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Synthesis, the massacres had nothing to do with them being Cantonese. Han Bannermen under Shang Kexi carried out the Guangzhou massacre against Ming loyalists, not Manchus. Sangley Rebellion had nothing to do with being Cantonese
The Qing army killed both loyalists and the cantonese population of the city as indicated in the sources, and the sangley rebellion killed chiense where cantonese made up the vast majority.
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{{main article|Cantonese cuisine}}
{{main article|Cantonese cuisine}}
Cantonese cuisine has become one of the most renowned types of cuisine around the world, characterised by its variety of cooking methods and use of fresh ingredients, particularly seafood.<ref name="Chapius-01">{{cite book |title=Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CwRE0HIIyWkC&pg=PA281&dq=Cantonese+food+is+the+best&hl=en&ei=-_mnTv2iEYaw8gOWronLDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Cantonese%20food%20is%20the%20best&f=false |accessdate=|pages=281}}</ref> One of the most famous examples of Cantonese cuisine is [[dim sum]], a variety of small dishes such as ''[[har gow]]'' (steamed shrimp dumplings), ''[[Shumai|siu mai]]'' (steamed pork dumplings), and ''[[cha siu bao]]'' (barbecued pork buns).
Cantonese cuisine has become one of the most renowned types of cuisine around the world, characterised by its variety of cooking methods and use of fresh ingredients, particularly seafood.<ref name="Chapius-01">{{cite book |title=Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CwRE0HIIyWkC&pg=PA281&dq=Cantonese+food+is+the+best&hl=en&ei=-_mnTv2iEYaw8gOWronLDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Cantonese%20food%20is%20the%20best&f=false |accessdate=|pages=281}}</ref> One of the most famous examples of Cantonese cuisine is [[dim sum]], a variety of small dishes such as ''[[har gow]]'' (steamed shrimp dumplings), ''[[Shumai|siu mai]]'' (steamed pork dumplings), and ''[[cha siu bao]]'' (barbecued pork buns).

==Mass killings and murder of cantonese people==
During the Manchu conquest launched a huge massacre against the Cantonese in the city of Guangzhou, the mass killings killed 700,000 people, wiping out all the cantonese in the city.<ref>http://www.360doc.com/content/12/1205/08/2327052_252199707.shtml</ref><ref>https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=RhmaCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA66&dq=traditional+chinese+culture+brutal+massacre+canton+population&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj5y8md86LQAhWGv48KHZGWDyMQ6AEIJDAA#v=onepage&q=traditional%20chinese%20culture%20brutal%20massacre%20canton%20population&f=false</ref><ref>http://www.bestchinanews.com/History/3341.html</ref>

The cantonese settled in [[Manila]] during the 16th century and dramatically increased all the way up to the 17th century.<ref>[http://hk.crntt.com/crn-webapp/cbspub/secDetail.jsp?bookid=48613&secid=48733]</ref> The Spanish, Filipino and Japanese soldiers massacred 20,000 Cantonese in the city in 1603.<ref>[http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~borao/2Profesores/massacre.pdf]</ref>

As a result of the [[Taiping Rebellion]], anti-Qing rebels known as the Red Turbans took the opportunity during the wartime choas to stage a revolt wqith the support of the Triads secret society. After curshing the revolt, the Imperial authorities killed 70,000 cantonese suspected of sympathizing or participating in the revolt and a further 1 million were killed all over the Guangdong province.<ref>https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=U3GQ7o3HV1cC&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&dq=seventy+thousand+executed+in+guangzhou&source=bl&ots=YqwXePLpUs&sig=vHgHJn6Zqc8b4AcIAsuSR-Jzpo8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj45aHX-aLQAhVDLo8KHR-4CwYQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=seventy%20thousand%20executed%20in%20guangzhou&f=false</ref>
During the Qing Dynasty, the government used Hunanese armies to massacre cantonese civilians.<ref>https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=ANsmE1gBRKsC&pg=PA181&dq=massacre+of+cantonese&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX1dfl86LQAhVIPo8KHf-ICqoQ6AEILjAD#v=onepage&q=massacre%20of%20cantonese&f=false</ref>

On June 12, 1915, an enormous disaster happened in the provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi which killed 100,000 cantonese in Guangzhou alone, wiping out the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=3KglCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA667&lpg=PA667&dq=Canton%20100,000%20people%20died%20japanese&source=bl&ots=gzSG8yrhqP&sig=OSmT-NDSbp6S959mfPEh6x4Di9s&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiAj_PSqInQAhVJQ48KHRSuBo4Q6AEIRjAF#v=onepage&q=Canton%20100,000%20people%20died&f=false|title=Darkest Hours|first=Jay Robert|last=Nash|date=18 May 1976|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|via=Google Books}}</ref>

During [[World War II]], following [[Strategic Bombing During World War II#Japanese bombing|its aerial bombardment]] which killed 1,450 cantonese in the city, Guangzhou was occupied by the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] from 21 October 1938 to 16 September 1945. [[Unit 8604]], a section of the [[Imperial Japanese Army]]'s [[Unit 731]], conducted bacteriological research in the city during the war. Over 20,000 cantonese were killed by [[bubonic plague]] in Guangzhou during the experiments alone, many more died from various other experiment tests.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://factsanddetails.com/asian/ca67/sub426/entry-5518.html|title=PLAGUE BOMBS AND GRUESOME EXPERIMENTS AT UNIT 731 – Facts and Details|first=Jeffrey|last=Hays|date=|work=factsanddetails.com}}</ref><ref>Gold, Hal. ''Unit 731: Testimony''. Tuttle Publishing, 2006, p. 50</ref><ref>{{citation |editor1-last = Yamada (山田乙三) |editor1-first = Otozō |editor1-link = Otozō Yamada |script-title = ja:Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged with Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons / Documents relatifs au procès des anciens Militaires de l'Armée Japonaise accusés d'avoir préparé et employé l'Arme Bactériologique / 細菌戦用兵器ノ準備及ビ使用ノ廉デ起訴サレタ元日本軍軍人ノ事件ニ関スル公判書類 / 前日本陸軍軍人因準備和使用細菌武器被控案審判材料 |publisher = [[Foreign Languages Publishing House (Soviet Union)|Foreign Languages Publishing House]] |year = 1950 |location = Moscow |page = 524 |oclc = 24964936}}</ref><ref>{{citation |editor1-last = Beam |editor1-first = Thomas E. |editor1-link = Thomas E. Beam |editor2-last = Sparacino |editor2-first = Linette R. |editor2-link = Linette R. Sparacino |title = Military Medical Ethics |volume = 2 |publisher = [[United States Army]] [[Surgeon General of the United States|Office of the Surgeon General]] |year = 2003 |location = Falls Church, Virginia |page = [http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/ethicsVol2/Ethics–ch–16.pdf 481] |url = http://purl.access.gpo.gov/GPO/LPS57893 |isbn = 978-1-4289-1066-9 |oclc = 52553758}}</ref>


== Notable figures ==
== Notable figures ==

Revision as of 10:15, 12 November 2016

Cantonese
廣府人
广府人
Gwóngfú Yàhn
Regions with significant populations
China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Yunnan), Hong Kong, Macau, Southeast Asia (Singapore, Malaysia, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar), Western world (United States, Mexico, Peru, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, Venezuela)
Languages
Yue Chinese
Religion
Predominantly Chinese folk religions (which include Taoism, Confucianism, ancestral worship) and Mahayana Buddhism. Minorities: Christianity, Atheism, Freethought; others.
Related ethnic groups
Hong Kong people, Macanese people, Taishanese people, Han Chinese.

Template:Contains Chinese text

Cantonese people
Traditional Chinese廣府人
Simplified Chinese广府人
Alternative Chinese name
Traditional Chinese廣東人
Simplified Chinese广东人

Cantonese people (simplified Chinese: 广府人; traditional Chinese: 廣府人; Jyutping: gwong2 dung1 jan4; Hanyu: Guǎngdōng Rén; lit. people of Guangdong) are Han Chinese people originating from or residing in Guangdong Province, China, formerly romanised as Canton Province. The term "Cantonese people" is often synonymous with the Punti (本地; bun2 dei6) people. They are also referred to as "Kongfu" in Malaysia and "Konghu" in Indonesia[2] and as "Hoa" in Vietnam.

The Cantonese people were historically responsible for establishing the Cantonese language's usage in Hong Kong during the early migration to the colonial era. Today, Hong Kong and Macau are the only regions in the world where Cantonese is the official spoken language; most people in Guangdong, as elsewhere in Mainland China, speak Mandarin in addition to Cantonese.

Taishanese people (四邑廣東人) may also be considered as Cantonese, but speak Taishanese (台山話), a different variant of Yue Chinese.

There have been a number of influential Cantonese figures throughout history, such as Bruce Lee, Ching Shih, Lee Shau-kee, Ho Ching, and Flossie Wong-Staal.

History

Nanyue Kingdom

Pre-19th century: History of Guangdong

Further information: Nanyue and Southward expansion of the Han Dynasty

Until the 19th century, Cantonese history was largely the history of Guangdong.

What is now Guangdong was first brought under Qin influence by a Qin dynasty general named Zhao Tuo who later founded the kingdom of Nanyue in 204 BC.[3][4][5][6][7] The Nanyue kingdom went on to become the strongest Baiyue state in China, with many neighboring kingdoms declaring their allegiance to Nanyue rule. Zhao Tuo took the Han territory of Hunan and defeated the Han dynasty's first attack on Nanyue, later annexing the kingdom of Minyue in the East and conquering Âu Lạc, Northern Vietnam, in the West in 179 BC.[8]

The greatly expanded Nanyue kingdom included the territories of modern-day Guangdong, Guangxi, and Northern Vietnam, with the capital situated at modern-day Guangzhou. The native people of Guangdong remained under Baiyue control until the Han dynasty in 111 BC, following the Han–Nanyue War. However, it was not until subsequent dynasties such as the Jin Dynasty, Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty that major waves of Han Chinese began to migrate into Guangdong. Waves of migration and subsequent intermarriage meant that existing populations of Guangdong were displaced, but some native groups like the Zhuang still remained. The Cantonese often call themselves "people of Tang". This is because of the Inter-mixture between native and Han immigrants in Guangdong reached a critical mass of acculturation during the Tang dynasty, creating an new local identity among the Guangdong people.[9]

During the 4th-12th centuries, Han Chinese people from Northern China's Yellow River valley migrated and settled in the South of China. This gave rise to peoples including the Cantonese, Hakka, and Hoklo, whose ancestors migrated from Henan Province to areas of Southeastern coastal China such as Chaozhou, Quanzhou, and Zhangzhou during the Tang dynasty.[10] There have been multiple migrations of Han people into Southeastern and Southern China throughout history.[11]

The origin of the Cantonese people is thus said to be Northern Chinese peoples that migrated to Guangdong while it was still inhabited by Baiyue peoples.[12] During Wang Mang's reign in the Han dynasty (206BC-220AD), there were influxes of Han Chinese migrants into Guangdong, Vietnam, and Yunnan.[13]


19th-20th century: Turmoil and migration

During the early 1800s, conflict occurred between Cantonese and Portuguese pirates in the form of the Ningpo massacre.[14] The First (1839–1842) and Second Opium Wars (1856–1860) led to the loss of China's control over Hong Kong and Kowloon, which were ceded to the British. Macau also became a Portuguese settlement. Between 1855 and 1867, the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars caused further discord in Guangdong. The third plague pandemic of 1855 broke out in Yunnan and spread to Guangdong, killing thousands and spreading via water traffic to nearby Hong Kong.

The turmoil of the 19th century, followed by the political upheaval of the early 20th century, compelled many residents of Guangdong to migrate overseas. Up until the second half of the 20th century, the majority of overseas Chinese emigrated from two provinces of China; Guangdong and Fujian. As a result, there are today many Cantonese communities throughout the world, including in North America, Latin America, the Caribbean, Southeast Asia, East Africa, the United Kingdom, and the Pacific Islands, with Chinatowns commonly being established by Cantonese communities. There have been a large number of interracial marriages between Cantonese men and women from other countries, as most of the migrants from Guangdong were men. Resultantly, there are many Eurasians with Cantonese ancestry,[15] for example Nancy Kwan, born to a Cantonese father and Scottish mother is a well-known Hollywood actress in the 1960s; and influential martial artist Bruce Lee, who was born to a Cantonese father and a half-Chinese, half-Caucasian mother.

Unlike the migrants from Fujian, who mostly settled in Southeast Asia, many Cantonese emigrants migrated to the Western Hemisphere, particularly the United States and Canada. Many Cantonese immigrants into the United States became railroad labourers, while many in South America were brought in as coolies. Cantonese immigrants in California participated in the California Gold Rush and the Australian gold rushes of 1854 onwards, while Chinese in Hawaii found employment in sugar plantations as contract labourers. These early immigrants variously faced hostility and a variety of discriminatory laws, including the prohibition of Chinese female immigrants. The relaxation of immigration laws after World War II allowed for subsequent waves of migration to the United States from both mainland China and Hong Kong, while the majority of the Chinese-Vietnamese boat people from the Vietnam War spoke Cantonese either as a first or secondary language. As a result, Cantonese continues to be widely used by Chinese communities of Guangdong and Hong Kong origin in the Western hemisphere, and has not been supplanted by Standard Chinese. A large proportion of the early migrants also came from the Siyi region of Guangdong and spoke Taishanese. The Taishan dialect is still spoken in American-Chinese communities, by the older population as well as by more recent immigrants from Taishan.

Cultural hub

Cantonese people and their culture hub are centred in Guangdong, Hong Kong, and Macau.

Guangzhou, the capital city of Guangdong, has been one of China's international trading ports since the Tang dynasty. During the 18th century, it became an important centre of the emerging trade between China and the Western world, as part of the Canton System. The privilege during this period made Guangzhou one of the top three cities in the world.[16] Operating from the Thirteen Factories located on the banks of the Pearl River outside Canton, merchants traded goods such as silk, porcelain ("fine china"), and tea, allowing Guangzhou to become a prosperous city. Links to overseas contacts and beneficial tax reforms in the 1990s have also contributed to the city's ongoing growth. Guangzhou was named a global city in 2008. The migrant population from other provinces of China in Guangzhou was 40 percent of the city's total population in 2008. Most of them are rural migrants and they speak only Mandarin.[17]

Hong Kong and Macau are two of the richest cities in the world in terms of GDP per capita and are autonomous SARs (Special Administrative Regions) that are under independent governance from China. Historically governed by the British and Portuguese empires respectively, colonial Hong Kong and Macau were increasingly populated by migrant influxes from mainland China, particularly the nearby Guangdong Province. For that reason, the culture of Hong Kong and Macau became a mixture of Cantonese and Western influences, sometimes described as "East meets West".

Hong Kong

Hong Kong native peoples include the Hakka and Tanka, who speak their own dialects. Another dialect traditionally spoken is Weitou.

Hong Kong Island was first colonised by the British Empire in 1842 with a population of only 7,450; however, it was in 1898 that Hong Kong truly became a British colony, when the British also colonised the New Territories (which constitute 86.2% of Hong Kong's modern territory). It was during this period that migrants from China entered, mainly speaking Cantonese (the prestige dialect of Yue Chinese) as a common language. During the following century of British rule, Hong Kong grew into a hub of Cantonese culture, and has remained as such since the handover in 1997.

Today Hong Kong is one of the world's leading financial centres, and the Hong Kong dollar is the thirteenth most traded currency in the world.

Macau

Macau native people are known as the Tanka. A dialect similar to Shiqi (石岐話), originating from Zhongshan (中山) in Guangdong, is also spoken in the region.

Parts of Macau were first loaned to the Portuguese by China as a trading centre in the 16th century, with the Portuguese required to administrate the city under Chinese authority. In 1851 and 1864, the Portuguese Empire occupied the two nearest offshore islands Taipa and Coloane respectively, and Macau officially became a colony of the Portuguese Empire in 1887. Macau was returned to China in 1999.

By 2002, Macau had become one of the world's richest cities,[18] and by 2006, it had surpassed Las Vegas to become the world's biggest gambling centre.[19] Macau is also a world cultural heritage site due to its Portuguese colonial architecture.

Culture

A bronze statue on a pedestal, with the city skyline in the background. The pedestal is designed in the image of four clapperboards forming a box. The statue is of a woman wrapped in photographic film, looking straight up, with her left hand stretched upwards and holding a glass sphere containing a light.
A statue on the Avenue of Stars, a tribute to Hong Kong Cantonese cinema.
Bāngzi (梆子) is one of the main instruments used in Cantonese opera.
Cantonese dim-sum
Cantonese gambling centre, the world largest diamond-shaped casino
Sculpture of the famous cultural Cantonese fighter Bruce Lee at the Avenue of Stars, Hong Kong

The term "Cantonese" is used to refer to the native Guangdong people, their language, or culture.[20]

Language

The term "Cantonese language" is sometimes used to refer to the broader group of Yue Chinese dialects spoken in Guangdong and Guangxi, although it is also used more specifically to describe Guongzauwaa (廣州話), the prestige dialect of Cantonese spoken in Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macau. Guongzauwaa is the language used for education and media in Hong Kong and Macau. However, it is not as widely used in Guangzhou, where a large proportion of the population is made up by migrant workers from elsewhere in China that speak Mandarin and other Chinese dialects.[21]

Because of its tradition of usage in music, cinema, literature, newspapers and manhua, this form of Cantonese is a cultural mark of identity that distinguishes Cantonese people from Mainland Chinese. The pronunciation and vocabulary of Cantonese has preserved many features of the official language of the Tang dynasty with elements of ancient Yue language.[22]

Arts

Cantonese opera also has a long tradition that may date back to the Song dynasty in the 13th century.

Due to its political and economic status outside of the direct control of the People's Republic of China, Hong Kong has been a production centre of Cantonese-language entertainment in the 20th century. This includes Cantopop (well-known artists include Andy Lau, Aaron Kwok, Joey Yung, Alan Tam, Roman Tam, Danny Chan, Jacky Cheung, Leon Lai, Faye Wong, Sammi Cheng, and Coco Lee; many of whom are of Cantonese or Taishanese origin) and Cantonese-language cinema (recent films include Kung Fu Hustle, Infernal Affairs, and Ip Man 3). The Hong Kong movie industry was the third-largest movie industry in the world (after Hollywood and Bollywood) for decades throughout the 20th century, with Cantonese-language films viewed and acclaimed around the world.

Cuisine

Main article: Cantonese cuisine

Cantonese cuisine has become one of the most renowned types of cuisine around the world, characterised by its variety of cooking methods and use of fresh ingredients, particularly seafood.[23] One of the most famous examples of Cantonese cuisine is dim sum, a variety of small dishes such as har gow (steamed shrimp dumplings), siu mai (steamed pork dumplings), and cha siu bao (barbecued pork buns).

Mass killings and murder of cantonese people

During the Manchu conquest launched a huge massacre against the Cantonese in the city of Guangzhou, the mass killings killed 700,000 people, wiping out all the cantonese in the city.[24][25][26]

The cantonese settled in Manila during the 16th century and dramatically increased all the way up to the 17th century.[27] The Spanish, Filipino and Japanese soldiers massacred 20,000 Cantonese in the city in 1603.[28]

As a result of the Taiping Rebellion, anti-Qing rebels known as the Red Turbans took the opportunity during the wartime choas to stage a revolt wqith the support of the Triads secret society. After curshing the revolt, the Imperial authorities killed 70,000 cantonese suspected of sympathizing or participating in the revolt and a further 1 million were killed all over the Guangdong province.[29] During the Qing Dynasty, the government used Hunanese armies to massacre cantonese civilians.[30]

On June 12, 1915, an enormous disaster happened in the provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi which killed 100,000 cantonese in Guangzhou alone, wiping out the city.[31]

During World War II, following its aerial bombardment which killed 1,450 cantonese in the city, Guangzhou was occupied by the Japanese from 21 October 1938 to 16 September 1945. Unit 8604, a section of the Imperial Japanese Army's Unit 731, conducted bacteriological research in the city during the war. Over 20,000 cantonese were killed by bubonic plague in Guangzhou during the experiments alone, many more died from various other experiment tests.[32][33][34][35]

Notable figures

The following is an incomplete list of notable figures and celebrities that are regarded as being of Cantonese origin:

Historical

Entertainers

Politicians

Sportspeople

  • Wong Peng Soon, A renowned male badminton player in the latter half of the 20th century
  • Patrick Chan, A world champion Chinese-Canadian male figure skater
  • Michelle Kwan, Chinese-American female figure skater and five-time world champion
  • Yi Jianlian, a 7-foot-tall Chinese basketball player for NBA, Milwaukee Bucks, New Jersey Nets, and Washington Wizards
  • Guan Weizhen, female badminton player who won three consecutive women's doubles titles at the BWF World Championships
  • Chen Xiaomin Chinese retired weightlifter, in 2000 Sydney Olympics on the women's weightlifting gold medal, also a world and Asian champion
  • Shanshan Feng, The first golfer from China to win LPGA major championship and major championship, she was ranked fifth in 2012 Women's World Golf Rankings.[38]
  • He Chong, Chinese, diver. He is the 2008 Olympic Champion gold medalist in the 3m springboard. He was unbeaten from 2006 - 2016
  • Jiang Jialiang, Table Tennis player, he won medals in Asia and world table tennis tournaments.
  • Xie Xingfang, Badminton player, she is a two-time world champion women's singles.
  • Chen Xiexia, She won three golds at the 2007 World Weightlifting Championships. The first gold medal for China in the 2008 Summer Olympics.
  • Zhang Jiewen, Gold medal in Badminton 2004 Athens
  • Lao Lishi, Gold medal in women's 10 meter synchronized platform along with Li Ting.
  • Su Bingtian, He is the reigning Asian champion over 100 metres, was a semi-finalist at the 2012 Summer Olympics and a finalist at the 2015 World Championships.
  • Liang Wen-Chong, Highest ranked golfer from the People's Republic of China, the only Chinese golfer to have reached the top 100 of the Official World Golf Ranking.

Businesspeople

Martial artists

  • Wong Fei-hung, martial artist in the Qing dynasty, the subject of numerous films and television series
  • Yip Man, martial artist and teacher of Bruce Lee; inspired the Ip Man film series, among other biographical adaptations
  • Bruce Lee, one of the most influential martial artists of all time
  • Chan Heung, founder of Choy Li Fut
  • Donnie Yen, martial artist and actor

Academics

Other notable figures

Cantonese influence on the Xinhai Revolution

The Xinhai Revolution of 1911 was a revolution that overthrew the last imperial dynasty of China, the Qing dynasty, and established the Republic of China. Guangdong's uprising against the Qing dynasty in 1895 let to its naming as the "cradle of the Xinhai Revolution".[40][41][42] Revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen was born in Zhongshan, Guangdong.[43][44] Hong Kong was where he developed his thoughts of revolution and was the base of subsequent uprisings, as well as the first revolutionary newspaper.[45][46] Sun Yat-sen's revolutionary army was largely made up of Cantonese, and many of the early revolutionary leaders were also Cantonese.[47]

See also

References

  1. ^ David P Brown (31 August 2011). "Top 100 Languages by Population". Retrieved 6 May 2016.
  2. ^ Chinese Overseas: Comparative Cultural Issues. Hong Kong University Press. pp. 92–93.
  3. ^ Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian, section 112.
  4. ^ Huai Nan Zi, section 18
  5. ^ Zhang & Huang, pp. 26–31.
  6. ^ Zhang and Huang, pp. 196–200; also Shi Ji 130
  7. ^ Records of the Grand Historian, section 97 《《史記·酈生陸賈列傳》
  8. ^ Chapuis, Oscar (1995). A History of Vietnam: From Hong Bang to Tu Duc. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 13–14. ISBN 0-313-29622-7.
  9. ^ Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). The Languages of China. Princeton University Press. pp. 98–99. ISBN 0-691-06694-9.
  10. ^ Sow-Theng Leong; Tim Wright; George William Skinner (1997). Migration and Ethnicity in Chinese History: Hakkas, Pengmin, and Their Neighbors. Stanford University Press. pp. 78–. ISBN 978-0-8047-2857-7.
  11. ^ Jacques Gernet (31 May 1996). A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge University Press. pp. 8–. ISBN 978-0-521-49781-7.
  12. ^ Shmuel Noah Eisenstadt; Wolfgang Schluchter; Björn Wittrock. Public Spheres and Collective Identities. Transaction Publishers. pp. 213–4. ISBN 978-1-4128-3248-9.
  13. ^ Jacques Gernet (31 May 1996). A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge University Press. pp. 126–. ISBN 978-0-521-49781-7.
  14. ^ Zhidong Hao (2011). Macau History and Society (illustrated ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. 67. ISBN 988-8028-54-5. Retrieved 4 November 2011. There was indeed a group of Portuguese who became pirates, called "Macau ruffians," or policemen who turned bad, along with "Manila-men" from the Philippines and escaped African slaves. Their fleet attacked "the Cantonese ships when they could get them at an advantage, and murdered their crews with circumstances of great atrocity."55 They were destroyed in Ningbo by a fleet of Chinese pirates with the support of the local Chinese government and other Europeans.
  15. ^ "UK Chinese". Retrieved 6 May 2016.
  16. ^ "Top 10 Cities of the Year 1800". About.com. Retrieved 2008-08-28.
  17. ^ Branigan, Tania (2010-07-25). "Protesters gather in Guangzhou to protect Cantonese language". The Guardian. London.
  18. ^ Macau has become known as the 'Las Vegas of the Far East'. Papers by Cindia Ching-Chi [1]
  19. ^ Barboza, David (2007-01-23). "Macao Surpasses Las Vegas as Gambling Center". The New York Times.
  20. ^ Unity and diversity: local cultures and identities in China By David Faure [2]
  21. ^ "Migrants In Guangzhou". Retrieved 6 May 2016.
  22. ^ South China Morning Post. [2009] (2009). 11, October. "Linguistic heritage in peril". By Chloe Lai.
  23. ^ Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People. p. 281.
  24. ^ http://www.360doc.com/content/12/1205/08/2327052_252199707.shtml
  25. ^ https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=RhmaCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA66&dq=traditional+chinese+culture+brutal+massacre+canton+population&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj5y8md86LQAhWGv48KHZGWDyMQ6AEIJDAA#v=onepage&q=traditional%20chinese%20culture%20brutal%20massacre%20canton%20population&f=false
  26. ^ http://www.bestchinanews.com/History/3341.html
  27. ^ [3]
  28. ^ [4]
  29. ^ https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=U3GQ7o3HV1cC&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&dq=seventy+thousand+executed+in+guangzhou&source=bl&ots=YqwXePLpUs&sig=vHgHJn6Zqc8b4AcIAsuSR-Jzpo8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj45aHX-aLQAhVDLo8KHR-4CwYQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=seventy%20thousand%20executed%20in%20guangzhou&f=false
  30. ^ https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=ANsmE1gBRKsC&pg=PA181&dq=massacre+of+cantonese&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX1dfl86LQAhVIPo8KHf-ICqoQ6AEILjAD#v=onepage&q=massacre%20of%20cantonese&f=false
  31. ^ Nash, Jay Robert (18 May 1976). "Darkest Hours". Rowman & Littlefield – via Google Books.
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  37. ^ Lily Xiao Hong Lee, A. D. Stefanowska, Clara Wing-chung Ho - 2003 - 387 pages
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