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Jackson, Mississippi

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Jackson, Mississippi
Flag of Jackson, Mississippi
Flag
Official seal of Jackson, Mississippi
Seal
Nickname(s): 
Crossroads of the South, Jacktown
CountryUnited States
StateMississippi
CountyHinds
Founded1822
Government
 • MayorFrank Melton
Elevation
279 ft (85 m)
Population
 (2000)
 • City184,256
 • Metro
529,456
Time zoneUTC-6 (CST)
 • Summer (DST)UTC-5 (CDT)
Websitehttp://www.city.jackson.ms.us

Jackson is the capital and the most populous city of the State of Mississippi. As of the 2000 census, Jackson's population was 184,256. As of July 1, 2006, the census estimates that the Jackson Metropolitan Area (MSA), including its suburbs in Hinds, Rankin, Madison, Copiah, and Simpson counties, has a population of 529,456, more than one-sixth the population of the state. Jackson is one of the county seats of Hinds County; Raymond is the other county seat. Jackson is also a part of the Jackson-Yazoo City Combined Statistical Area (CSA). The current slogan for the city is "Jackson, Mississippi: City with Soul". Frank Melton is the current mayor of Jackson. The city is home to the international headquarters of Phi Theta Kappa, an honor society for the students enrolled in two-year colleges.

History

Founding and antebellum period (to 1860)

The area that is now Jackson was first settled in 1792 by Louis LeFleur, a French-Canadian trader. During the late 18th century and early 19th century, the area was traversed by the Natchez Trace, on which a trading post stood before a treaty with the Choctaw, the Treaty of Doak's Stand in 1820, formally opened the area for non-native American settlers.

The city, originally known as LeFleur's Bluff,[1] was founded based on the need for a centrally located capital for the state of Mississippi. In 1821, the Mississippi General Assembly, meeting in the then-capital, Natchez, had sent Thomas Hinds (for whom Hinds County is named), James Patton, and William Lattimore to look for a site. After surveying areas north and east of Jackson, they proceeded southwest along the Pearl River until they reached LeFleur's Bluff in Hinds County. Their report to the General Assembly stated that this location had beautiful and healthful surroundings, good water, abundant timber, navigable waters, and proximity to the Natchez Trace. And so, a legislative Act passed by the Assembly on November 28, 1821, authorized the location to become the permanent seat of the government of the state of Mississippi.

Jackson was originally planned, in April 1822, by Peter Van Dorn in a "checkerboard" pattern advocated by Thomas Jefferson, in which city blocks alternated with parks and other open spaces, giving the appearance of a checkerboard. This plan has not lasted to the present day. The state legislature first met in Jackson on December 23, 1822. It is named for the seventh President of the United States, Andrew Jackson, in recognition for his victory in the War of 1812 in the Battle of New Orleans.

In 1839, Jackson was the site of the passage of the first state law that permitted married women to own and administer their own property.

Jackson was first linked with other cities by rail in 1840. An 1844 map shows Jackson linked by an east-west rail line running between Vicksburg, Raymond, and Brandon. Unlike Vicksburg, Greenville, and Natchez, Jackson is not located on the Mississippi River, and did not develop like those cities from river commerce. Instead, railroads would later spark growth of the city in the decades after the American Civil War.

American Civil War and late nineteenth century (1861-1900)

Despite its small population, during the Civil War , Jackson became a strategic center of manufacturing for the Confederate States of America. In 1863, during the campaign which ended in the capture of Vicksburg, Union forces captured Jackson during two battles—once before the fall of Vicksburg and once after the fall of Vicksburg.

On May 13, 1863, Union forces won the first Battle of Jackson, forcing Confederate forces to flee northward towards Canton. Subsequently, on May 15, 1863, Union troops under the command of William Tecumseh Sherman burned and looted key facilities in city of Jackson, a strategic manufacturing and railroad center for the Confederacy. After driving the Confederate forces out of Jackson, Union forces turned west once again and engaged the Vicksburg defenders at the Battle of Champion Hill in nearby Edwards. The siege of Vicksburg began soon after the Union victory at Champion Hill. Confederate forces began to reassemble in Jackson in preparation for an attempt to break through the Union lines surrounding Vicksburg and end the siege there. The Confederate forces in Jackson built defensive fortifications encircling the city while preparing to march west to Vicksburg.

Confederate forces marched out of Jackson to break the siege of Vicksburg in early July 1863. However, unknown to them, Vicksburg had already surrendered on July 4, 1863. General Ulysses S. Grant dispatched General Sherman to meet the Confederate forces heading west from Jackson. Upon learning that Vicksburg had already surrendered, the Confederates retreated back into Jackson, thus beginning the Siege of Jackson, which lasted for approximately one week. Union forces encircled the city and began an artillery bombardment. One of the Union artillery emplacements still remains intact on the grounds of the University of Mississippi Medical Center in Jackson. Another Federal position is still intact on the campus of Millsaps College. One of the Confederate Generals defending Jackson was former United States Vice President John C. Breckenridge. On July 16, 1863, Confederate forces slipped out of Jackson during the night and retreated across the Pearl River. Union forces completely burned the city after its capture this second time, and the city earned the nickname "Chimneyville" because only the chimneys of houses were left standing. The northern line of Confederate defenses in Jackson during the siege was located along a road near downtown Jackson, now known as Fortification Street.

Today there are few antebellum structures left standing in Jackson. One surviving structure is the Governor's Mansion, built in 1842, which served as Sherman's headquarters. Another is the Old Capitol building, which served as the home of the Mississippi state legislature from 1839 to 1903. There the Mississippi legislature passed the ordinance of secession from the Union on January 9, 1861, becoming the second state to secede from the United States. The constitutional convention of 1890, which produced Mississippi's Constitution of 1890, was also held there. The so-called New Capitol replaced the older structure upon its completion in 1903, and today the Old Capitol is a historical museum. A third important surviving antebellum structure is the Jackson City Hall, built in 1846 for less than $8,000. It is said that Sherman, a Mason, spared it because it housed a Masonic Lodge, though a more likely reason is that it housed an army hospital.

Early twentieth century (1901-1960)

Pulitzer Prize-winning author Eudora Welty was born in Jackson in 1909, died there in 2001, and lived most of her life in the Belhaven section of the city. She wrote a memoir of her development as a writer, One Writer's Beginnings (1984), which gives a charming picture of the city in the early 20th century. Today, the main Jackson public library is named in her honor.

Richard Wright (1908-1960), from a 1939 photo by Carl Van Vechten.

Highly acclaimed African-American author Richard Wright, a native of Roxie, Mississippi, lived in Jackson as an adolescent and young man in the 1910s and 1920s, and relates his experience in his memoir Black Boy (1945). He describes the harsh and largely terror-filled life most African-Americans experienced in the South and the rest of the United States under segregation in the early twentieth century.

Jackson's economic growth was stimulated in the 1930s by the discovery of natural gas fields nearby.

During World War II, Hawkins Field in northwest Jackson became a major airbase. Among other facilities and units, the Royal Netherlands Military Flying School was established there, after Nazi Germany occupied Holland. From 1941, the base trained all Dutch military aircrews.

Civil rights era and afterwards (1961-present)

Since 1960, Jackson has undergone a series of dramatic changes and growth. On May 24, 1961, during the American Civil Rights Movement, a large group of Freedom Riders was arrested in Jackson for "disturbing the peace" after they disembarked from their bus. Although the Freedom Riders had planned to make New Orleans their final destination, Jackson was the farthest that any of them actually managed to travel.

In Jackson, shortly after midnight on June 12, 1963, Medgar Evers, civil rights activist and leader of the Mississippi chapter of the NAACP, was murdered by Byron De La Beckwith, a white supremacist. In 1994, prosecutors Ed Peters and Bobby DeLaughter finally convicted de la Beckwith of murder. A portion of U.S. Highway 49, all of Delta Drive and Jackson-Evers International Airport now bear Medgar Evers's name.

The first successful cadaveric lung transplant was performed at the University of Mississippi Medical Center in Jackson in June 1963 by Dr. James Hardy. Hardy transplanted the cadaveric lung into a patient suffering from lung cancer. The patient survived for eighteen days before dying of kidney failure.

In 1965, Millsaps College became the first private college in the South to admit African-American students.

In June 1966, Jackson was also the terminus of the James Meredith March, organized by James Meredith, the first African-American to enroll at the University of Mississippi. The march, which began in Memphis, Tennessee, was an attempt to garner support for the Civil Rights movement and was accompanied by a drive to register African-Americans to vote in Mississippi. In this latter aim, it succeeded in registering between 2,500 and 3,000 black Mississippians to vote. The march ended on June 26 after Meredith, who had been wounded by a sniper's bullet earlier on the march, addressed a large rally of some 15,000 people in Jackson.

Since 1968, Jackson has been the home of Malaco Records, one of the leading record companies for gospel and soul music in the United States. In January 1973, Paul Simon recorded the song "Learn How To Fall", found on the album There Goes Rhymin' Simon, in Jackson at the Malaco Recording Studios.

Two students at Jackson State University (then called Jackson State College) were killed while protesting the Vietnam War on May 15, 1970. These murders were part of the evidence cited by Newsweek in its issue of 18 May when it suggested that U.S. President Richard Nixon faced a new home front.

In 1997, Harvey Johnson, Jr. became the city's first African American mayor. During his term, he proposed the creation of a convention center, in hopes of attracting business to the city. This effort was not successful during Johnson's tenure but is currently being planned. Mayor Johnson was replaced by Frank Melton on July 4, 2005. Melton has subsequently generated controversy through his unconventional behavior, which has included acting as a law enforcement officer. A dramatic spike in crime has also ensued, despite Melton's promises to rid the city of its crime problem.[2]

Geography and Climate

Jackson is located on the Pearl River, and is served by the Ross Barnett Reservoir, which forms a section of the Pearl River and is located northeast of Jackson on the border between Madison and Rankin counties. A tiny portion of the city containing Tougaloo College lies in Madison County, bounded on the west by I-220 and on the east by US 51 and I-55.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 276.7 km² (106.8 mi²). 271.7 km² (104.9 mi²) of it is land and 5.0 km² (1.9 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 1.80 percent water.

Jackson possesses a Humid subtropical climate, with very hot, humid summers and mild winters. Rain is very evenly spread throughout the year, and snow can fall in wintertime, although large dumpings of snow are relatively rare.

Monthly Normal and Record High and Low Temperatures
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Rec High °F 83 85 89 94 99 105 106 107 104 95 88 84
Norm High °F 55.1 60.3 68.1 75 82.1 88.9 91.4 91.4 86.4 76.8 66.3 57.9
Norm Low °F 35 38.2 45.4 51.7 61 68.1 71.4 70.3 64.6 52 43.4 37.3
Rec Low °F 2 10 15 27 38 47 51 54 35 26 17 4
Precip (in) 5.67 4.5 5.74 5.98 4.86 3.82 4.69 3.66 3.23 3.42 5.04 5.34
Source: USTravelWeather.com [1]

Demographics

City of Jackson
Population by year [2]
Year Population
%±
 U.S. Rank
1850 1,881 — —
1860 3,191 — —
1870 4,234 — —
1880 5,204 — —
1890 5,920 — —
1900 7,816 — —
1910 21,262 — —
1920 22,817 — —
1930 48,282 — —
1940 62,107 — —
1950 98,271 — —
1960 144,422 +47.0% 85th
1970 153,968 +6.6% 91st
1980 202,895 +31.8% 71st
1990 196,637 -3.1% 78th
2000 184,286 -6.3% 108th
2005 est. 177,977 -3.4% 123rd

Jackson remained a small town for much of the 19th century. Before the American Civil War, Jackson's population remained tiny, particularly in contrast to Mississippi's cities located along the commerce-laden Mississippi River. Despite the city's status as the state capital, the 1850 census counted only 1,881 residents, and by 1900 the population of Jackson had only grown to approximately 8,000. It was during this period, roughly between 1890 and 1930, that Meridian became Mississippi's largest city, though by 1944, Jackson's population had risen to some 70,000 inhabitants. Since that time, it has continuously been the largest city in the state. Large-scale growth, however, did not come until the 1970s, after the turbulence of the Civil Rights Movement. The 1980 census counted over 200,000 residents in the city for the first time. Since then, Jackson has steadily seen a decline in its population, while its suburbs have evidenced a boom.

As of the censusTemplate:GR of 2000, there were 184,256 people, 67,841 households, and 44,503 families residing in the city. The population density was 678.2/km² (1,756.4/mi²). There were 75,678 housing units at average density of 278.5/km² (721.4/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 28.79% White or Caucasian, 68.83% Black or African American, 0.13% Native American, 0.57% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.19% from other races, and 0.67% from two or more races. 1% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. In 2006, the Center for Immigrant Studies found Mississippi had the highest immigrant percentage growth rate all of states. The Jackson metro area is one of the South's emerging destinations for immigrants, many of which are Latino immigrants from Mexico.

There were 67,841 households out of which 33.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.4% were married couples living together, 25.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.4% were non-families. 28.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.24.

In the city, the population was spread out with 28.5% under the age of 18, 12.4% from 18 to 24, 29.1% from 25 to 44, 19.1% from 45 to 64, and 10.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 86.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81.5 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $30,414, and the median income for a family was $36,003. Males had a median income of $29,166 versus $23,328 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,116. About 19.6% of families and 23.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 33.7% of those under age 18 and 15.7% of those age 65 or over.

Industry

Jackson is home to several major industries. These include electrical equipment and machinery, processed food, and primary and fabricated metal products. The surrounding area supports agricultural development of livestock, soybeans, cotton, and poultry.

Publicly traded companies

The following companies are headquartered in Jackson:

Cultural organizations and institutions


Political structures

In 1985, Jackson voters opted to replace the three-man mayor-commissioner system with a city council. Jackson's city council members represent the city's seven wards, and the body is headed by the mayor, Frank Melton, who was inducted into office on July 4, 2005.

Council members

  • Ben Allen, Ward 1
  • Leslie Burl McLemore, Ward 2
  • Kenneth I. Stokes, Ward 3
  • Frank Bluntson, Ward 4
  • Charles Tillman, Ward 5
  • Marshand K. Crisler, Ward 6
  • Margaret C. Barrett-Simon, Ward 7
For former mayors, see Mayor of Jackson, MS.

Jackson-area educational institutions

Colleges and universities

Public high schools

Main article: Jackson Public School District

(All these high schools compete interscholastically in the Mississippi High School Activities Association or MHSAA)

Private high schools

High Schools that compete in the Mississippi High School Activities Association (MHSAA)

High Schools that compete in the Mississippi Private School Association (MPSA)

Media

Newspapers

Daily

Weekly

Historic

Publishing

  • University Press of Mississippi, the state's only not-for-profit publishing house and collective publisher for Mississippi's eight state universities, producing works on local history, culture and society

Online news and weblogs

Television

FM radio

  • 97.7 WRBJ-FM (Hot 97-7): hip-hop
  • 98.7 WJKK (Mix 98.7): adult contemporary
  • 99.7 WJMI (99 Jamz): hip-hop
  • 100.5 WRTM (Smooth 100-dot-5): urban AC
  • 100.9 WJXN: Christian contemporary (K-Love)
  • 101.7 WYOY (Y101): top-40
  • 102.9 WMSI (Miss 103): country music
  • 103.7 WLEZ-LP (EZ 103.7): adult standards
  • 105.1 WQJQ (Q105.1): oldies
  • 105.9 WOAD-FM (Power 105.9): black gospel
  • 106.7 WSTZ (Z106.7): classic rock
  • 107.5 WKXI-FM (Kixie 107): urban AC

AM radio

  • 620 WJDX (The Score): Fox Sports Radio
  • 780 WIIN: talk radio for women
  • 810 WSJC: Family Talk Radio
  • 930 WSFZ (SuperSport 930): Sporting News Radio
  • 970 WZQK (Real Country 970): classic country
  • 1120 WTWZ: Christian country-music, secular bluegrass
  • 1150 WONG: urban AC, gospel
  • 1180 WJNT (NewsTalk 1180): news & talk
  • 1240 WPBQ: ESPN Radio
  • 1300 WOAD-AM: gospel
  • 1370 WMGO: gospel
  • 1400 WKXI-AM (Blues 1400): blues
  • 1590 WZRX (News Plus 1590): Headline News

Points of interest

Mississippi State Capitol

Tourism

Jackson is a city famous for its music - including gospel, blues and R&B. Jackson is also home to the world famous Malaco Records recording studio. Many notable famous musicians hail from Jackson, including Rapper David Banner.

Jackson is also known for its cuisine and famous fried catfish.

Downtown Jackson Renaissance

Currently, Jackson is experiencing $1.6 billion in downtown development. Among the projects include improvements to or construction of the following:

Downtown Jackson Attractions

  • Alamo Theater (The)
  • Boddie Mansion (The)
  • Bronze Statue of Medgar Evers
  • Mississippi State Capitol
  • Municipal Art Gallery
  • Dr. A. H. McCoy Federal Building
  • Mississippi Supreme Court
  • Russell C. Davis Planetarium/Ronald E. McNair Space Theater
  • Oaks House Museum
  • Sonny Guy Municipal Golf Course
  • Thalia Mara Hall / City Auditorium
  • War Memorial Building
  • Smith Park
  • Smith Robertson Museum and Cultural Center
  • Chimneyville Crafts Gallery
  • City Hall
  • Mississippi Arts Center
  • Mississippi Department of Archives and History
  • Mississippi Fairgrounds Complex
  • Mississippi Governor's Mansion
  • Mississippi Museum of Art
  • Jackson Zoological Park is located on the cusp of downtown Jackson and is one of the finest zoological park's in the South.

Tallest buildings

Name Height Year
AmSouth Plaza 97 m 1975
Jackson Marriott Downtown 78 m 1975
AmSouth Bank Building 77 m 1929
Standard Life Building 76 m 1929
Trustmark National Bank Building 66 m 1955
Lamar Life Building 58 m 1924

Museums

Historic sites

Fondren is a historical neighborhood located on the fringes of downtown Jackson. The district has the ambiance of art-deco style architecture and many fine restaurants and eclectic shops.

Periodic cultural events

Entertainment Venues

  • Hal and Mal's - Blues, R&B, Soul, variety; Downtown
  • 105 Capitol (Gators) - 105 E. Capitol St.
  • 930 Blues Cafe - Blues; 930 N. Congress St.
  • Subway Lounge - Blues; (scheduled to make it's reemergence in the Farish St. Entertainment District)
  • B.B. King Blues Club - Blues; (scheduled to open in the Farish St. Entertainment District)
  • Fenian's Irish Pub - Irish music with live bands and DJ; 901 East Fortification Street
  • Freelon's Bar and Groove - R&B, Hip-Hop; 440 N. Mill St.
  • El Jardin de las Aves - Latin music featuring live bands and DJs; 1075 South Frontage Road Exit 45A Gallatin Road Interstate 20, 601-906-6942, 601-974-6535
  • La Cotorra Taqueria Mexicana - Mexican music with live bands (often La Sonora Dinamita) and DJs; 1999 Highway 80 W, 601-355-7166, 601-316-5790
  • Jala Jala Night Club - Latin music played by DJs; 2662 Highway 80 W, 601-421-9697
  • W.C. Dons - Indie / Alternative; 216 South State Street

Parks

  • LeFleur's Bluff


Tourism Outside the City Proper

The Mississippi Braves play baseball in Pearl, Mississippi at the "teepee" while the Mississippi Brilla play soccer in Clinton, Mississippi.

The Ross Barnett Reservoir is located just north of the city and is a wonderful venue for water sports and fishing.

The Park on Lakeland, Inc. is located in Flowood, Mississippi and has miniature golf, go-karts, laser-tag, ice-skating, and other attractions. Vicksburg, Mississippi is a short drive to the west of Jackson on Interstate 20.

Sports

Sports teams

Summer Training Camp

  • New Orleans Saints, Jackson's Millsaps College is the summer home for the New Orleans Saints of the NFL from 2006 - 2010

Sports arenas

  • Mississippi Veterans Memorial Stadium -- Football; home of Jackson State University
  • Mississippi Coliseum -- Basketball, Hockey, Track, Rodeo
  • Smith-Wills Stadium -- Baseball, Softball, Football, Soccer, Multipurpose (Has synthetic surface)
  • River Hills Club -- Tennis
  • JSU Athletics and Assembly Center -- Basketball, Track
  • Tougaloo College Wellness Center

Former professional sports teams

  • Soccer
    • Jackson Calypso -- Women's Soccer
    • Jackson Rockers -- Men's Soccer
    • Jackson Chargers -- Men's Soccer
  • Football
    • Mississippi Pride -- Regional Football League
    • Mississippi Headhunters -- afl2 team that never played
    • Jackson CFL Team -- Canadian Football League entry; moved from Las Vegas to Jackson, but never played

Famous Jacksonians


Trivia

  • Rap Rocker Kid Rock made a song titled Jackson,Mississippi in 2003
  • Jackson sits atop a dead volcano

Transportation

Air travel

Jackson is served by Jackson-Evers International Airport, located at Allen C. Thompson Field, east of the city in Flowood in Rankin County. Its IATA code is JAN. The airport has non-stop service to 12 cities throughout the United States and is served by 6 mainline carriers (American, Delta, Continental, Southwest, Northwest, and US Airways)

On 22 December 2004, Jackson City Council members voted 6-0 to rename Jackson International Airport in honor of slain civil rights leader and field secretary for the Mississippi chapter of the NAACP, Medgar Evers. This decision took effect on 22 January 2005.

Formerly Jackson was served by Hawkins Field Airport, located in northwest Jackson, with IATA code HKS, which is now used for private air traffic only.

Ground transportation

Interstate highways

Interstate 55
Runs north-south from Chicago through Jackson towards Brookhaven, McComb, and the Louisiana state line to New Orleans. Jackson is roughly halfway between New Orleans and Memphis, Tennessee. The highway maintains eight to ten lanes in northern part of city, six lanes in the center and four lanes south of I-20.

Interstate 20
Runs east-west from near El Paso, Texas to Florence, South Carolina. Jackson is roughly halfway between Dallas, Texas and Atlanta, Georgia. The highway is six lanes from Interstate 220 to MS 468 in Pearl.

Interstate 220
Connects Interstates 55 and 20 on the north and west sides of the city and is four lanes throughout its route.

U.S. highways

U.S. Highway 49
Runs north-south from the Arkansas state line at Lula via Clarksdale and Yazoo City, towards Hattiesburg and Gulfport. It bypasses the city via I-20 and I-220

U.S. Highway 51
Known in Jackson as State Street, roughly parallels Interstate 55 from the I-20/I-55 western split to downtown. It multiplexes with I-55 from Pearl/Pascagoula St northward to County Line Road, where the two highways split.

U.S. Highway 80
Roughly parallels Interstate 20.

State highways

Mississippi Highway 18
Runs southwest towards Raymond and Port Gibson; southeast towards Bay Springs and Quitman.

Mississippi Highway 25
Some parts of this road are known as Lakeland Drive, which runs northeast towards Carthage and Starkville.

Other roads

In addition, Jackson is served by the Natchez Trace Parkway, which runs from Natchez to Nashville, Tennessee.

Bus service

JATRAN (Jackson Transit System) operates hourly or half-hourly during daytime hours on weekdays, and mostly hourly on Saturdays. No evening or Sunday service is operated.

Railroads

See also: Jackson, Mississippi (Amtrak station)

Jackson is served by the Canadian National Railway (formerly the Illinois Central Railroad). The Kansas City Southern Railway also serves the city. The Canadian National has a medium-sized yard downtown which Mill Street parallels and the Kansas City Southern has a large classification yard in Richland. Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Jackson. The Amtrak station is located at 300 West Capitol Street. Amtrak's southbound City of New Orleans provides service from Jackson to New Orleans and some points between. The northbound City of New Orleans provides service from Jackson to Memphis, Carbondale, Champaign-Urbana, Chicago and some points between. Efforts to establish service with another Amtrak train, the Crescent Star, an extension of the Crescent westward from Meridian, Mississippi to Dallas, Texas, failed in 2003.

Suburbs

References

  • ^ "LeFleur's Bluff State Park". Retrieved 2007-03-15.
  • ^ Associated Press (July 27 2006). "Mayor of US city failing the hard test of crime prevention" (in English). Taipei Times. Retrieved March 9 2007. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  • ^ Who Was Who in America, Historical Volume, 1607-1896. Chicago: Marquis Who's Who. 1963.

    • Template:Mapit-US-cityscale

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