''", "'''Bannermen'''", "'''Tartars'''", "'''Red tasseled Manchus'''" and "'''Red tasseled Mongols'''". <br> "'''Man'''" is a Chinese abbreviation, see [[:zh:满族|'''Manchus''' on Chinese Wikipedia]]. Vietnamese also adopted the name from Chinese, See [[:vi:Người Mãn|'''Manchus''' on Vietnamese Wikipedia]], also see [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/361411/Manchu Manchu (people) on Encyclopædia Britannica];<br>The althernative "'''Bannermen'''" (旗人 in Chinese) was named after [[Eight Banners]]. See [[:zh:满族|'''Manchus''' on Chinese Wikipedia]];<br> "'''Tartars'''" was mostly called by European missionaries in 17th century, see: {{Cite book|first=Martin|last=Martinius |title=Bellum Tartaricumor, or, The conquest of the great and most renowned empire of China, by the invasion of the Tartars|publisher=E. Tyler for I. Crook in London |year=1655|isbn=|url=http://openlibrary.org/books/OL6948424M/The_history_of_that_great_and_renowned_monarchy_of_China.|ref=harv}};<br>Manchus are also famous as "'''Red tasseled Manchus'''" (红缨满洲 in original). Because they have red tassels on their traditional hat as adornment ({{harvnb|Zheng|2010|p=79}}). Accourding to this, Jasaktu Khan of Khalka Right Banner of Outer Mongolia called Manchus, "'''Red tasseled Mongols'''" ({{harvnb|Various authors|2008|p=262|ref=harv}}: "汉人八十万众，原系我攻城敌也，今闻尔已收服，念总属我'''红缨蒙古'''所得，甚为喜悦，故去年我曾遣使朝贺。" Literally: "Chinese who have 800,000 soldiers were my enemies. I heard you have conquered them. At least it belongs to our '''red tasseled Mongols''', so I feel very happy and that was the reason I sent envoy to pay homage to you last year.")</ref> ([[Manchu language|Manchu]]: [[Image:Manjui gisun.svg|15px]], [[Transliterations of Manchu|Möllendorff]]: manju; {{zh|t=滿族 |s=满族 |p=Mǎnzú}}) are members of an indigenous people of [[Manchuria]]<ref>{{ |
The '''Manchus'''<ref group=n> Also known as "'''Man'''", "'''Bannermen'''", "'''Tartars'''", "'''Red tasseled Manchus'''" and "'''Red tasseled Mongols'''". <br> "'''Man'''" is a Chinese abbreviation, see [[:zh:满族|'''Manchus''' on Chinese Wikipedia]]. Vietnamese also adopted the name from Chinese, See [[:vi:Người Mãn|'''Manchus''' on Vietnamese Wikipedia]], also see [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/361411/Manchu Manchu (people) on Encyclopædia Britannica];<br>The althernative "'''Bannermen'''" (旗人 in Chinese) was named after [[Eight Banners]]. See [[:zh:满族|'''Manchus''' on Chinese Wikipedia]];<br> "'''Tartars'''" was mostly called by European missionaries in 17th century, see: {{Cite book|first=Martin|last=Martinius |title=Bellum Tartaricumor, or, The conquest of the great and most renowned empire of China, by the invasion of the Tartars|publisher=E. Tyler for I. Crook in London |year=1655|isbn=|url=http://openlibrary.org/books/OL6948424M/The_history_of_that_great_and_renowned_monarchy_of_China.|ref=harv}};<br>Manchus are also famous as "'''Red tasseled Manchus'''" (红缨满洲 in original). Because they have red tassels on their traditional hat as an adornment ({{harvnb|Zheng|2010|p=79}}). Accourding to this, Jasaktu Khan of Khalka Right Banner of Outer Mongolia called Manchus, "'''Red tasseled Mongols'''" ({{harvnb|Various authors|2008|p=262|ref=harv}}: "汉人八十万众，原系我攻城敌也，今闻尔已收服，念总属我'''红缨蒙古'''所得，甚为喜悦，故去年我曾遣使朝贺。" Literally: "Chinese who have 800,000 soldiers were my enemies. I heard you have conquered them. At least it belongs to our '''red tasseled Mongols''', so I feel very happy and that was the reason I sent envoy to pay homage to you last year.")</ref> ([[Manchu language|Manchu]]: [[Image:Manjui gisun.svg|15px]], [[Transliterations of Manchu|Möllendorff]]: manju; {{zh|t=滿族 |s=满族 |p=Mǎnzú}}) are members of an indigenous people of [[Manchuria]]<ref>{{harvnb|Merriam-Webster, Inc|2003|p=754}}</ref><ref group=n>[[northeastern China]] and Russia's [[Primorsky Krai]] nowadays</ref> and the largest branch of the [[Tungusic peoples]]. They are distributed throughout China as the fourth largest ethnic group and the third largest [[Ethnic minorities in China|ethnic minority group there]].<ref name="2010年人口普查" /> |
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Manchus conquered China and established the [[Qing Dynasty]] in 1644. The dynasty came to an end in 1912 when the country became a [[Beiyang Government|republic]]. As a result of the [[Manchu conquest of China|conquest]] in the 17th century, almost all the Manchus followed regent prince [[Dorgon]] ( |
Manchus conquered China and established the [[Qing Dynasty]] in 1644. The dynasty came to an end in 1912 when the country became a [[Beiyang Government|republic]]. As a result of the [[Manchu conquest of China|conquest]] in the 17th century, almost all the Manchus followed regent prince [[Dorgon]] ({{MongolUnicode|ᡩᠣᡵᡤᠣᠨ}}) and [[Shunzhi Emperor]] to their new capital [[Beijing]] ([[Manchu language|Manchu]]: {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᡝᡤᡳᠩ}}；[[Transliterations of Manchu|Möllendorff]]: beging<ref>{{harvnb|Hu|1994|p=113}}</ref>) and settled down.<ref name="东北满族134">{{harvnb|Zhang|Zhang|2005|p=134}}</ref> There were only 1524 Banner soldiers left in Manchuria at the time.<ref>{{harvnb|Zhang|Zhang|2005|p=18}}</ref> After the [[Russian–Manchu border conflicts|border conflicts with Russians]], Qing's emperors started to realize the strategic importance of Manchuria and gradually sent Manchus back to where they originally came from.<ref name="东北满族134" /> However, during the period of Qing, Beijing was always the only focal point of Manchus in political, economic and cultural aspects. [[Yongzheng Emperor]] said, "Garrisons are the places of work, Beijing is their homeland."<ref group=n>“驻防之地不过出差之所，京师乃其乡土” in original</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Ortai|1985|p=1326}}</ref> After the fall of Qing Empire, especially the establishments of Manchu autonomous areas by [[PRC]] government, Manchuria became significant to Manchus again. |
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Nowadays, Manchu residents can be found in 31 Chinese provincal regions. Among them, [[Liaoning]] has the largest population and [[Hebei]], [[Heilongjiang]], [[Jilin]], [[Inner Mongolia]] and [[Beijing]] has over 100,000 Manchu residents. About half of the population live in [[Liaoning]] province and about one-fifth in [[Hebei]] province. There are a number of Manchu autonomous counties in both provinces. |
Nowadays, Manchu residents can be found in 31 Chinese provincal regions. Among them, [[Liaoning]] has the largest population and [[Hebei]], [[Heilongjiang]], [[Jilin]], [[Inner Mongolia]] and [[Beijing]] has over 100,000 Manchu residents. About half of the population live in [[Liaoning]] province and about one-fifth in [[Hebei]] province. There are a number of Manchu autonomous counties in both provinces. |
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==History== |
==History== |
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=== Origins and |
=== Origins and Early History === |
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{{main|Sushen|Malgal|Jurchen people}} |
{{main|Sushen|Malgal|Jurchen people}} |
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[[File:The locations of Jurchen tribes in 1600s.jpg|thumb|left|the location of Jurchen tribes at the end of [[Ming Dynasty]]]] |
[[File:The locations of Jurchen tribes in 1600s.jpg|thumb|left|the location of Jurchen tribes at the end of [[Ming Dynasty]]]] |
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The Manchus are descended from the [[Jurchen people]] who earlier established [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)]] in China<ref name ="A">Huang, P.: "New Light on the origins of the Manchu," ''Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies'', vol. 50, no.1 (1990): 239-82. Retrieved from JSTOR database July 18, 2006</ref> but as early as the semi-mythological chronicles of the [[Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors]] there is mention of the [[Sushen]]<ref>{{cite book|title=The Journal of Asian studies, Volume 46, Issues 3-4|author=[[Association for Asian Studies]]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] on behalf of the [[Association for Asian Studies]]|year=1987|page=767}}</ref> a [[Tungusic people]] from the northern [[Manchurian]] region of North East Asia who paid bows and arrows as tribute to [[Shun (Chinese leader)|Shun]] and later to [[Zhou]].<ref> {{harvnb|Meng|2006|pp=7, 9}} </ref> The cognates [[Sushen]] or Jichen (稷真) again appear in the [[Shan Hai Jing]] and [[Book of Wei]] during the dynastic era referring to [[Tungusic]] [[Mohe]] and [[Malgal]] tribes of the far Northeast. <ref>[http://www.jianbo.org/Jwcw/Zhoushu2.htm 《汲冢周书》]</ref> In the 10th century AD the form [[Jurchen]] first appears in the documents of late [[Tang dynasty]] following the destruction of the ethnic-[[Goguryeo]] state of [[Balhae]]. |
The Manchus are descended from the [[Jurchen people]] who earlier established [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)]] in China<ref>{{harvnb|Li|Guan|2003|p=2}}</ref><ref name ="A">Huang, P.: "New Light on the origins of the Manchu," ''Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies'', vol. 50, no.1 (1990): 239-82. Retrieved from JSTOR database July 18, 2006</ref> but as early as the semi-mythological chronicles of the [[Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors]] there is mention of the [[Sushen]],<ref>{{harvnb|Agui|1988|p=1}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Writing Group of Manchu Brief History|2009|p=7}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Li|Guan|2003|p=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Journal of Asian studies, Volume 46, Issues 3-4|author=[[Association for Asian Studies]]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] on behalf of the [[Association for Asian Studies]]|year=1987|page=767}}</ref> a [[Tungusic people]] from the northern [[Manchurian]] region of North East Asia, who paid bows and arrows as tribute to [[Shun (Chinese leader)|Shun]]<ref>{{harvnb|佚名|1879|p=151}}</ref> and later to [[Zhou]].<ref> {{harvnb|Meng|2006|pp=7, 9}} </ref> The cognates [[Sushen]] or Jichen (稷真) again appear in the [[Shan Hai Jing]] and [[Book of Wei]] during the dynastic era referring to [[Tungusic]] [[Mohe]] and [[Malgal]] tribes of the far Northeast. <ref>[http://www.jianbo.org/Jwcw/Zhoushu2.htm 《汲冢周书》]</ref> In the 10th century AD the form [[Jurchen]] first appears in the documents of late [[Tang dynasty]] following the destruction of the ethnic-[[Goguryeo]] state of [[Balhae]]. |
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Following the fall of [[Balhae]] the Jurchens were vassals of the [[Liao dynasty]] of the [[Khitan Empire]]. In the year of 1114, [[Wanyan Aguda]] united the Jurchen tribes and established the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]].<ref name="金史太祖">{{harvnb|Toqto'a|1975|p=19-46}}</ref> His brother and successor, Wanyan Wuqimai successfully perished Liao and [[Song Dynasty|Northern Song]] and made Jurchen state a powerful empire<ref>{{harvnb|Toqto'a|1975|p=47-67}}</ref>. During Jin Dynasty, Jurchens had created their first [[Jurchen script|scripts]] in 1120s. It was mainly derived from [[Khitan script]]<ref name="金史太祖"/>. |
Following the fall of [[Balhae]] the Jurchens were vassals of the [[Liao dynasty]] of the [[Khitan Empire]]. In the year of 1114, [[Wanyan Aguda]] united the Jurchen tribes and established the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]].<ref name="金史太祖">{{harvnb|Toqto'a|1975|p=19-46}}</ref> His brother and successor, Wanyan Wuqimai successfully perished Liao and [[Song Dynasty|Northern Song]] and made Jurchen state a powerful empire<ref>{{harvnb|Toqto'a|1975|p=47-67}}</ref>. During Jin Dynasty, Jurchens had created their first [[Jurchen script|scripts]] in 1120s. It was mainly derived from [[Khitan script]]<ref name="金史太祖"/>. |
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For political purposes, the early Manchu emperors took wives descended from the Mongol Great Khans, so that their descendants (such as the [[Kangxi]] Emperor) would also be seen as legitimate heirs of the Mongol-ruled [[Yuan dynasty]]. During the Qing Dynasty, the Manchu government made efforts to preserve Manchu culture and language. These efforts were largely unsuccessful in that Manchus gradually adopted the customs and language of the surrounding Han Chinese and, by the 19th century, spoken Manchu was rarely used even in the Imperial court. Written Manchu, however, was still used for the keeping of records and communication between the emperor and the Banner officials until the collapse of the dynasty. The Qing dynasty also maintained a system of dual appointments in which all major imperial offices would have a Manchu and a Han Chinese member. Because of the small number of Manchus, this ensured that a large fraction of them would be government officials. |
For political purposes, the early Manchu emperors took wives descended from the Mongol Great Khans, so that their descendants (such as the [[Kangxi]] Emperor) would also be seen as legitimate heirs of the Mongol-ruled [[Yuan dynasty]]. During the Qing Dynasty, the Manchu government made efforts to preserve Manchu culture and language. These efforts were largely unsuccessful in that Manchus gradually adopted the customs and language of the surrounding Han Chinese and, by the 19th century, spoken Manchu was rarely used even in the Imperial court. Written Manchu, however, was still used for the keeping of records and communication between the emperor and the Banner officials until the collapse of the dynasty. The Qing dynasty also maintained a system of dual appointments in which all major imperial offices would have a Manchu and a Han Chinese member. Because of the small number of Manchus, this ensured that a large fraction of them would be government officials. |
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===Decline of the Manchu |
===Decline of the Manchu Power=== |
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[[File:Manchu noble ladies in 1900s.jpg|thumb|left|Manchu ladies in 1900s]] |
[[File:Manchu noble ladies in 1900s.jpg|thumb|left|Manchu ladies in 1900s]] |
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While the Manchu ruling elite at the Beijing imperial court and posts of authority throughout China was increasingly [[Sinicization|sinicized]], the Qing imperial government viewed the Manchu communities (as well as those of various tribal people) in Manchuria as a place where traditional Manchu virtues could be preserved, and as a reservoir of military manpower fully dedicated to the regime.<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|1970|pp=182-184}}</ref> The emperors tried to protect the traditional way of life of the Manchus (as well as various tribal people) in the central and northern Manchuria by a variety of means, in particular, restricting the migration of Chinese colonists to the region. This ideal, however, had to be balanced with practical needs, such as maintaining the defense against the Russians and the Mongols, supplying government farms with skilled work force, and running trade in the region's products, which resulted in a continuous trickle of Chinese convicts, workers, and merchants to the north-east.<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|1970|pp=20-23,78-90,112-115}}</ref> |
While the Manchu ruling elite at the Beijing imperial court and posts of authority throughout China was increasingly [[Sinicization|sinicized]], the Qing imperial government viewed the Manchu communities (as well as those of various tribal people) in Manchuria as a place where traditional Manchu virtues could be preserved, and as a reservoir of military manpower fully dedicated to the regime.<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|1970|pp=182-184}}</ref> The emperors tried to protect the traditional way of life of the Manchus (as well as various tribal people) in the central and northern Manchuria by a variety of means, in particular, restricting the migration of Chinese colonists to the region. This ideal, however, had to be balanced with practical needs, such as maintaining the defense against the Russians and the Mongols, supplying government farms with skilled work force, and running trade in the region's products, which resulted in a continuous trickle of Chinese convicts, workers, and merchants to the north-east.<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|1970|pp=20-23,78-90,112-115}}</ref> |
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Until 1924, the government continued to pay stipends to Manchu bannermen; however, many cut their links with their banners and took on Han-style names in shame and to avoid persecution.<ref>{{harvnb|Rhoads|2000|p=270}}</ref> The official total of Manchu fell by more than half during this period, as they refused to admit to their ethnicity when asked by government officials or other outsiders.<ref>{{harvnb|Rhoads|2000|pp=270, 283}}</ref> |
Until 1924, the government continued to pay stipends to Manchu bannermen; however, many cut their links with their banners and took on Han-style names in shame and to avoid persecution.<ref>{{harvnb|Rhoads|2000|p=270}}</ref> The official total of Manchu fell by more than half during this period, as they refused to admit to their ethnicity when asked by government officials or other outsiders.<ref>{{harvnb|Rhoads|2000|pp=270, 283}}</ref> |
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===Modern |
===Modern Days=== |
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In 1931, the [[Empire of Japan]] created a puppet state in Northeast China called [[Manchukuo]]. The new state was nominally ruled by the deposed Emperor [[Puyi]]. Although the name was related to Manchus, it is actually completely a new country for all the ethnicities in Manchuria<ref>{{harvnb|Puyi|2007|p=223-224}}</ref>. Manchukuo had a majority [[Han Chinese|Han]] population, largely due to internal migration from China. Manchukuo was abolished at the end of [[World War II]] after the [[Red Army|Soviet]] [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria|invasion of Manchuria]], with its territory incorporated again into China. |
In 1931, the [[Empire of Japan]] created a puppet state in Northeast China called [[Manchukuo]]. The new state was nominally ruled by the deposed Emperor [[Puyi]]. Although the name was related to Manchus, it is actually completely a new country for all the ethnicities in Manchuria<ref>{{harvnb|Puyi|2007|p=223-224}}</ref>. Manchukuo had a majority [[Han Chinese|Han]] population, largely due to internal migration from China. Manchukuo was abolished at the end of [[World War II]] after the [[Red Army|Soviet]] [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria|invasion of Manchuria]], with its territory incorporated again into China. |
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In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in Manchu culture among both ethnic Manchus and Han.<ref name="resurgence">{{cite web|url=http://arts.monash.edu.au/publications/eras/edition-5/tighe.php|title=Eras Journal - Tighe, J: Review of "The Manchus", Pamela Kyle Crossley|accessdate=2011-04-27}}</ref> |
In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in Manchu culture among both ethnic Manchus and Han.<ref name="resurgence">{{cite web|url=http://arts.monash.edu.au/publications/eras/edition-5/tighe.php|title=Eras Journal - Tighe, J: Review of "The Manchus", Pamela Kyle Crossley|accessdate=2011-04-27}}</ref> |
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==The |
==The Etymology of Manchu== |
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The actual etymology of the name ''Manchu'' is debated.<ref name="明亡清兴六十年49">{{harvnb|Yan|2008|p=49}}</ref> According to Qing Dynasty's official historical record, the ''Origin of the Manchus'', the ethnic name came from [[Mañjuśrī]].<ref>{{ |
The actual etymology of the name ''Manchu'' is debated.<ref name="明亡清兴六十年49">{{harvnb|Yan|2008|p=49}}</ref> According to Qing Dynasty's official historical record, the ''Origin of the Manchus'', the ethnic name came from [[Mañjuśrī]].<ref>{{harvnb|Agui|1988|p=2}}</ref> [[Qianlong Emperor]] also supported the point of view and even made few poems about it.<ref>《御制全韵诗》，(清)高宗撰</ref><ref> {{harvnb|Meng|2006|p=6}} </ref> |
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Meng Sen, a famous scholar of Qing study, agreed, too. On the other hand, he thought the name "Manchu" is also related to Li Manzhu, the chieftain of Jianzhou Jurchen.<ref> {{harvnb|Meng|2006|p=4-5}} </ref> It was just the most respectful appellation in the society of Jianzhou Jurchens in Meng's mind.<ref>{{harvnb|Meng|2006|p=5}}</ref> |
Meng Sen, a famous scholar of Qing study, agreed, too. On the other hand, he thought the name "Manchu" is also related to Li Manzhu, the chieftain of Jianzhou Jurchen.<ref> {{harvnb|Meng|2006|p=4-5}} </ref> It was just the most respectful appellation in the society of Jianzhou Jurchens in Meng's mind.<ref>{{harvnb|Meng|2006|p=5}}</ref> |
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==Culture== |
==Culture== |
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===Language |
===Language and Script=== |
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====Language==== |
====Language==== |
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{{Main|Manchu language}} |
{{Main|Manchu language}} |
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{{Main|Manchu alphabet}} |
{{Main|Manchu alphabet}} |
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[[File:Wikipedia in Manchu.jpg|thumb|'''[[Wikipedia]]''' in Manchu script]] |
[[File:Wikipedia in Manchu.jpg|thumb|'''[[Wikipedia]]''' in Manchu script]] |
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Jurchens, ancestors of the Manchu, had created Jurchen script in the Jin Dynasty. After Jin collapsed, Jurchen script was gradually lost. In the [[Ming Dynasty|Ming period]], 60%-70% of Jurchens used Mongolian script to write letters and 30%-40% of Jurchens used Chinese characters.<ref>{{harvnb|Fuge|1984|p=152}}</ref> This persisted until Nurhaci revolted against the Ming reign. Nurhaci considered it a major impediment that his people lacked a script of their own, so he commanded his scholars, Gagai and Eldeni, to create Manchu characters by reference to Mongolian scripts.<ref>{{harvnb|Jiang|1980|p=4}}</ref> They dutifully complied with the Khan's order and created Manchu script, which is called "script without dots and circles" or "old Manchu script".<ref group=n>“无圈点满文” 、“老满文” in Chinese; "tongki fuka akū hergen" in Manchu</ref><ref>《无圈点字书》，[[鄂尔泰]]、[[徐元梦]]等撰</ref> Due to its hurried creation, the script has its defects. Some vowels and consonants were difficult to distinguish.<ref>{{harvnb|Ortai|1985|p=5324-5327}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Tong|2009| |
Jurchens, ancestors of the Manchu, had created Jurchen script in the Jin Dynasty. After Jin collapsed, Jurchen script was gradually lost. In the [[Ming Dynasty|Ming period]], 60%-70% of Jurchens used Mongolian script to write letters and 30%-40% of Jurchens used Chinese characters.<ref>{{harvnb|Fuge|1984|p=152}}</ref> This persisted until Nurhaci revolted against the Ming reign. Nurhaci considered it a major impediment that his people lacked a script of their own, so he commanded his scholars, Gagai and Eldeni, to create Manchu characters by reference to Mongolian scripts.<ref>{{harvnb|Jiang|1980|p=4}}</ref> They dutifully complied with the Khan's order and created Manchu script, which is called "script without dots and circles" or "old Manchu script".<ref group=n>“无圈点满文” 、“老满文” in Chinese; "tongki fuka akū hergen" in Manchu</ref><ref>《无圈点字书》，[[鄂尔泰]]、[[徐元梦]]等撰</ref> Due to its hurried creation, the script has its defects. Some vowels and consonants were difficult to distinguish.<ref>{{harvnb|Ortai|1985|p=5324-5327}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Tong|2009|p=11–17}}</ref> Shortly afterwards, their successor Dahai used dots and circles to distinguish vowels, aspirated and non-aspirated consonants and thus completed the script. His achievement is called "script with dots and circles" or "new Manchu script".<ref>{{harvnb|Anonymous|1990|p=1196–1197}}</ref> |
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====Current Situation==== |
====Current Situation==== |
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Nowadays, Manchus primarily use Chinese family and given names, but some still use a Manchu family name and Chinese given name,<ref group=n>e.g. [[Yuzhan|Aisin-Gioro Yuzhan]]</ref> a Chinese family name and Manchu given name<ref group=n>e.g. Ying Batu, Ying Bayan, the sons of famous Manchu-Chinese director, Ying Da</ref> or both Manchu family and given names.<ref group=n>e.g. [[Aisin-Gioro Ulhicun]]</ref> |
Nowadays, Manchus primarily use Chinese family and given names, but some still use a Manchu family name and Chinese given name,<ref group=n>e.g. [[Yuzhan|Aisin-Gioro Yuzhan]]</ref> a Chinese family name and Manchu given name<ref group=n>e.g. Ying Batu, Ying Bayan, the sons of famous Manchu-Chinese director, Ying Da</ref> or both Manchu family and given names.<ref group=n>e.g. [[Aisin-Gioro Ulhicun]]</ref> |
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===Traditional Clothes |
===Traditional Clothes and Accessories=== |
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[[File:A Manchu young man dressed in traditional clothes.jpg|thumb|200px|A Manchu young man dressed in traditional clothes]] |
[[File:A Manchu young man dressed in traditional clothes.jpg|thumb|200px|A Manchu young man dressed in traditional clothes]] |
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====Clothes==== |
====Clothes==== |
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As a result of their hunting ancestry, Manchus are traditionally interested in falconry.<ref name="八旗子弟106" >{{harvnb|Liu|2008|p=106}}</ref> [[Gyrfalcon]] ([[Manchu language|Manchu]]: [[File:Xongkoro.png|35px]], [[Transliterations of Manchu|Möllendorff]]: šongkoro) is the most highly valued discipline in the Manchu falconry social circle.<ref name="八旗子弟107" >{{harvnb|Liu|2008|p=107}}</ref> In the Qing period, giving a gyrfalcon to the royal court in tribute could be met with a considerable reward.<ref name="八旗子弟107" /> There were professional falconers in Ningguta area.<ref group=n>Heilongjiang province and the northern part of today's Jilin province</ref> It was a big base of falconry.<ref name="八旗子弟106" /> Beijing's Manchus also like falconry. Compared to the falconry of Manchuria, it is more like an entertainment.<ref name="八旗子弟108" >{{harvnb|Liu|2008|p=92}}</ref> Imperial Household Department of Beijing had professional falconers, too. They provided outstanding falcons to the emperor when he went to hunt every fall.<ref name="八旗子弟108" /> Even today, Manchu traditional falconry is well practised in some regions.<ref>[http://www.jl.xinhuanet.com/tese/2011-01/10/content_21821594.htm 新华网吉林频道：“中国鹰屯”吉林渔楼村将举办首届鹰猎文化节 (Chinese simplified)]</ref> |
As a result of their hunting ancestry, Manchus are traditionally interested in falconry.<ref name="八旗子弟106" >{{harvnb|Liu|2008|p=106}}</ref> [[Gyrfalcon]] ([[Manchu language|Manchu]]: [[File:Xongkoro.png|35px]], [[Transliterations of Manchu|Möllendorff]]: šongkoro) is the most highly valued discipline in the Manchu falconry social circle.<ref name="八旗子弟107" >{{harvnb|Liu|2008|p=107}}</ref> In the Qing period, giving a gyrfalcon to the royal court in tribute could be met with a considerable reward.<ref name="八旗子弟107" /> There were professional falconers in Ningguta area.<ref group=n>Heilongjiang province and the northern part of today's Jilin province</ref> It was a big base of falconry.<ref name="八旗子弟106" /> Beijing's Manchus also like falconry. Compared to the falconry of Manchuria, it is more like an entertainment.<ref name="八旗子弟108" >{{harvnb|Liu|2008|p=92}}</ref> Imperial Household Department of Beijing had professional falconers, too. They provided outstanding falcons to the emperor when he went to hunt every fall.<ref name="八旗子弟108" /> Even today, Manchu traditional falconry is well practised in some regions.<ref>[http://www.jl.xinhuanet.com/tese/2011-01/10/content_21821594.htm 新华网吉林频道：“中国鹰屯”吉林渔楼村将举办首届鹰猎文化节 (Chinese simplified)]</ref> |
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====Ice |
====Ice Skating==== |
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[[File:在中南海公园滑冰的吴桐轩老人.jpg|thumb|left|1930s, Wu Tongxuan skates in Zhongnanhai Park]] |
[[File:在中南海公园滑冰的吴桐轩老人.jpg|thumb|left|1930s, Wu Tongxuan skates in Zhongnanhai Park]] |
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Ice-skating ([[Manchu language|Manchu]]: [[File:Nisume efimbi.png|35px]], [[Transliterations of Manchu|Möllendorff]]: nisume efimbi) is another Manchu pastime. Emperor Qianlong called it “national custom”.<ref>《御制冰嬉赋·序》，高宗（清）撰</ref><ref>《日下旧闻考·宫室·西苑一》，[[窦光鼐]]、[[朱筠]]等撰</ref> It is one of the most important winter events of the Qing royal household,<ref name="中新网冰嬉" >[http://www.chinanews.com/cul/news/2010/01-20/2083099.shtml 中国新闻网：“冰嬉”被乾隆定为“国俗” 清军有八旗冰鞋营]</ref> performed by "Eight Banner Ice Skating Battalion" <ref group=n>“八旗冰鞋营” originally</ref><ref name="中新网冰嬉" /> which was a special force trained to do battle on icy terrain.<ref name="中新网冰嬉" /> The battalion consisted of 1600 soldiers. In the [[Jiaqing]] period, it was reduced to 500 soldiers and transferred to the Jing Jie Battalion<ref group=n>“精捷营” originally, literally meaning "chosen agile battalion"</ref><ref name="中新网冰嬉" />。 |
Ice-skating ([[Manchu language|Manchu]]: [[File:Nisume efimbi.png|35px]], [[Transliterations of Manchu|Möllendorff]]: nisume efimbi) is another Manchu pastime. Emperor Qianlong called it “national custom”.<ref>《御制冰嬉赋·序》，高宗（清）撰</ref><ref>《日下旧闻考·宫室·西苑一》，[[窦光鼐]]、[[朱筠]]等撰</ref> It is one of the most important winter events of the Qing royal household,<ref name="中新网冰嬉" >[http://www.chinanews.com/cul/news/2010/01-20/2083099.shtml 中国新闻网：“冰嬉”被乾隆定为“国俗” 清军有八旗冰鞋营]</ref> performed by "Eight Banner Ice Skating Battalion" <ref group=n>“八旗冰鞋营” originally</ref><ref name="中新网冰嬉" /> which was a special force trained to do battle on icy terrain.<ref name="中新网冰嬉" /> The battalion consisted of 1600 soldiers. In the [[Jiaqing]] period, it was reduced to 500 soldiers and transferred to the Jing Jie Battalion<ref group=n>“精捷营” originally, literally meaning "chosen agile battalion"</ref><ref name="中新网冰嬉" />。 |
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In 1930s-1940s, there was a famous Manchu skater in Beijing whose name was Wu Tongxuan, from the Uya clan and one of the royal household skaters in Empress Dowager Cixi's reign.<ref name="满网滑冰老人" >[http://www.imanchu.com/a/people/200801/2577.html 李敖记起的北京滑冰老人吴雅氏]</ref> He frequently appeared in many of Beijing's skating rinks.<ref name="满网滑冰老人" /> Nowadays, there are still Manchu figure skaters of which world champions [[Zhao Hongbo]] and [[Tong Jian]] are the pre-eminent examples. |
In 1930s-1940s, there was a famous Manchu skater in Beijing whose name was Wu Tongxuan, from the Uya clan and one of the royal household skaters in Empress Dowager Cixi's reign.<ref name="满网滑冰老人" >[http://www.imanchu.com/a/people/200801/2577.html 李敖记起的北京滑冰老人吴雅氏]</ref> He frequently appeared in many of Beijing's skating rinks.<ref name="满网滑冰老人" /> Nowadays, there are still Manchu figure skaters of which world champions [[Zhao Hongbo]] and [[Tong Jian]] are the pre-eminent examples. |
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===Traditional |
===Traditional Holidays=== |
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[[File:《冰嬉图》.jpg|thumb|the performance of Manchu palace skaters on holiday]] |
[[File:《冰嬉图》.jpg|thumb|the performance of Manchu palace skaters on holiday]] |
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Manchus have many traditional holidays. Some are diverted from Chinese culture, such as "[[Spring Festival]]"<ref>[http://www.manchus.cn/plus/view.php?aid=238 吉祥满族：满族的春节]</ref> and [[Duanwu Festival]]<ref>[http://www.manchus.cn/plus/view.php?aid=4412 吉祥满族：滿族的端午節]</ref>. Some are Manchu origin: |
Manchus have many traditional holidays. Some are diverted from Chinese culture, such as "[[Spring Festival]]"<ref>[http://www.manchus.cn/plus/view.php?aid=238 吉祥满族：满族的春节]</ref> and [[Duanwu Festival]]<ref>[http://www.manchus.cn/plus/view.php?aid=4412 吉祥满族：滿族的端午節]</ref>. Some are Manchu origin: |
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There are also literature written in Chinese by Manchu writers, such as ''[[:zh:儿女英雄传|the Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters]]'', ''[[:zh:纳兰性德|Song Of Drinking Water]]'' and ''[[:zh:顾太清|The collection of Tianyouge]]''. |
There are also literature written in Chinese by Manchu writers, such as ''[[:zh:儿女英雄传|the Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters]]'', ''[[:zh:纳兰性德|Song Of Drinking Water]]'' and ''[[:zh:顾太清|The collection of Tianyouge]]''. |
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===Folk |
===Folk Art=== |
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====Eight- |
====Eight-Corner Drum==== |
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[[File:八角鼓演出劇照.jpg|thumb|left|A Manchu artist performing Eight-corner drum on stage]] |
[[File:八角鼓演出劇照.jpg|thumb|left|A Manchu artist performing Eight-corner drum on stage]] |
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Eight-corner drum ([[Manchu language|Manchu]]: [[File:Imcin.png|35px]], [[Transliterations of Manchu|Möllendorff]]: imcin) is a folk art of Manchu culture and was very popular among bannermen, especially in Beijing.<ref name="金启孮147" >{{harvnb|Jin|2009|p=147}}</ref>. It is said that Eight-corner drum was originally from the snare drum of Eight-banner military and the melody was made by the banner soldiers who was on the way back home from winng the battle of Jinchuan.<ref name="金启孮147" /> The drum is composed by woods with bells around. And the drumhead is made by wyrmhide with tassels at the bottom.<ref name="金启孮147" /> The colors of tassels is yellow, white, red and blue which represent the four colors of [[Eight Banners]].<ref>{{harvnb|Liu|2008|p=124}}</ref> When artists perform, they use fingers to hit the drumhead and also shake the drum to ring the bells.<ref name="金启孮147" /> Traditionally, Eight-corner drum is performed by three people. One is the harpist; one is the clown who is responsible for harlequinade; and the rest arstist is the singer.<ref name="金启孮147" /> |
Eight-corner drum ([[Manchu language|Manchu]]: [[File:Imcin.png|35px]], [[Transliterations of Manchu|Möllendorff]]: imcin) is a folk art of Manchu culture and was very popular among bannermen, especially in Beijing.<ref name="金启孮147" >{{harvnb|Jin|2009|p=147}}</ref>. It is said that Eight-corner drum was originally from the snare drum of Eight-banner military and the melody was made by the banner soldiers who was on the way back home from winng the battle of Jinchuan.<ref name="金启孮147" /> The drum is composed by woods with bells around. And the drumhead is made by wyrmhide with tassels at the bottom.<ref name="金启孮147" /> The colors of tassels is yellow, white, red and blue which represent the four colors of [[Eight Banners]].<ref>{{harvnb|Liu|2008|p=124}}</ref> When artists perform, they use fingers to hit the drumhead and also shake the drum to ring the bells.<ref name="金启孮147" /> Traditionally, Eight-corner drum is performed by three people. One is the harpist; one is the clown who is responsible for harlequinade; and the rest arstist is the singer.<ref name="金启孮147" /> |
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*{{Cite book|first=Pamela Kyle|last=Crossley|title=The Manchus (The People of Asia series)|publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2002|isbn=0-631-23591-4|url=http://books.google.com/books/about/The_Manchus.html?id=0KHLEvqvET8C|ref=harv}} |
*{{Cite book|first=Pamela Kyle|last=Crossley|title=The Manchus (The People of Asia series)|publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2002|isbn=0-631-23591-4|url=http://books.google.com/books/about/The_Manchus.html?id=0KHLEvqvET8C|ref=harv}} |
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*{{Cite book|first=Mark C.|last=Elliott|title=The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=2001|isbn=0-8047-4684-2|url=http://books.google.com/books/about/The_Manchu_Way.html?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC|ref=harv}} |
*{{Cite book|first=Mark C.|last=Elliott|title=The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=2001|isbn=0-8047-4684-2|url=http://books.google.com/books/about/The_Manchu_Way.html?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC|ref=harv}} |
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*{{Cite book|first=Robert H. G. |last=Lee|title=The Manchurian Frontier in Chʼing History|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1970|isbn=674-54775-6|url=http://books.google.com/books/about/The_Manchurian_frontier_in_Ch%CA%BCing_histo.html?id=6HFuAAAAMAAJ|ref=harv}} |
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*{{citation|first=Robert H. G. |last=Lee |
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*{{Cite book|last=Merriam-Webster, Inc|title=Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary|publisher=Merriam-Webster|year=2003|isbn=978-0-87779-807-1|url=http://books.google.com/books/about/Merriam_Webster_s_Collegiate_Dictionary.html?id=TAnheeIPcAEC|ref=harv}} |
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|title=The Manchurian frontier in Chʼing history |
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|series=Volume 43 of Harvard East Asian series, Center for East Asian Studies, Harvard University |
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|year=1970|isbn=674-54775-6}} <!-- printed in 1970, this book carries a 9-digit SBN instead of a 10-digit ISBN --> |
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*{{Cite book|first=Willard J.|last=Peterson|title=the Cambridge History of China, the Ch'ing dynasty to 1800|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=0-521-24334-3|url=http://books.google.com/books/about/The_Cambridge_History_of_China_Volume_9.html?id=hi2THl2FUZ4C|ref=harv}} |
*{{Cite book|first=Willard J.|last=Peterson|title=the Cambridge History of China, the Ch'ing dynasty to 1800|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=0-521-24334-3|url=http://books.google.com/books/about/The_Cambridge_History_of_China_Volume_9.html?id=hi2THl2FUZ4C|ref=harv}} |
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*{{Cite book|first=Edward J. M.|last=Rhoads|title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928|publisher=University of Washington Press |year=2000|isbn=0-295-98040-0|url=http://books.google.com/books/about/Manchus_and_Han.html?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C|ref=harv}} |
*{{Cite book|first=Edward J. M.|last=Rhoads|title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928|publisher=University of Washington Press |year=2000|isbn=0-295-98040-0|url=http://books.google.com/books/about/Manchus_and_Han.html?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C|ref=harv}} |
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*{{Cite book|first=Sergei Mikhailovich|last=Shirokogorov|title=Social Organization of the Manchus: A study of the Manchu Clan Organization|publisher=Royal Asiatic Society|year=1924|isbn=|url=http://books.google.com/books/about/Social_organization_of_the_Manchus.html?id=ZERxAAAAMAAJ|ref=harv}} |
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*{{citation |
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|first=Sergei Mikhailovich |last=Shirokogorov|authorlink=S. M. Shirokogoroff |
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|title=Social organization of the Manchus. A study of the Manchu clan organization |
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|city=Shanghai |publisher=Royal Asiatic society. North China branch |year= 1924 |
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}} |
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*{{Cite book|first=John E. |last=Vollmer|title=Ruling from the Dragon Throne: Costume of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), Asian Art Series|publisher=Ten Speed Press|year=2002|isbn=1-58008-307-2|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Ruling_from_the_Dragon_Throne.html?id=sdXcYWZ0pmIC|ref=harv}} |
*{{Cite book|first=John E. |last=Vollmer|title=Ruling from the Dragon Throne: Costume of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), Asian Art Series|publisher=Ten Speed Press|year=2002|isbn=1-58008-307-2|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Ruling_from_the_Dragon_Throne.html?id=sdXcYWZ0pmIC|ref=harv}} |
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| Line 1,699: | Line 1,693: | ||
*{{Cite book|first=|last=Dekdengge|title= Nišan Saman i Yooni Bithe (Full Version of Tale of the Nisan Shaman)|publisher=Yingyu Cultural Publishing House|year=2007|isbn=9789868212428|url=http://book.douban.com/subject/4049873/|ref=harv}} |
*{{Cite book|first=|last=Dekdengge|title= Nišan Saman i Yooni Bithe (Full Version of Tale of the Nisan Shaman)|publisher=Yingyu Cultural Publishing House|year=2007|isbn=9789868212428|url=http://book.douban.com/subject/4049873/|ref=harv}} |
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==Further |
==Further readings== |
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<!-- ordered alphabetically by last name --> |
<!-- ordered alphabetically by last name --> |
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*{{Cite book|first=Pamela Kyle|last=Crossley|title=A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology|publisher=University of California Press |year=2002|isbn=0-520-23424-3|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Wn4iv_RJv8oC |
*{{Cite book|first=Pamela Kyle|last=Crossley|title=A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology|publisher=University of California Press |year=2002|isbn=0-520-23424-3|url=http://books.google.com/books/about/A_Translucent_Mirror.html?id=Wn4iv_RJv8oC|ref=harv}} |
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*{{Cite book|first=Pamela Kyle|last=Crossley|title= |
*{{Cite book|first=Pamela Kyle|last=Crossley|title=Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1991|isbn=0-691-00877-9|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NUTE8V-WhwoC&source=gbs_book_similarbooks|ref=harv}} |
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*{{Cite book|first= |
*{{Cite book|first=Evelyn S.|last=Rawski|title=The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions |publisher=University of California Press |year=2001|isbn=0-520-22837-5|url=http://books.google.com/books/about/The_Last_Emperors.html?id=5iN5J9G76h0C|ref=harv}} |
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*{{Cite book|first=Evelyn S.|last=Rawski|title=The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions |publisher=University of California Press |year=2001|isbn=0-520-22837-5|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5iN5J9G76h0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Last+Emperors&source=bl&ots=8qOpNSMvAd&sig=UG9bdV5xZrYNCouiTm-JcVvVq8c&hl=zh-CN&sa=X&ei=Bo4WUMSYDOO-0AG7moHACQ&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Last%20Emperors&f=false|ref=harv}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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Revision as of 23:20, 19 September 2012
 | |
| Total population | |
|---|---|
| 10,430,000 0.15% of global human population (estimate) 10,410,585[1] 0.77% of China's population (estimate) | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
 China | 10,410,585[1] |
↳  Hong Kong | >288[2] |
 Taiwan | 12,000[3] |
| Languages | |
| Standard Chinese • Manchu | |
| Religion | |
| Shamanism • Buddhism • Chinese folklore • Christianity, also many are Atheists or Agnostics[4] | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Evenks • Nanai • Oroqen • Udege • Sibe and other Tungusic peoples | |
The Manchus[n 1] (Manchu: 
, Möllendorff: manju; simplified Chinese: 满族; traditional Chinese: 滿族; pinyin: Mǎnzú) are members of an indigenous people of Manchuria[5][n 2] and the largest branch of the Tungusic peoples. They are distributed throughout China as the fourth largest ethnic group and the third largest ethnic minority group there.[1]
Manchus conquered China and established the Qing Dynasty in 1644. The dynasty came to an end in 1912 when the country became a republic. As a result of the conquest in the 17th century, almost all the Manchus followed regent prince Dorgon (ᡩᠣᡵᡤᠣᠨ) and Shunzhi Emperor to their new capital Beijing (Manchu: ᠪᡝᡤᡳᠩ；Möllendorff: beging[6]) and settled down.[7] There were only 1524 Banner soldiers left in Manchuria at the time.[8] After the border conflicts with Russians, Qing's emperors started to realize the strategic importance of Manchuria and gradually sent Manchus back to where they originally came from.[7] However, during the period of Qing, Beijing was always the only focal point of Manchus in political, economic and cultural aspects. Yongzheng Emperor said, "Garrisons are the places of work, Beijing is their homeland."[n 3][9] After the fall of Qing Empire, especially the establishments of Manchu autonomous areas by PRC government, Manchuria became significant to Manchus again.
Nowadays, Manchu residents can be found in 31 Chinese provincal regions. Among them, Liaoning has the largest population and Hebei, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Inner Mongolia and Beijing has over 100,000 Manchu residents. About half of the population live in Liaoning province and about one-fifth in Hebei province. There are a number of Manchu autonomous counties in both provinces.
History
Origins and Early History
The Manchus are descended from the Jurchen people who earlier established Jin Dynasty (1115–1234) in China[10][11] but as early as the semi-mythological chronicles of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors there is mention of the Sushen,[12][13][14][15] a Tungusic people from the northern Manchurian region of North East Asia, who paid bows and arrows as tribute to Shun[16] and later to Zhou.[17] The cognates Sushen or Jichen (稷真) again appear in the Shan Hai Jing and Book of Wei during the dynastic era referring to Tungusic Mohe and Malgal tribes of the far Northeast. [18] In the 10th century AD the form Jurchen first appears in the documents of late Tang dynasty following the destruction of the ethnic-Goguryeo state of Balhae.
Following the fall of Balhae the Jurchens were vassals of the Liao dynasty of the Khitan Empire. In the year of 1114, Wanyan Aguda united the Jurchen tribes and established the Jin dynasty.[19] His brother and successor, Wanyan Wuqimai successfully perished Liao and Northern Song and made Jurchen state a powerful empire[20]. During Jin Dynasty, Jurchens had created their first scripts in 1120s. It was mainly derived from Khitan script[19].
In 1206, the Mongols who were vassal to Jurchens rose in Mongolia. Their leader, Genghis Khan, led the Mongol troops to fight against Jurchens. Jin dynasty could not withstand Mongols' attack and was finally perished by Ögedei Khan in 1234[21]. Under the Mongols' control, Jurchens were mainly divided in two groups and treated differently: the ones who were born and raised in North China and fluent in Chinese were considered as Chinese people (Han); but the people who were born and raised in Jurchen's homeland[n 4] without a Chinese-speaking abilities were treated as Mongols politically.[22] Since then, the Jurchens of North China increasingly merged with Han Chinese and the ones living in their homeland started to be Mongolized.[23] They adopted Mongolian customs, names[n 5] and learning Mongolian language. Less Jurchens could recognize their own scripts since then.
The Mongol domination of China was replaced by Ming Dynasty in 1368. In 1387, Ming defeated Nahacu's Mongol resisting forces who settled in Haixi area[24] and began to summon the Jurchen tribes to pay tribute[25] At the time, some Jurchen tribes were vassal to Joseon dynasty of Korea such as Odoli and Huligai.[26] Their elites served in Korean royal bodyguard.[27] However, their relationship discontinued by Ming, because Ming was planning to make Jurchens their protection of border. Korea had to allow it since itself was in Ming's tribute system.[27] In 1403, Ahacu, chieftain of Huligai, paid tribute to Yongle Emperor of Ming. Soon after that, Möngke Temür, chieftain of Odoli, went to tribute from Korea, too. Yi Seong-gye, the Taejo of Joseon requested Ming to send Möngke Temür back but rejected.[28] Since then, more and more Jurchen tribes presented tribute to Ming in succession[25]. They were divided in 384 guards by Ming.[29]
Founding of the Qing Dynasty
In 1616, Nurhaci broke away from the power of the decaying Ming Dynasty and established the Later Jin Dynasty (Manchu: 
, Möllendorff: amaga aisin gurun), domestically called the State of Manchu (Manchu: 
, Möllendorff: manju gurun), and unified Manchu tribes, establishing (or at least expanding) the Manchu Banner system, a military structure which made their forces quite resilient in the face of superior Ming Dynasty numbers in the field. Nurhaci later conquered Mukden (modern-day Shenyang) and built it into the new capital in 1621.
In 1636, Nurhaci's son Hong Taiji, reorganized the Manchus, including those other groups (such as Hans and Mongols) who had joined them, changed the nation's name to Qing Empire, and formally changed the name of the ethnic designation to Manchu, outlawing use of the name Jurchen. According to legend, the name was chosen because Hong Taiji's father, Nurhaci, had believed himself to be a reincarnation of the bodhisattva Manjusri.
When Beijing was captured by Li Zicheng's peasant rebels in 1644, the last Ming Emperor Chongzhen committed suicide. The Manchu then allied with Ming Dynasty general Wu Sangui and seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. Over the next two decades, the Manchu took command of all of China and defended against Russian hostilities in Russian–Manchu border conflicts.
For political purposes, the early Manchu emperors took wives descended from the Mongol Great Khans, so that their descendants (such as the Kangxi Emperor) would also be seen as legitimate heirs of the Mongol-ruled Yuan dynasty. During the Qing Dynasty, the Manchu government made efforts to preserve Manchu culture and language. These efforts were largely unsuccessful in that Manchus gradually adopted the customs and language of the surrounding Han Chinese and, by the 19th century, spoken Manchu was rarely used even in the Imperial court. Written Manchu, however, was still used for the keeping of records and communication between the emperor and the Banner officials until the collapse of the dynasty. The Qing dynasty also maintained a system of dual appointments in which all major imperial offices would have a Manchu and a Han Chinese member. Because of the small number of Manchus, this ensured that a large fraction of them would be government officials.
Decline of the Manchu Power
While the Manchu ruling elite at the Beijing imperial court and posts of authority throughout China was increasingly sinicized, the Qing imperial government viewed the Manchu communities (as well as those of various tribal people) in Manchuria as a place where traditional Manchu virtues could be preserved, and as a reservoir of military manpower fully dedicated to the regime.[30] The emperors tried to protect the traditional way of life of the Manchus (as well as various tribal people) in the central and northern Manchuria by a variety of means, in particular, restricting the migration of Chinese colonists to the region. This ideal, however, had to be balanced with practical needs, such as maintaining the defense against the Russians and the Mongols, supplying government farms with skilled work force, and running trade in the region's products, which resulted in a continuous trickle of Chinese convicts, workers, and merchants to the north-east.[31]
However, this policy of artificially isolating the Manchus of the north-east from the rest of China could not last forever. In the 1850s, large numbers of the Manchu bannermen were sent to central China to fight the Taiping rebels. (For example, just the Heilongjiang province - which at the time included only the northern part of today's Heilongjiang - contributed 67,730 bannermen to the campaign, of which merely 10-20% survived).[32] Those few who returned were demoralized and often exposed to opium addiction.[33] In 1860, in the aftermath of the loss of the "Outer Manchuria", and with the imperial and provincial governments in deep financial trouble, parts of Manchuria became officially open to Chinese settlement;[34] within a few decades, the Manchus became a minority in most of Manchuria's districts.
During the Russian Invasion of Northern and Central Manchuria (1900), the Russian Empire annihilated many bannermen, each falling one at a time against a five pronged Russian invasion. Thousands fled south. In many areas, such as the Aigun District on the Amur, the Russian Cossacks looted their villages and property and then razed them.[35][36]
As the end of the Qing Dynasty approached, Manchus were portrayed as outside colonizers by Chinese nationalists such as Sun Yat-Sen, even though the Republican revolution he brought about was supported by many reform-minded Manchu officials and military officers.[37] This portrayal dissipated somewhat after the 1911 revolution as the new Republic of China now sought to include Manchus within its national identity.[38]
By the early years of the Republic of China, very few areas of China still had "traditional" (not heavily Sinicized) Manchu populations. Among the few regions where such comparatively traditional communities could be found, and the Manchu language was still widely spoken, were the Aigun District (whose folkways the Russian ethnographer S. M. Shirokogoroff studied in 1915-1916) and the Tsitsihar District of Heilongjiang Province.[39] The Xibo also maintained their identity at their Xinjiang outpost.
Until 1924, the government continued to pay stipends to Manchu bannermen; however, many cut their links with their banners and took on Han-style names in shame and to avoid persecution.[40] The official total of Manchu fell by more than half during this period, as they refused to admit to their ethnicity when asked by government officials or other outsiders.[41]
Modern Days
In 1931, the Empire of Japan created a puppet state in Northeast China called Manchukuo. The new state was nominally ruled by the deposed Emperor Puyi. Although the name was related to Manchus, it is actually completely a new country for all the ethnicities in Manchuria[42]. Manchukuo had a majority Han population, largely due to internal migration from China. Manchukuo was abolished at the end of World War II after the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, with its territory incorporated again into China.
The People's Republic of China recognised the Manchu as one of the country's official minorities in 1952.[43] In the 1953 census, 2.5 million people identified themselves as Manchu.[44] The Communist government also attempted to improve the treatment of Manchu people; some Manchu people who had hidden their ancestry during the period of KMT rule thus became more comfortable to reveal their ancestry, such as the writer Lao She, who began to include Manchu characters in his fictional works in the 1950s (in contrast to his earlier works which had none).[45] Between 1982 and 1990, the official count of Manchu people more than doubled from 4,299,159 to 9,821,180, making them China's fastest-growing ethnic minority.[46] In fact, however, this growth was not due to natural increase, but instead people formerly registered as Han applying for official recognition as Manchu.[47]
In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in Manchu culture among both ethnic Manchus and Han.[48]
The Etymology of Manchu
The actual etymology of the name Manchu is debated.[49] According to Qing Dynasty's official historical record, the Origin of the Manchus, the ethnic name came from Mañjuśrī.[50] Qianlong Emperor also supported the point of view and even made few poems about it.[51][52]
Meng Sen, a famous scholar of Qing study, agreed, too. On the other hand, he thought the name "Manchu" is also related to Li Manzhu, the chieftain of Jianzhou Jurchen.[53] It was just the most respectful appellation in the society of Jianzhou Jurchens in Meng's mind.[54]
Another scholar, Chang Shan, thinks Manju (Manchu) is a compound word. "Man" was from the word "mangga" (
) which means strong and "ju" (
) means arrow. So Manju actually means "intrepid arrow".[55]
There are other hypothesis, such as Fu Sinian's "etymology of Jianzhou"; Zhang Binglin's "etymology of Jianzhou"; Isamura Sanjiro's "etymology of Wuji and Mohe"; Sun Wenliang's "etymology of Manzhe";[56] "etymology of mangu(n) river"[57] and so on.[58]
Population
Mainland China
Most Manchu people now live in Mainland China with a population of 10,410,585[1] Which is 9.28% of ethnic minorities and 0.77% of China's total population.[1] Among the provincial regions, there are 3 provinces, Liaoning and Hebei, which have over 1,000,000 Manchu residents.[1] Liaoning has 5,336,895 Manchu residents which is 51.26% of Manchu population and 12.20% provincial population; Hebei has 2,118,711 which is 20.35% of Manchu people and 70.80% of provincial ethnic minorites.[1] Manchu is the largest ethnic minority in Liaoning, Hebei, Heilongjiang and Beijing; 2nd largest in Jilin, Inner Mongolia, Tianjin, Tianjin, Ningxia, Shaanxi and Shanxi and 3rd largest in Henan, Shandong and Anhui,.[1]
Distribution
| Rank |
Region |
Total Population |
Manchu |
Percentage in Manchu Population |
Percentage in the Population of Ethnic Minorities（%） |
Regional Percentage of Population |
Regional Rank of Ethnic Population |
| Total | 1,335,110,869 | 10,410,585 | 100 | 9.28 | 0.77 | ||
| Total (in all 31 provincial regions) |
1,332,810,869 | 10,387,958 | 99.83 | 9.28 | 0.78 | ||
| G1 | Northeast | 109,513,129 | 6,951,280 | 66.77 | 68.13 | 6.35 | |
| G2 | North | 164,823,663 | 3,002,873 | 28.84 | 32.38 | 1.82 | |
| G3 | East | 392,862,229 | 122,861 | 1.18 | 3.11 | 0.03 | |
| G4 | South Central | 375,984,133 | 120,424 | 1.16 | 0.39 | 0.03 | |
| G5 | Northwest | 96,646,530 | 82,135 | 0.79 | 0.40 | 0.08 | |
| G6 | Southwest | 192,981,185 | 57,785 | 0.56 | 0.15 | 0.03 | |
| 1 | Liaoning | 43,746,323 | 5,336,895 | 51.26 | 80.34 | 12.20 | 2nd |
| 2 | Hebei | 71,854,210 | 2,118,711 | 20.35 | 70.80 | 2.95 | 2nd |
| 3 | Jilin | 27,452,815 | 866,365 | 8.32 | 39.64 | 3.16 | 3rd |
| 4 | Heilongjiang | 38,313,991 | 748,020 | 7.19 | 54.41 | 1.95 | 2nd |
| 5 | Inner Mongolia | 24,706,291 | 452,765 | 4.35 | 8.96 | 2.14 | 3rd |
| 6 | Beijing | 19,612,368 | 336,032 | 3.23 | 41.94 | 1.71 | 2nd |
| 7 | Tianjin | 12,938,693 | 83,624 | 0.80 | 25.23 | 0.65 | 3rd |
| 8 | Henan | 94,029,939 | 55,493 | 0.53 | 4.95 | 0.06 | 4th |
| 9 | Shandong | 95,792,719 | 46,521 | 0.45 | 6.41 | 0.05 | 4th |
| 10 | Guangdong | 104,320,459 | 29,557 | 0.28 | 1.43 | 0.03 | 9th |
| 11 | Shanghai | 23,019,196 | 25,165 | 0.24 | 9.11 | 0.11 | 5th |
| 12 | Ningxia | 6,301,350 | 24,902 | 0.24 | 1.12 | 0.40 | 3rd |
| 13 | Guizhou | 34,748,556 | 23,086 | 0.22 | 0.19 | 0.07 | 18th |
| 14 | Xinjiang | 21,815,815 | 18,707 | 0.18 | 0.14 | 0.09 | 10th |
| 15 | Jiangsu | 78,660,941 | 18,074 | 0.17 | 4.70 | 0.02 | 7th |
| 16 | Shaanxi | 37,327,379 | 16,291 | 0.16 | 8.59 | 0.04 | 3rd |
| 17 | Sichuan | 80,417,528 | 15,920 | 0.15 | 0.32 | 0.02 | 10th |
| 18 | Gansu | 25,575,263 | 14,206 | 0.14 | 0.59 | 0.06 | 7th |
| 19 | Yunnan | 45,966,766 | 13,490 | 0.13 | 0.09 | 0.03 | 24th |
| 20 | Hubei | 57,237,727 | 12,899 | 0.12 | 0.52 | 0.02 | 6th |
| 21 | Shanxi | 25,712,101 | 11,741 | 0.11 | 12.54 | 0.05 | 3rd |
| 22 | Zhejiang | 54,426,891 | 11,271 | 0.11 | 0.93 | 0.02 | 13th |
| 23 | Guangxi | 46,023,761 | 11,159 | 0.11 | 0.07 | 0.02 | 12th |
| 24 | Anhui | 59,500,468 | 8,516 | 0.08 | 2.15 | 0.01 | 4th |
| 25 | Fujian | 36,894,217 | 8,372 | 0.08 | 1.05 | 0.02 | 10th |
| 26 | Qinghai | 5,626,723 | 8,029 | 0.08 | 0.30 | 0.14 | 7th |
| 27 | Hunan | 65,700,762 | 7,566 | 0.07 | 0.12 | 0.01 | 9th |
| 28 | Jiangxi | 44,567,797 | 4,942 | 0.05 | 2.95 | 0.01 | 6th |
| 29 | Chongqing | 28,846,170 | 4,571 | 0.04 | 0.24 | 0.02 | 7th |
| 30 | Hainan | 8,671,485 | 3,750 | 0.04 | 0.26 | 0.04 | 8th |
| 31 | Tibet | 3,002,165 | 718 | <0.01 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 11th |
| Active Servicemen | 2,300,000 | 22,627 | 0.24 | 23.46 | 1.05 | 2nd |
Manchu Autonomous Regions
| Manchu Ethnic Town/Township |
Province Autonomous area Municipality |
City Prefecture |
County |
| Paifang Hui and Manchu Ethnic Township | Anhui | Hefei | Feidong |
| Labagoumen Manchu Ethnic Township | Beijing | N/A | Huairou |
| Changshaoying Manchu Ethnic Township | Beijing | N/A | Huairou |
| Huangni Yi, Miao and Manchu Ethnic Township | Guizhou | Bijie | Dafang |
| Jinpo Miao, Yi and Manchu Ethnic Township | Guizhou | Bijie | Qianxi |
| Anluo Miao, Yi and Manchu Ethnic Township | Guizhou | Bijie | Jinsha |
| Xinhua Miao, Yi and Manchu Ethnic Township | Guizhou | Bijie | Jinsha |
| Tangquan Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Tangshan | Zunhua |
| Xixiaying Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Tangshan | Zunhua |
| Dongling Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Tangshan | Zunhua |
| Lingyunce Manchu and Hui Ethnic Township | Hebei | Baoding | Yi |
| Loucun Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Baoding | Laishui |
| Daweihe Hui and Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Langfang | Wen'an |
| Pingfang Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Anchungou Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Wudaoyingzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Zhengchang Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Mayingzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Fujiadianzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Xidi Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Xiaoying Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Datun Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Xigou Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Luanping |
| Gangzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Chengde |
| Liangjia Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Chengde |
| Bagualing Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Xinglong |
| Nantianmen Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Xinglong |
| Yinjiaying Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Longhua |
| Miaozigou Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Longhua |
| Badaying Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Longhua |
| Taipingzhuang Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Longhua |
| Jiutun Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Longhua |
| Xi'achao Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Longhua |
| Baihugou Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Longhua |
| Liuxi Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Pingquan |
| Qijiadai Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Pingquan |
| Pingfang Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Pingquan |
| Maolangou Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Pingquan |
| Xuzhangzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Pingquan |
| Nanwushijia Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Pingquan |
| Guozhangzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Hebei | Chengde | Pingquan |
| Hongqi Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Nangang |
| Xingfu Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Lequn Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Tongxin Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Xiqin Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Gongzheng Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Lianxing Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Xinxing Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Qingling Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Nongfeng Manchu and Xibe Ethnic Town | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Yuejin Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Shuangcheng |
| Lalin Manchu Ethnic Town | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Wuchang |
| Hongqi Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Wuchang |
| Niujia Manchu Ethnic Town | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Wuchang |
| Yingchengzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Wuchang |
| Shuangqiaozi Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Wuchang |
| Liaodian Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Harbin | Acheng |
| Shuishiying Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Qiqihar | Ang'angxi |
| Youyi Daur, Kirgiz and Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Qiqihar | Fuyu |
| Taha Manchu and Daur Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Qiqihar | Fuyu |
| Jiangnan Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Mudanjiang | Ning'an |
| Chengdong Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Mudanjiang | Ning'an |
| Sijiazi Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Heihe | Aihui |
| Yanjiang Daur and Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Heihe | Sunwu |
| Suisheng Manchu Ethnic Town | Heilongjiang | Suihua | Beilin |
| Yong'an Manchu Ethnic Town | Heilongjiang | Suihua | Beilin |
| Hongqi Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Suihua | Beilin |
| Huiqi Manchu Ethnic Town | Heilongjiang | Suihua | Wangkui |
| Xiangbai Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Suihua | Wangkui |
| Lingshan Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Suihua | Wangkui |
| Fuxing Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Hegang | Suibin |
| Chengfu Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township | Heilongjiang | Shuangyashan | Youyi |
| Longshan Manchu Ethnic Township | Jilin | Siping | Gongzhuling |
| Ershijiazi Manchu Ethnic Town | Jilin | Siping | Gongzhuling |
| Sanjiazi Manchu Ethnic Township | Jilin | Yanbian | Hunchun |
| Yangpao Manchu Ethnic Township | Jilin | Yanbian | Hunchun |
| Wulajie Manchu Ethnic Town | Jilin | Jilin City | Longtan |
| Dakouqin Manchu Ethnic Town | Jilin | Jilin City | Yongji |
| Liangjiazi Manchu Ethnic Township | Jilin | Jilin City | Yongji |
| Jinjia Manchu Ethnic Township | Jilin | Jilin City | Yongji |
| Tuchengzi Manchu and Korean Ethnic Township | Jilin | Jilin City | Yongji |
| Jindou Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township | Jilin | Tonghua | Tonghua County |
| Daquanyuan Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township | Jilin | Tonghua | Tonghua County |
| Xiaoyang Manchu and Korean Ethnic Township | Jilin | Tonghua | Meihekou |
| Sanhe Manchu and Korean Ethnic Township | Jilin | Liaoyuan | Dongfeng County |
| Mantang Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Shenyang | Dongling |
| Liushutun Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Shenyang | Kangping |
| Shajintai Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Shenyang | Kangping |
| Dongsheng Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Shenyang | Kangping |
| Liangguantun Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Shenyang | Kangping |
| Shihe Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Dalian | Jinzhou |
| Qidingshan Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Dalian | Jinzhou |
| Taling Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Dalian | Zhuanghe |
| Gaoling Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Dalian | Zhuanghe |
| Guiyunhua Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Dalian | Zhuanghe |
| Sanjiashan Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Dalian | Zhuanghe |
| Yangjia Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Dalian | Wafangdian |
| Santai Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Dalian | Wafangdian |
| Laohutun Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Dalian | Wafangdian |
| Dagushan Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Anshan | Qianshan |
| Songsantaizi Korean and Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Anshan | Qianshan |
| Lagu Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Fushun | Fushun County |
| Tangtu Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Fushun | Fushun County |
| Sishanling Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Benxi | Nanfen |
| Xiamatang Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Benxi | Nanfen |
| Huolianzhai Hui and Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Benxi | Xihu |
| Helong Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Dandong | Donggang |
| Longwangmiao Manchu and Xibe Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Dandong | Donggang |
| Juliangtun Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Jiudaoling Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Dizangsi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Hongqiangzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Liulonggou Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Shaohuyingzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Dadingpu Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Toutai Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Toudaohe Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Chefang Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Wuliangdian Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Yi |
| Baichanmen Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Heishan |
| Zhen'an Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Heishan |
| Wendilou Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Linghai |
| Youwei Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Jinzhou | Linghai |
| East Liujiazi Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Fuxin | Zhangwu |
| West Liujiazi Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Fuxin | Zhangwu |
| Jidongyu Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Liaoyang | Liaoyang County |
| Shuiquan Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Liaoyang | Liaoyang County |
| Tianshui Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Liaoyang | Liaoyang County |
| Quantou Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Tieling | Changtu County |
| Babaotun Manchu, Xibe and Korean Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Tieling | Kaiyuan |
| Huangqizhai Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Kaiyuan |
| Shangfeidi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Kaiyuan |
| Xiafeidi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Kaiyuan |
| Linfeng Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Kaiyuan |
| Baiqizhai Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Tieling County |
| Hengdaohezi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Tieling County |
| Chengping Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Xifeng |
| Dexing Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Xifeng |
| Helong Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Xifeng |
| Jinxing Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Xifeng |
| Mingde Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Xifeng |
| Songshu Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Xifeng |
| Yingcheng Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Tieling | Xifeng |
| Xipingpo Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Dawangmiao Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Fanjia Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Gaodianzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Gejia Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Huangdi Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Huangjia Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Kuanbang Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Mingshui Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Shahe Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Wanghu Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Xiaozhuangzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Yejia Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Gaotai Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Suizhong |
| Baita Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Caozhuang Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Dazhai Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Dongxinzhuang Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Gaojialing Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Guojia Manchu Ethnic Town | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Haibin Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Hongyazi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Jianjin Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Jianchang Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Jiumen Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Liutaizi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Nandashan Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Shahousuo Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Wanghai Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Weiping Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Wenjia Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Yang'an Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Yaowangmiao Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Yuantaizi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Xingcheng |
| Erdaowanzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Jianchang |
| Xintaimen Manchu Ethnic Township | Liaoning | Huludao | Lianshan |
| Manzutun Manchu Ethnic Township | Inner Mongolia | Hinggan | Horqin Right Front Banner |
| Guanjiayingzi Manchu Ethnic Township | Inner Mongolia | Chifeng | Songshan |
| Shijia Manchu Ethnic Township | Inner Mongolia | Chifeng | Harqin Banner |
| Caonian Manchu Ethnic Township | Inner Mongolia | Ulanqab | Liangcheng |
| Sungezhuang Manchu Ethnic Township | Tianjin | N/A | Ji |
Other Areas
Manchu people can be found living outside mainland China. There are approximately 12,000 Manchus now in Taiwan. Most of them moved to Taiwan with the ROC government in 1949. Puru was a famous painter, calligrapher and also the founder of the Manchu Association of Republic of China.[3] There are also Manchus who settled in the United States and Japan, such as John Fugh, Garry Guan and Fukunaga Kosē.
Culture
Language and Script
Language
Manchu is a branch of the Tungusic languages and has many dialects：
- Standard Manchu： Standard Manchu originates from the accent of Jianzhou Jurchens.[59] It was standardized by the Qianlong Emperor under his reign.[60] During the Qing period, Manchus at court were required to speak Standard Manchu[61] or face the emperor's reprimand.[61] This applied equally to the palace presbyter of shamanic fete when performing sacrifice.[61]。
- Beijing dialect[n 6]： The Manchus who lived in Beijing were not only Jianzhou Jurchens, but also Haixi Jurchens and Yeren Jurchens. Over time, the mingling of their accents produced Beijing dialect. Beijing dialect is really close to Standard Manchu[62]。
- Mukden-South Manchurian dialect[n 7]：Mukden-South Manchurian dialect, aka, "Mukden-Girin dialect",[n 8] was originally spoken by the Manchus who lived in Liaoning and the western and southern areas of Jilin, having an accent very close to the Xibe language spoken by the Xibes living in Qapqal.[63]
There are also Ningguta, Alcuka dialects, etc., of Manchu which have their own particular characteristics.[64]
Script
Jurchens, ancestors of the Manchu, had created Jurchen script in the Jin Dynasty. After Jin collapsed, Jurchen script was gradually lost. In the Ming period, 60%-70% of Jurchens used Mongolian script to write letters and 30%-40% of Jurchens used Chinese characters.[65] This persisted until Nurhaci revolted against the Ming reign. Nurhaci considered it a major impediment that his people lacked a script of their own, so he commanded his scholars, Gagai and Eldeni, to create Manchu characters by reference to Mongolian scripts.[66] They dutifully complied with the Khan's order and created Manchu script, which is called "script without dots and circles" or "old Manchu script".[n 9][67] Due to its hurried creation, the script has its defects. Some vowels and consonants were difficult to distinguish.[68][69] Shortly afterwards, their successor Dahai used dots and circles to distinguish vowels, aspirated and non-aspirated consonants and thus completed the script. His achievement is called "script with dots and circles" or "new Manchu script".[70]
Current Situation
After the 1800s, most Manchus had perfected Standard Chinese and the number who knew Manchu was dwindling.[71] Although the Qing emperors emphasized the importance of Manchu language again and again, the tide could not be turned. After the Qing collapsed, the Manchu language lost its status as a national language and its use officially in education ended. Manchus today generally speak Standard Chinese. The remaining skilled native Manchu speakers number less than 100,[72] most of whom are to be found in Sanjiazi, Heilongjiang Province.[73] In recent years, with the help of the governments in Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang, many schools of northeastern China have classes in Manchu.[74][75][76] There are also Manchu volunteers in many places of China who freely teach Manchu in the desire to rescue of the language.[77][78][79][80]
Name
Family Names
The history of Manchu family names is quite long. Fundamentally, it succeeds the Jurchen family name of the Jin Dynasty.[81] However, after the Mongols extinguished the Jurchen empire, Manchus started to adopt Mongol culture, including their custom of using only their given name till the end of the Qing Dynasty,[82] a practice confounding non-Manchus, leading them to conclude, erroneously, that they simply don't have family names.[83]
A Manchu family name usually has two portions: the first is "Mukūn" (
) which literally means "branch name"; the second, "Hala" (
), represents the name of a person's clan.[84] According to the Book of the Eight Manchu Banners' Surname-Clans,[n 10] there are 1,114 Manchu family names. Gūwalgiya, Niohuru, Šumulu, Tatara, Gioro, Nara are considered as "famous clans"[n 11] among Manchus.[85]
Given Names
Manchus given names are distinctive. Generally, there are several forms, as below:
- bearing suffixes such as "-ngga", "-ngge" or "-nggo", meaning "having the quality of"[86][87]
- bearing the suffixes "-tai" or "-tu", meaning "having".[87][88]
- bearing the suffix, "-ju", "-boo".[87]；
- numerals, such as Nadanju[n 12], Susai[n 13], Liošici[n 14] and Bašinu[n 15][87][88]。
- animal names, e.g. Dorgon.[86][87]；
Current Situation
Nowadays, Manchus primarily use Chinese family and given names, but some still use a Manchu family name and Chinese given name,[n 16] a Chinese family name and Manchu given name[n 17] or both Manchu family and given names.[n 18]
Traditional Clothes and Accessories
Clothes
- Hats: Wearing hats is a part of Manchu traditional culture.[89] Conventionally, especially different from Han Chinese culture of "Starting to wear hats in 20 year-old"[n 19], Manchu people wear hats in all ages and seasons.[89] Manchu hats has formal and casual ones. Formal hats also have two different styles. One is straw hats wearing in spring and summer; another is warm hat wearing in fall and winter. Manchu casual hat is more known as "Mandarin hat" in English[90].
- Robe: Sijigiyan(ᠰᡳᠵᡳᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨ), the Manchu robe, is the most representative clothing of the Manchu people.[91] Modern Chinese female suit Cheongsam deverted from Manchu robe[91].
- Mandarin Jacket: Mandarin Jacket was a military uniform of Eight banners army[92]. Since Kangxi period, Mandarin Jacket got popular in third estate[93]. The Chinese suit "Tangzhuang" is directly deverted from Mandarin Jacket.
Body Jewelry
Manchus have many distinctive traditional accessories. Women traditionally wear 3 earrings in each ear, a tradition that is maintained by many older Manchu women.[94][95] Manchu men also traditionally wear piercings, but they tend to only have one earring in their youth and do not continue to wear it as adults.[96]
The Manchu people also have traditional jewelry which evokes their past as hunters. The fergetun (
), a thumb ring traditionally made out of reindeer bone, was worn to protect the thumbs of archers. After the Manchu conquest of China in 1644, the fergetun gradually became simply a form of jewelry, with the most valuable ones made in jade and ivory.[97]
Religion
The religions of the Manchus are diverse. Originally, Manchus, and their predecessors, were principally Shamanists. After the conquest of China in the 17th century, Manchus came into contact with Chinese culture. They were markedly influenced by Chinese folk religion and retained only some Shamanic customs. Buddhism and Christianity also had their impacts. Manchus are today mostly irreligious.[4]
Shamanism
Shamanism has a long history in Manchu civilization and influenced them tremendously over thousands of years. After the conquest of China in the 17th century, although Manchus widely adopted Chinese folk religion, Shamanic traditions can still be found in the aspects of soul worship, totem worship, belief in nightmares and apotheosis of philanthropists.[98] Since the Qing rulers considered religion as a method of controlling other powers such as Mongolians and Tibetans,[99] there was no privilege for Shamanism, their native religion. Apart from the Shamanic temples in the Qing palace, no temples erected for worship of Manchu gods could be found in Beijing.[99] Thus, the story of competition between Shamanists and Lamaists was oft heard in Manchuria but the Manchu emperor helped Lamaists to persecute Shamanists which led to their considerable frustration and dissatisfaction.[99]
Buddhism
Jurchens, the predecessors of the Manchus, were influenced by the Buddhism of Balhae, Goryeo, Khitan and Song in the 10-13th centuries,[100] so it was not something new to the rising Manchus in the 16-17th centuries. Qing emperors were always entitled "Buddha". They were regarded as Mañjuśrī in Tibetan Buddhism[101] and had high attainments.[100] However, Buddhism was used by rulers to control Mongolians and Tibetans; it was of little relevance to ordinary Manchus in the Qing Dynasty.[99]
Folklore
Manchus were affected by Chinese folk religions for most of the Qing Dynasty.[99] Save for ancestor worship, the gods they consecrated were virtually identical to those of the Han Chinese.[99] Guan Yu worship is a typical example. He was considered as the God Protector of the Nation and was sincerely worshipped by Manchus. They called him "Lord Guan".[n 20] Uttering his name was taboo.[99] In addition, Manchus worshipped Cai Shen and The Kitchen god just as the Han Chinese did. The worship of Mongolian and Tibetan gods has also been reported.[99]
Christianity
There were Manchu Christians in the Qing Dynasty. In Yongzheng and Qianlong's era, Depei, the Hošo Jiyan Prince,[n 21] was a Catholic whose baptismal name was "Joseph". His wife was also baptised and named “Maria”.[102][103] At the same time, the sons of Doro Beile[n 22] Sunu were devout Catholics, too.[103][104][105] In the Jiaqing period, Tong Hengšan and Tong Lan were Catholic Manchu Bannermen.[103] These Manchu Christians were proselytized and persecuted by Qing emperors but they steadfastly refused to convert.[103] There were Manchu Christians in modern times, too, such as Ying Lianzhi, Lao She and Philip Fugh.
Traditional Activities
Riding and Archery
Riding and Archery (Manchu: 
, Möllendorff: niyamniyambi) is significant to the Manchu. They were well-trained horsemen from their teenage[107] years. Hong Taiji, the Qing Taizong emperor, said, "Riding and Archery is the most important martial art of our country".[108][109] Every generation of the Qing dynasty treasured Riding and Archery the most[110]。 Every spring and fall, from ordinary Manchus to aristocrats, all had to take a riding and archery test. Their test results could even affect their rank in the nobility.[111] The Manchus of the early Qing had excellent shooting skills and their arrows were reputed to be capable of penetrating two people.[112]
From the middle period of Qing, archery became more a form of entertainment, in the form of games such as, hunting swans, shooting fabric or silk target. The most difficult is shooting a candle hanging in the air at night.[113] Gambling was banned in the Qing reign but there was no limitation on Manchus engaging in shooting skill contests. It was common to see Manchus putting signs in front of their houses to invite challenges.[113] After the Qianlong period, Manchus gradually neglected the practice of riding and archery, even though their rulers tried their best to encourage Manchus to continue their riding and archery traditions,[112] but the tradition still kept among some Manchus even nowadays.[114]
Manchu Wrestling
Manchu Wrestling (Manchu: 
, Möllendorff: buku) [115] is also an important martial art of the Manchu people.[116] Buku, meaning "wrestling" or "man of unusual strength" in Manchu, was originally from a Mongolian word, “bökh”.[115] The history of Manchu wrestling can be traced back to Jurchen wrestling in the Jin Dynasty which was originally from Khitan wrestling; it was very similar to Mongolian wrestling.[117] In the Yuan Dynasty, the Jurchens who lived in northeast China adopted Mongol culture including wrestling, bökh.[118] In the latter Jin and early Qing period, rulers encouraged the populace, including aristocrats, to practise buku as a feature of military training.[119] At the time, Mongol wrestlers were the most famous and powerful. By the Chongde period, Manchus had developed their own well-trained wrestlers[120] and, a century later, in the Qianlong period, they surpassed Mongol wreslers.[121] The Qing court established the "Shan Pu Battalion" and chose 200 fine wrestlers divided into three levels. Manchu wrestling moves can be found in today's Chinese wrestling, Shuai jiao.[122] Among many branches, Beijing wrestling adopted most Manchu wrestling moves.[n 23]
Falconry
As a result of their hunting ancestry, Manchus are traditionally interested in falconry.[123] Gyrfalcon (Manchu: 
, Möllendorff: šongkoro) is the most highly valued discipline in the Manchu falconry social circle.[124] In the Qing period, giving a gyrfalcon to the royal court in tribute could be met with a considerable reward.[124] There were professional falconers in Ningguta area.[n 24] It was a big base of falconry.[123] Beijing's Manchus also like falconry. Compared to the falconry of Manchuria, it is more like an entertainment.[110] Imperial Household Department of Beijing had professional falconers, too. They provided outstanding falcons to the emperor when he went to hunt every fall.[110] Even today, Manchu traditional falconry is well practised in some regions.[125]
Ice Skating
Ice-skating (Manchu: 
, Möllendorff: nisume efimbi) is another Manchu pastime. Emperor Qianlong called it “national custom”.[126][127] It is one of the most important winter events of the Qing royal household,[128] performed by "Eight Banner Ice Skating Battalion" [n 25][128] which was a special force trained to do battle on icy terrain.[128] The battalion consisted of 1600 soldiers. In the Jiaqing period, it was reduced to 500 soldiers and transferred to the Jing Jie Battalion[n 26][128]。
In 1930s-1940s, there was a famous Manchu skater in Beijing whose name was Wu Tongxuan, from the Uya clan and one of the royal household skaters in Empress Dowager Cixi's reign.[129] He frequently appeared in many of Beijing's skating rinks.[129] Nowadays, there are still Manchu figure skaters of which world champions Zhao Hongbo and Tong Jian are the pre-eminent examples.
Traditional Holidays
Manchus have many traditional holidays. Some are diverted from Chinese culture, such as "Spring Festival"[130] and Duanwu Festival[131]. Some are Manchu origin:
- Day of running out of food：In every August 26th of lunar calendar. It is said that once Nurhaci and his troops was in a battle with emenies and almost running out of food. The villagers who lived near the battlefield heard the emergency and came to help. There were no tableware on battlefield. They had to use perilla to wrap the rice. Afterwards, they won the battle. For later generation could memorize this hardship, Nurhaci made this day the "day of running out of food". Traditionally on this day, Manchu people usually eat perilla or cabbage wraps with rice, grambled eggs, beef or pork.[132]。
- Banjin Inenggi (
)：It's the anniversary of the name creation of Manchu in October 13th of lunar calendar.[49] This day in 1635, Qing Taizong Emperor, Hong Taiji, made the change of the ethnic name from "Jušen"(Jurchen) to "Manju"(Manchu).[133][134]
Literature
The Tale of the Nisan Shaman is the most important literature of Manchus.[135] It primarily tells the process of how Nisan Shaman helps a young hunter revives. The story spreads not long among Manchus, but also in Xibe, Nanai, Daur, Oroqen, Evenk and other Tungusic peoples. It basically has for versions: the handwriting version from Qiqihar (Manchu: 
, Möllendorff: cicigar); two different handwriting versions from Aigun (Manchu: 
, Möllendorff: aihūn); the one which was wrote by a Manchu writer Dekdengge (
) in Vladivostok (Manchu: 
, Möllendorff: haišenwei). The pilot of four versions are similar, but the version of Haišenwei has the most complete content. It is already translated in Russian, Chinese, English and other languages[136].
There are also literature written in Chinese by Manchu writers, such as the Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters, Song Of Drinking Water and The collection of Tianyouge.
Folk Art
Eight-Corner Drum
Eight-corner drum (Manchu: 
, Möllendorff: imcin) is a folk art of Manchu culture and was very popular among bannermen, especially in Beijing.[137]. It is said that Eight-corner drum was originally from the snare drum of Eight-banner military and the melody was made by the banner soldiers who was on the way back home from winng the battle of Jinchuan.[137] The drum is composed by woods with bells around. And the drumhead is made by wyrmhide with tassels at the bottom.[137] The colors of tassels is yellow, white, red and blue which represent the four colors of Eight Banners.[138] When artists perform, they use fingers to hit the drumhead and also shake the drum to ring the bells.[137] Traditionally, Eight-corner drum is performed by three people. One is the harpist; one is the clown who is responsible for harlequinade; and the rest arstist is the singer.[137]
"Zidishu" is the main libretto of Eight-corner drum which can be traced back to a traditional folk music called "Manchu Rhythm".[139] Although Zidishu was not created by Chinese people, it still contains many themes of Chinese historical stories.[140] Such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Dream of the Red Chamber, Romance of the West Chamber, Legend of the White Snake and Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio.[140] Otherwise, there are many works which talks about the life of Bannermen. Aisin Gioro Yigeng, who was pen named "Helü" and wrote the sigh of old imperial bodyguard, is the representative author.[141] Zidishu have two kinds of acts of singing which is dongcheng and xicheng.[142]
After the fall of Qing, the influence of Eight-corner drum gradually reduced. However, the Chinese monochord[142] and crosstalk[143] which derived from Eight-corner are still popular in Chinese society. Many famous Chinese monochord performers and crosstalkers were the artists of Eight-corner drum. Such as De shoushan and Zhang Sanlu. [144]
Ulabun
Ulabun (
) is a Manchu storytelling entertainment which is performed in Manchu language.[145] Different from Eight-corner drum, ulabun is popular among the Manchu people who lives in Manchuria. It has two main categories. One is popular folk literature such as the Tale of the Nisan Shaman; Another classification is from folk music which is informative and has independent pilot, complete structure.[145] Song Xidong aka. Akšan (
) is a famous artist in performing ulabun.[146]
See also
Notes
- ^ Also known as "Man", "Bannermen", "Tartars", "Red tasseled Manchus" and "Red tasseled Mongols".
"Man" is a Chinese abbreviation, see Manchus on Chinese Wikipedia. Vietnamese also adopted the name from Chinese, See Manchus on Vietnamese Wikipedia, also see Manchu (people) on Encyclopædia Britannica;
The althernative "Bannermen" (旗人 in Chinese) was named after Eight Banners. See Manchus on Chinese Wikipedia;
"Tartars" was mostly called by European missionaries in 17th century, see: Martinius, Martin (1655). Bellum Tartaricumor, or, The conquest of the great and most renowned empire of China, by the invasion of the Tartars. E. Tyler for I. Crook in London.{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help);
Manchus are also famous as "Red tasseled Manchus" (红缨满洲 in original). Because they have red tassels on their traditional hat as an adornment (Zheng 2010, p. 79). Accourding to this, Jasaktu Khan of Khalka Right Banner of Outer Mongolia called Manchus, "Red tasseled Mongols" (Various authors 2008, p. 262: "汉人八十万众，原系我攻城敌也，今闻尔已收服，念总属我红缨蒙古所得，甚为喜悦，故去年我曾遣使朝贺。" Literally: "Chinese who have 800,000 soldiers were my enemies. I heard you have conquered them. At least it belongs to our red tasseled Mongols, so I feel very happy and that was the reason I sent envoy to pay homage to you last year.") - ^ northeastern China and Russia's Primorsky Krai nowadays
- ^ “驻防之地不过出差之所，京师乃其乡土” in original
- ^ aka. Manchuria in 17th century
- ^ e.g. Möngke Temür, Qing's emperors' ancestor
- ^ “京语” in original
- ^ “盛京南满语”
- ^ “盛京吉林语” in original
- ^ “无圈点满文” 、“老满文” in Chinese; "tongki fuka akū hergen" in Manchu
- ^ 《八旗滿洲氏族通譜》 in Chinese
- ^ “著姓” in original
- ^ Seventy
- ^ Five
- ^ Sixty-seven, a Mandarin homophone
- ^ Eight-five, a Mandarin homophone
- ^ e.g. Aisin-Gioro Yuzhan
- ^ e.g. Ying Batu, Ying Bayan, the sons of famous Manchu-Chinese director, Ying Da
- ^ e.g. Aisin-Gioro Ulhicun
- ^ “二十始冠” in Chinese
- ^ “关老爷” originally
- ^ “和硕简亲王” originally, Heshuo Jian Qinwang in Pinyin
- ^ “多罗贝勒” originally, Duoluo Beile in Pinyin
- ^ see Shuai Jiao (Chinese Wikipedia)
- ^ Heilongjiang province and the northern part of today's Jilin province
- ^ “八旗冰鞋营” originally
- ^ “精捷营” originally, literally meaning "chosen agile battalion"
Citations
- ^ a b c d e f g h 中国2010年人口普查资料[上中下](the Data of 2010 China Population Census). China Statistics Press. 2012. ISBN 9787503765070.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help), or simply see Manchu population on Chinese Wikipedia if has a Chinese reading ability - ^ 《我所认识的香港民族问题》，刊载于《民族团结》1996年第8期(Wo Suo Ren Shi De Xiang Gang Min Zu Wen Ti, The problem of the ethnicities of Hong Kong I know, Min Zu Tuan Jie magazine, the 8 edition, 1996)
- ^ a b Manchusoc：The Origins of Manchu People in Taiwan (Chinese traditional)
- ^ a b the gospel need of Manchu people(Chinese traditional)
- ^ Merriam-Webster, Inc 2003, p. 754
- ^ Hu 1994, p. 113
- ^ a b Zhang & Zhang 2005, p. 134
- ^ Zhang & Zhang 2005, p. 18
- ^ Ortai 1985, p. 1326
- ^ Li & Guan 2003, p. 2
- ^ Huang, P.: "New Light on the origins of the Manchu," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, vol. 50, no.1 (1990): 239-82. Retrieved from JSTOR database July 18, 2006
- ^ Agui 1988, p. 1
- ^ Writing Group of Manchu Brief History 2009, p. 7
- ^ Li & Guan 2003, p. 1
- ^ Association for Asian Studies (1987). The Journal of Asian studies, Volume 46, Issues 3-4. Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Association for Asian Studies. p. 767.
- ^ 佚名 1879, p. 151
- ^ Meng 2006, pp. 7, 9
- ^ 《汲冢周书》
- ^ a b Toqto'a 1975, p. 19-46
- ^ Toqto'a 1975, p. 47-67
- ^ Zheng 2009, pp. 18
- ^ Zheng 2009, pp. 39
- ^ Jin 2006, p. 107
- ^ Peterson 2006, p. 11
- ^ a b Meng 2006, p. 21
- ^ Meng 2006, pp. 97, 120
- ^ a b Peterson 2006, p. 15
- ^ Meng 2006, p. 120
- ^ Peterson 2006, p. 15
- ^ Lee 1970, pp. 182–184
- ^ Lee 1970, pp. 20–23, 78–90, 112–115
- ^ Lee 1970, p. 117
- ^ Lee 1970, pp. 124–125
- ^ Lee 1970, p. 103,sq
- ^ Sergeĭ Mikhaĭlovich Shirokogorov (1924). Social organization of the Manchus: A study of the Manchu clan organization. Royal Asiatic Society. p. 4. Retrieved 2011-06-01.
- ^ Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861-1928. University of Washington Press. p. 72. ISBN 0-295-98040-0. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ Rhoads 2000, p. 265
- ^ Rhoads 2000, p. 275
- ^ Shirokogorov 1924, p. i,3-4
- ^ Rhoads 2000, p. 270
- ^ Rhoads 2000, pp. 270, 283
- ^ Puyi 2007, p. 223-224
- ^ Rhoads 2000, p. 277
- ^ Rhoads 2000, p. 276
- ^ Rhoads 2000, p. 280
- ^ Rhoads 2000, p. 282
- ^ Rhoads 2000, p. 283
- ^ "Eras Journal - Tighe, J: Review of "The Manchus", Pamela Kyle Crossley". Retrieved 2011-04-27.
- ^ a b Yan 2008, p. 49
- ^ Agui 1988, p. 2
- ^ 《御制全韵诗》，(清)高宗撰
- ^ Meng 2006, p. 6
- ^ Meng 2006, p. 4-5
- ^ Meng 2006, p. 5
- ^ 《族称manju词源探析》，长山作，刊载于《满语研究》2009年第01期
- ^ 《满洲名称之种种推测》，馮家昇作，《东方杂誌》30卷第17號
- ^ 《筆苑雜記》，徐居正撰
- ^ 《“满洲”名称考述》，滕绍箴撰，《民族研究》1996年04月，70-77页
- ^ Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 246
- ^ Tong 2009, p. 40
- ^ a b c Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 247
- ^ Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 248
- ^ Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 319
- ^ Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 264
- ^ Fuge 1984, p. 152
- ^ Jiang 1980, p. 4
- ^ 《无圈点字书》，鄂尔泰、徐元梦等撰
- ^ Ortai 1985, p. 5324-5327
- ^ Tong 2009, p. 11–17
- ^ Anonymous 1990, p. 1196–1197
- ^ Tong 2009, p. 33
- ^ 人民网：全国现有满族人口1000多万 会说满语者已不足百人
- ^ 人民日报：满语“活化石”――“伊兰孛”
- ^ 辽宁新闻网：本溪桓仁29名满语教师上岗
- ^ 中国新闻网：辽宁一高中开设满语课 满族文化传承引关注
- ^ 新浪教育：满语课首次进入吉林一中学课堂
- ^ 中国民族报：四合院中读书声 “逆流而上”救满文
- ^ 中国吉林网：金标的十年“满语梦”
- ^ 沈阳日报：抢救满语，沈阳小伙自费办班教满语
- ^ 北京晚報：滿文之憂
- ^ Jin 2009, p. 109
- ^ Jin 2009, p. 107
- ^ Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 969
- ^ Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 973
- ^ Hungjeo 2002, pp. 31, 100, 115, 167, 181, 280
- ^ a b Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 979
- ^ a b c d e Elliott 2001, p. 243
- ^ a b Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 978
- ^ a b Wang 1985, p. 27
- ^ Wang 1985, p. 28
- ^ a b Wang 1985, p. 17
- ^ Wang 1985, p. 30
- ^ Wang 1985, p. 31
- ^ 《清高宗实录》记载清高宗于乾隆四十年曾发布上谕“旗妇一耳戴三钳，原系满洲旧风，断不可改饰，朕选包衣佐领之秀女，皆戴一坠子，并相沿至于一耳一钳，则竟非满洲矣，立行禁止。”
- ^ 辽宁省政协：旗袍来历与满族发饰文化
- ^ Jin 2009, p. 20
- ^ 新华网：小小扳指大有身价 (Chinese simplified)
- ^ Jin 2009, pp. 98–106
- ^ a b c d e f g h Jin 2009, p. 95
- ^ a b 满族帝王与佛教的渊源(in Chinese simplified)
- ^ Meng 2006, p. 5
- ^ 《雍乾間奉天主教之宗室·下編·德沛》，陳垣作，1932年《輔仁學誌》三卷二期
- ^ a b c d Liu 2008, p. 184
- ^ 《雍乾間奉天主教之宗室·上編·蘇努諸子》，陳垣作，1932年《輔仁學誌》三卷二期
- ^ 国家清史编委会：苏努研究(in Chinese simplified)
- ^ Fe Doro Manchu Archery: Technique
- ^ Yi 1978, p. 44
- ^ Jiang 1980, p. 46
- ^ Various authors 2008, p. 太宗实录卷三十四，崇德二年三月丁酉，P446
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- ^ Liu 2008, p. 93
- ^ a b Liu 2008, p. 94
- ^ a b Liu 2008, p. 95
- ^ 吉祥满族：文化遗产日——香山团城演武厅“访古·论箭”(in Chinese simplified)
- ^ a b Jin 2006, p. 118
- ^ Jin 2006, p. 142
- ^ Jin 2006, p. 120
- ^ Jin 2006, p. 119
- ^ Jin 2006, p. 121
- ^ Jin 2006, p. 123
- ^ Jin 2006, p. 137
- ^ Jin 2006, p. 153
- ^ a b Liu 2008, p. 106
- ^ a b Liu 2008, p. 107
- ^ 新华网吉林频道：“中国鹰屯”吉林渔楼村将举办首届鹰猎文化节 (Chinese simplified)
- ^ 《御制冰嬉赋·序》，高宗（清）撰
- ^ 《日下旧闻考·宫室·西苑一》，窦光鼐、朱筠等撰
- ^ a b c d 中国新闻网：“冰嬉”被乾隆定为“国俗” 清军有八旗冰鞋营
- ^ a b 李敖记起的北京滑冰老人吴雅氏
- ^ 吉祥满族：满族的春节
- ^ 吉祥满族：滿族的端午節
- ^ 满族特色资源：绝粮日
- ^ Various authors 2008, p. 太宗实录卷二十五，天聪九年年十月庚寅，P330-331
- ^ 吉祥满族：“颁金节”的由来
- ^ Durrant, Stephen W. (1979). "The Nišan Shaman Caught in Cultural Contradiction". Signs. 5 (2). The University of Chicago Press: 338–347. doi:10.1086/493712.
{{cite journal}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help); More than one of|number=and|issue=specified (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Gu, Changchun (2007). 尼山萨满传[上中下] (Tale of the Nisan Shaman). Jilin people's publishing house. ISBN 9787206054389.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - ^ a b c d e Jin 2009, p. 147
- ^ Liu 2008, p. 124
- ^ Liu 2008, p. 112
- ^ a b Jin 2009, p. 148
- ^ Liu 2008, p. 116
- ^ a b Jin 2009, p. 149
- ^ 遼寧電視台《有話好好說2011年12月4日》，郭德綱與德雲社眾演員，1分30秒—1分45秒處
- ^ Liu 2008, p. 113
- ^ a b 富育光：《满族传统说部艺术——“乌勒本”研考》，中國社會科學院民族文化研究所
- ^ 文汇报：满语濒危 歌者唱作品传承
References
In Chinese
- Agui (1988). 满洲源流考 (Researches on Manchu Origins). Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. ISBN 9787805270609.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Aisin Gioro, Yingsheng (2004). 满语杂识 (Divers Knowledges of Manchu language). Wenyuan Publishing House. ISBN 7-80060-008-4.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Anonymous (1990). 满文老档 (Old Manchu Archive). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 9787101005875.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Anonymous (1879). 竹书纪年校正(光绪五年刻本).
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Fuge (1984). 听雨丛谈 (Miscellaneous Discussions Whilst Listening To The Rain). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 978-7-101-01698-7.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Hu, Zengyi (1994). 新满汉大词典 (A Comprehensive Manchu-Chinese Dictionary). Xinjiang People's Publishing House. ISBN 9787228024049.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Hungjeo (2002). 八旗满洲氏族通谱 (Eight Manchu Banners' Surname-Clans' Book). Liaohai Publishing House. ISBN 9787806691892.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Jiang, Liangqi (1980). 东华录. Zhonghua Book Compary.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Jin, Qicong (2009). 金启孮谈北京的满族 (Jin Qicong talks about the Manchu people of Beijing). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 7101068561.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Jin, Qicong; Kaihe (2006). 中国摔跤史 (the wrestling history of China). Inner Mongolia People's Publishing House. ISBN 7204088093.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Jooliyan (1980). 啸亭杂录. Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 9787101017519.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Li, Yanguang; Guan, Jie (2009). 满族通史 (General History of Manchus). National Publishing House. ISBN 9787805271965.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Liu, Xiaomeng (2008). 清代八旗子弟 (the Bannermen in Qing Dynasty). Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. ISBN 978-7-80722-563-8.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Meng, Sen (2006). 满洲开国史讲义 (the Lectrue Note of Early Manchu History). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 7101050301.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - National Census Bureau of Chinese State Concil (2012). 中国2010年人口普查资料（上中下） (the Data of 2010 China Population Census). China Statistics Press. ISBN 9787503765070.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Ortai (1985). 八旗通志初集 (First Edition of Comprehensive statutes of the Eight Banners). Northeast Normal University Press.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Puyi (2007). 我的前半生 (全本) (First Half of My Life (Full Edition)). Qunzhong Publishing House. ISBN 9787501435579.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Song, Lian (1976). 元史 (History of Yuan). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 9787101003260.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Tong, Yonggong (2009). 满语文与满文档案研究 (the Research of Manchu language and files). Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. ISBN 7805070431.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Toqto'a (1975). 金史 (History of Jin). Zhonghua Book Company. ISBN 9787101003253.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Various authors (2008). 清实录 (Veritable records of the Qing dynasty). Zhonghua Book Compary. ISBN 9787101056266.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Wang, Yunying (1985). 清代满族服饰 (Manchu Traditional Clothes of Qing Dynasty). Liaoning Nationality Publishing House.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Writing Group of Manchu Brief History (2009). 满族简史 (Brief History of Manchus). National Publishing House. ISBN 9787105087259.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Yan, Chongnian (2008). 明亡清兴六十年 (彩图珍藏版). Zhonghua Book Compary. ISBN 9787101059472.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Yi, Min-hwan (1978). 清初史料丛刊第八、九种：栅中日录校释、建州见闻录校释. History Department of Liaoning University.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Zeng, Hui (2010). 满族服饰文化研究 (The Research of Manchu Clothing Culture). Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. ISBN 9787807229711.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Zhao, Erxun (2009). 清史稿 (Draft History of Qing). Zhonghua Book Compary. ISBN 9787101007503.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Zhang, Danhui; Zhang (2005). 清代东北边疆的满族 (The Manchus of Manchurian frontier region in Qing Dynasty). Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. ISBN 9787806448656.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Zhang, Tingyu (1974). 明史 (History of Ming). Zhonghua Book Compary. ISBN 9787101003277.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Zheng, Tianting (2010). 探微集. Zhonghua Book Compary. ISBN 9787101069853.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Zheng, Tianting (2009). 郑天挺元史讲义 (Zheng Tianting's Lectrue Note of Yuan Dynasty History). Zhonghua Book Compary. ISBN 9787101070132.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)
In English
- Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2002). The Manchus (The People of Asia series). Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-23591-4.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Elliott, Mark C. (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Lee, Robert H. G. (1970). The Manchurian Frontier in Chʼing History. Harvard University Press. ISBN 674-54775-6.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: length (help); Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Merriam-Webster, Inc (2003). Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. ISBN 978-0-87779-807-1.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Peterson, Willard J. (2002). the Cambridge History of China, the Ch'ing dynasty to 1800. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24334-3.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000). Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928. University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-98040-0.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Shirokogorov, Sergei Mikhailovich (1924). Social Organization of the Manchus: A study of the Manchu Clan Organization. Royal Asiatic Society.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Vollmer, John E. (2002). Ruling from the Dragon Throne: Costume of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), Asian Art Series. Ten Speed Press. ISBN 1-58008-307-2.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)
In Manchu
- Dekdengge (2007). Nišan Saman i Yooni Bithe (Full Version of Tale of the Nisan Shaman). Yingyu Cultural Publishing House. ISBN 9789868212428.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)
Further readings
- Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2002). A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23424-3.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1991). Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00877-9.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Rawski, Evelyn S. (2001). The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22837-5.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)