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Manchu people

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"Manchu" redirects here. For other uses, see Manchu (disambiguation).
Manchu

Manju
滿族/满族
1st
Nurhaci
Hong Taiji
Kangxi the Great
Yongzheng Emperor
2nd
Qianlong Emperor
Empress Dowager Cixi
Guangxu Emperor
Puyi
3rd
Dorgon
Oboi
Hešen
Yoshiko Kawashima
4th
Laoshe
John Fugh
Rosamund Kwan
Lang Lang
Total population
10,430,000
0.15% of global human population
(estimate)
10,410,585[1]
0.77% of China's population
(estimate)
Regions with significant populations
 China10,410,585[1]
↳ Hong Kong Hong Kong>288[2]
 Taiwan12,000[3]
Languages
Standard Chinese • Manchu
Religion
Shamanism • Buddhism • Chinese folklore • Christianity, also many are Atheists or Agnostics[4]
Related ethnic groups
Evenks • Nanai • Oroqen • Udege • Sibe
and other Tungusic peoples

The Manchus[n 1] (Manchu: , Möllendorff: manju; simplified Chinese: 满族; traditional Chinese: 滿族; pinyin: Mǎnzú) are members of an indigenous people of Manchuria[5][n 2] and the largest branch of the Tungusic peoples. They are distributed throughout China as the fourth largest ethnic group and the third largest ethnic minority group there.[1]

As a result of the Manchu conquest of China in the 17th century, they are to be found in many regions of China, apart from their origin in Manchuria. There are now Manchu-originated residents in 31 Chinese provinces. Among them, Liaoning has the largest population and Hebei, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Inner Mongolia and Beijing each house over 100,000. About half of the Manchu population lives in Liaoning province and about one-fifth in Hebei province. In both of these provinces there are a number of Manchu autonomous counties.

Manchus conquered China and established the Qing Dynasty in 1644. The dynasty came to an end in 1912 when the country became a republic. In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in Manchu culture among both ethnic Manchus and Han.[6]

History

Origins and early history

Main articles: Sushen, Malgal, and Jurchen people
the location of Jurchen tribes at the end of Ming Dynasty

The Manchus can be traced back to the ancient Sushen people[7] who were famous for creating bows and arrows.[8] They paid bows and arrows as tribute to the ancient China in Shun's period and another few times in Zhou Dynasty.[9] Since 2nd century BC, they were called in different names, such as "Yilou", "Wuji" and "Mohe", by the Chinese.[10] Till the beginning of 10th century, they were known as "Jurchen" in the documents of late Tang dynasty which is considered as an alternative pronunciation of "Sushen".[8] Jurchen people are the main ancestors of later Manchus in 17th century.[11]

Jurchens were affiliated to Khitan Empire, which was known as Liao dynasty later, since their expansion in 900s. In the year of 1114, Wanyan Aguda, the Jurchen leader of Wanyan tribe, revolted Khitan's regime and established Jin dynasty[12]. His brother and successor, Wanyan Wuqimai successfully perished Liao and Northern Song and made Jurchen state a powerful empire[13]. During Jin Dynasty, Jurchens had created their first scripts in 1120s. It was mainly derived from Khitan script[12].

In 1206, the Mongols who were vassal to Jurchens rose in Mongolia. Their leader, Genghis Khan, led the Mongol troops to fight against Jurchens. Jin dynasty could not withstand Mongols' attack and was finally perished by Ögedei Khan in 1234[14]. Under the Mongols' control, Jurchens were mainly divided in two groups and treated differently: the ones who were born and raised in North China and fluent in Chinese were considered as Chinese people (Han) ; but the people who were born and raised in Jurchen's homeland[n 3] without a Chinese-speaking abilities were treated as Mongols politically[15]. Since then, the Jurchens of North China increasingly merged with Han Chinese and the ones living in their homeland started to be Mongolized[16]. They adopted Mongolian customs, names[n 4] and learning Mongolian language. Less Jurchens could recognize their own scripts since then.

The Mongol domination of China was replaced by Ming Dynasty in 1368. In 1387, Ming defeated Nahacu's Mongol resisting forces who settled in Haixi area[17] and began to summon the Jurchen tribes to pay tribute[18] At the time, some Jurchen tribes were vassal to Joseon dynasty of Korea such as Odoli and Huligai.[19] Their elites served in Korean royal bodyguard.[20] However, their relationship discontinued by Ming, because Ming was planning to make Jurchens their protection of border. Korea had to allow it since itself was in Ming's tribute system.[20] In 1403, Ahacu, chieftain of Huligai, paid tribute to Yongle Emperor of Ming. Soon after that, Möngke Temür, chieftain of Odoli, went to tribute from Korea, too. Yi Seong-gye, the Taejo of Joseon requested Ming to send Möngke Temür back but rejected.[21] Since then, more and more Jurchen tribes presented tribute to Ming in succession[18]. They were divided in 384 guards by Ming.[22]

Founding of the Qing Dynasty

Further information: Qing Dynasty
the portrait of Nurhaci

In 1616, Nurhaci broke away from the power of the decaying Ming Dynasty and established the Later Jin Dynasty (Manchu: , Möllendorff: amaga aisin gurun), domestically called the State of Manchu (Manchu: , Möllendorff: manju gurun), and unified Manchu tribes, establishing (or at least expanding) the Manchu Banner system, a military structure which made their forces quite resilient in the face of superior Ming Dynasty numbers in the field. Nurhaci later conquered Mukden (modern-day Shenyang) and built it into the new capital in 1621.

In 1636, Nurhaci's son Hong Taiji, reorganized the Manchus, including those other groups (such as Hans and Mongols) who had joined them, changed the nation's name to Qing Empire, and formally changed the name of the ethnic designation to Manchu, outlawing use of the name Jurchen. According to legend, the name was chosen because Hong Taiji's father, Nurhaci, had believed himself to be a reincarnation of the bodhisattva Manjusri.

When Beijing was captured by Li Zicheng's peasant rebels in 1644, the last Ming Emperor Chongzhen committed suicide. The Manchu then allied with Ming Dynasty general Wu Sangui and seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. Over the next two decades, the Manchu took command of all of China and defended against Russian hostilities in Russian–Manchu border conflicts.

For political purposes, the early Manchu emperors took wives descended from the Mongol Great Khans, so that their descendants (such as the Kangxi Emperor) would also be seen as legitimate heirs of the Mongol-ruled Yuan dynasty. During the Qing Dynasty, the Manchu government made efforts to preserve Manchu culture and language. These efforts were largely unsuccessful in that Manchus gradually adopted the customs and language of the surrounding Han Chinese and, by the 19th century, spoken Manchu was rarely used even in the Imperial court. Written Manchu, however, was still used for the keeping of records and communication between the emperor and the Banner officials until the collapse of the dynasty. The Qing dynasty also maintained a system of dual appointments in which all major imperial offices would have a Manchu and a Han Chinese member. Because of the small number of Manchus, this ensured that a large fraction of them would be government officials.

Decline of the Manchu power

Manchu ladies in 1900s

While the Manchu ruling elite at the Beijing imperial court and posts of authority throughout China was increasingly sinicized, the Qing imperial government viewed the Manchu communities (as well as those of various tribal people) in Manchuria as a place where traditional Manchu virtues could be preserved, and as a reservoir of military manpower fully dedicated to the regime.[23] The emperors tried to protect the traditional way of life of the Manchus (as well as various tribal people) in the central and northern Manchuria by a variety of means, in particular, restricting the migration of Chinese colonists to the region. This ideal, however, had to be balanced with practical needs, such as maintaining the defense against the Russians and the Mongols, supplying government farms with skilled work force, and running trade in the region's products, which resulted in a continuous trickle of Chinese convicts, workers, and merchants to the north-east.[24]

However, this policy of artificially isolating the Manchus of the north-east from the rest of China could not last forever. In the 1850s, large numbers of the Manchu bannermen were sent to central China to fight the Taiping rebels. (For example, just the Heilongjiang province - which at the time included only the northern part of today's Heilongjiang - contributed 67,730 bannermen to the campaign, of which merely 10-20% survived).[25] Those few who returned were demoralized and often exposed to opium addiction.[26] In 1860, in the aftermath of the loss of the "Outer Manchuria", and with the imperial and provincial governments in deep financial trouble, parts of Manchuria became officially open to Chinese settlement;[27] within a few decades, the Manchus became a minority in most of Manchuria's districts.

During the Russian Invasion of Northern and Central Manchuria (1900), the Russian Empire annihilated many bannermen, each falling one at a time against a five pronged Russian invasion. Thousands fled south. In many areas, such as the Aigun District on the Amur, the Russian Cossacks looted their villages and property and then razed them.[28][29]

As the end of the Qing Dynasty approached, Manchus were portrayed as outside colonizers by Chinese nationalists such as Sun Yat-Sen, even though the Republican revolution he brought about was supported by many reform-minded Manchu officials and military officers.[30] This portrayal dissipated somewhat after the 1911 revolution as the new Republic of China now sought to include Manchus within its national identity.[31]

By the early years of the Republic of China, very few areas of China still had "traditional" (not heavily Sinicized) Manchu populations. Among the few regions where such comparatively traditional communities could be found, and the Manchu language was still widely spoken, were the Aigun District (whose folkways the Russian ethnographer S. M. Shirokogoroff studied in 1915-1916) and the Tsitsihar District of Heilongjiang Province.[32] The Xibo also maintained their identity at their Xinjiang outpost.

Until 1924, the government continued to pay stipends to Manchu bannermen; however, many cut their links with their banners and took on Han-style names in shame and to avoid persecution.[33] The official total of Manchu fell by more than half during this period, as they refused to admit to their ethnicity when asked by government officials or other outsiders.[34]

Modern history

In 1931, the Empire of Japan created a puppet state in Northeast China called Manchukuo. The new state was nominally ruled by the deposed Emperor Puyi. By this time the population of historical Manchuria was overwhelmingly Han Chinese. Manchukuo had a majority Han population, largely due to internal migration from China. Manchukuo was abolished at the end of World War II after the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, with its territory incorporated again into China.

The People's Republic of China recognised the Manchu as one of the country's official minorities in 1952.[35] In the 1953 census, 2.5 million people identified themselves as Manchu.[36] The Communist government also attempted to improve the treatment of Manchu people; some Manchu people who had hidden their ancestry during the period of KMT rule thus became more comfortable to reveal their ancestry, such as the writer Lao She, who began to include Manchu characters in his fictional works in the 1950s (in contrast to his earlier works which had none).[37] Between 1982 and 1990, the official count of Manchu people more than doubled from 4,299,159 to 9,821,180, making them China's fastest-growing ethnic minority.[38] In fact, however, this growth was not due to natural increase, but instead people formerly registered as Han applying for official recognition as Manchu.[39]

The etymology of Manchu

The actual etymology of the name Manchu is debated.[40] According to Qing Dynasty's official historical record, the Origin of the Manchus, the ethnic name came from Mañjuśrī.[41] Qianlong Emperor also supported the point of view and even made few poems about it.[42][43]

Meng Sen, a famous scholar of Qing study, agreed, too. On the other hand, he thought the name "Manchu" is also related to Li Manzhu, the chieftain of Jianzhou Jurchen.[44] It was just the most respectful appellation in the society of Jianzhou Jurchens in Meng's mind.[45]

Another scholar, Chang Shan, thinks Manju (Manchu) is a compound word. "Man" was from the word "mangga" () which means strong and "ju" () means arrow. So Manju actually means "intrepid arrow".[46]。

There are other hypothesis, such as Fu Sinian's "etymology of Jianzhou"; Zhang Binglin's "etymology of Jianzhou"; Isamura Sanjiro's "etymology of Wuji and Mohe"; Sun Wenliang's "etymology of Manzhe";[47] "etymology of mangu(n) river"[48] and so on.[49]

Population

Mainland China

Most Manchu people now live in Mainland China with a population of 10,410,585[1] Which is 9.28% of ethnic minorities and 0.77% of China's total population.[1] Among the provincial regions, there are 3 provinces, Liaoning and Hebei, which have over 1,000,000 Manchu residents.[1] Liaoning has 5,336,895 Manchu residents which is 51.26% of Manchu population and 12.20% provincial population; Hebei has 2,118,711 which is 20.35% of Manchu people and 70.80% of provincial ethnic minorites.[1] Manchu is the largest ethnic minority in Liaoning, Hebei, Heilongjiang and Beijing; 2nd largest in Jilin, Inner Mongolia, Tianjin, Tianjin, Ningxia, Shaanxi and Shanxi and 3rd largest in Henan, Shandong and Anhui,.[1]

Distribution

Rank
 Region
 Total
Population
 Manchu
 Percentage
in Manchu
Population
 Percentage
in the Population
of
Ethnic Minorities（%）
 Regional Percentage
of
Population
 Regional Rank
of
Ethnic Population
Total 1,335,110,869 10,410,585 100 9.28 0.77
Total
(in all 31 provincial regions) 		1,332,810,869 10,387,958 99.83 9.28 0.78
G1 Northeast 109,513,129 6,951,280 66.77 68.13 6.35
G2 North 164,823,663 3,002,873 28.84 32.38 1.82
G3 East 392,862,229 122,861 1.18 3.11 0.03
G4 South Central 375,984,133 120,424 1.16 0.39 0.03
G5 Northwest 96,646,530 82,135 0.79 0.40 0.08
G6 Southwest 192,981,185 57,785 0.56 0.15 0.03
1 Liaoning 43,746,323 5,336,895 51.26 80.34 12.20 2nd
2 Hebei 71,854,210 2,118,711 20.35 70.80 2.95 2nd
3 Jilin 27,452,815 866,365 8.32 39.64 3.16 3rd
4 Heilongjiang 38,313,991 748,020 7.19 54.41 1.95 2nd
5 Inner Mongolia 24,706,291 452,765 4.35 8.96 2.14 3rd
6 Beijing 19,612,368 336,032 3.23 41.94 1.71 2nd
7 Tianjin 12,938,693 83,624 0.80 25.23 0.65 3rd
8 Henan 94,029,939 55,493 0.53 4.95 0.06 4th
9 Shandong 95,792,719 46,521 0.45 6.41 0.05 4th
10 Guangdong 104,320,459 29,557 0.28 1.43 0.03 9th
11 Shanghai 23,019,196 25,165 0.24 9.11 0.11 5th
12 Ningxia 6,301,350 24,902 0.24 1.12 0.40 3rd
13 Guizhou 34,748,556 23,086 0.22 0.19 0.07 18th
14 Xinjiang 21,815,815 18,707 0.18 0.14 0.09 10th
15 Jiangsu 78,660,941 18,074 0.17 4.70 0.02 7th
16 Shaanxi 37,327,379 16,291 0.16 8.59 0.04 3rd
17 Sichuan 80,417,528 15,920 0.15 0.32 0.02 10th
18 Gansu 25,575,263 14,206 0.14 0.59 0.06 7th
19 Yunnan 45,966,766 13,490 0.13 0.09 0.03 24th
20 Hubei 57,237,727 12,899 0.12 0.52 0.02 6th
21 Shanxi 25,712,101 11,741 0.11 12.54 0.05 3rd
22 Zhejiang 54,426,891 11,271 0.11 0.93 0.02 13th
23 Guangxi 46,023,761 11,159 0.11 0.07 0.02 12th
24 Anhui 59,500,468 8,516 0.08 2.15 0.01 4th
25 Fujian 36,894,217 8,372 0.08 1.05 0.02 10th
26 Qinghai 5,626,723 8,029 0.08 0.30 0.14 7th
27 Hunan 65,700,762 7,566 0.07 0.12 0.01 9th
28 Jiangxi 44,567,797 4,942 0.05 2.95 0.01 6th
29 Chongqing 28,846,170 4,571 0.04 0.24 0.02 7th
30 Hainan 8,671,485 3,750 0.04 0.26 0.04 8th
31 Tibet 3,002,165 718 <0.01 0.03 0.02 11th
Active Servicemen 2,300,000 22,627 0.24 23.46 1.05 2nd

Manchu Autonomous Regions

Manchu Autonomous County
 Province
 City
Qinglong Manchu Autonomous County Hebei Qinhuangdao
Fengning Manchu Autonomous County Hebei Chengde
Weichang Manchu and Mongol Autonomous County Hebei Chengde
Kuancheng Manchu Autonomous County Hebei Chengde
Xiuyan Manchu Autonomous County Liaoning Anshan
Qingyuan Manchu Autonomous County Liaoning Fushun
Xinbin Manchu Autonomous County Liaoning Fushun
Kuandian Manchu Autonomous County Liaoning Dandong
Benxi Manchu Autonomous County Liaoning Benxi
Huanren Manchu Autonomous County Liaoning Benxi
Yitong Manchu Autonomous County Jilin Siping
Manchu Ethnic
Town/Township
 Province
Autonomous area
Municipality
 City
Prefecture
 County
Paifang Hui and Manchu Ethnic Township Anhui Hefei Feidong
Labagoumen Manchu Ethnic Township Beijing N/A Huairou
Changshaoying Manchu Ethnic Township Beijing N/A Huairou
Huangni Yi, Miao and Manchu Ethnic Township Guizhou Bijie Dafang
Jinpo Miao, Yi and Manchu Ethnic Township Guizhou Bijie Qianxi
Anluo Miao, Yi and Manchu Ethnic Township Guizhou Bijie Jinsha
Xinhua Miao, Yi and Manchu Ethnic Township Guizhou Bijie Jinsha
Tangquan Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Tangshan Zunhua
Xixiaying Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Tangshan Zunhua
Dongling Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Tangshan Zunhua
Lingyunce Manchu and Hui Ethnic Township Hebei Baoding Yi
Loucun Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Baoding Laishui
Daweihe Hui and Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Langfang Wen'an
Pingfang Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Luanping
Anchungou Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Luanping
Wudaoyingzi Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Luanping
Zhengchang Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Luanping
Mayingzi Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Luanping
Fujiadianzi Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Luanping
Xidi Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Luanping
Xiaoying Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Luanping
Datun Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Luanping
Xigou Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Luanping
Gangzi Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Chengde
Liangjia Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Chengde
Bagualing Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Xinglong
Nantianmen Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Xinglong
Yinjiaying Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Longhua
Miaozigou Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Longhua
Badaying Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Longhua
Taipingzhuang Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Longhua
Jiutun Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Longhua
Xi'achao Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Longhua
Baihugou Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Longhua
Liuxi Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Pingquan
Qijiadai Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Pingquan
Pingfang Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Pingquan
Maolangou Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Pingquan
Xuzhangzi Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Pingquan
Nanwushijia Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Pingquan
Guozhangzi Manchu Ethnic Township Hebei Chengde Pingquan
Hongqi Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Harbin Nangang
Xingfu Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Harbin Shuangcheng
Lequn Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Harbin Shuangcheng
Tongxin Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Harbin Shuangcheng
Xiqin Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Harbin Shuangcheng
Gongzheng Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Harbin Shuangcheng
Lianxing Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Harbin Shuangcheng
Xinxing Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Harbin Shuangcheng
Qingling Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Harbin Shuangcheng
Nongfeng Manchu and Xibe Ethnic Town Heilongjiang Harbin Shuangcheng
Yuejin Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Harbin Shuangcheng
Lalin Manchu Ethnic Town Heilongjiang Harbin Wuchang
Hongqi Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Harbin Wuchang
Niujia Manchu Ethnic Town Heilongjiang Harbin Wuchang
Yingchengzi Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Harbin Wuchang
Shuangqiaozi Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Harbin Wuchang
Liaodian Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Harbin Acheng
Shuishiying Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Qiqihar Ang'angxi
Youyi Daur, Kirgiz and Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Qiqihar Fuyu
Taha Manchu and Daur Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Qiqihar Fuyu
Jiangnan Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Mudanjiang Ning'an
Chengdong Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Mudanjiang Ning'an
Sijiazi Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Heihe Aihui
Yanjiang Daur and Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Heihe Sunwu
Suisheng Manchu Ethnic Town Heilongjiang Suihua Beilin
Yong'an Manchu Ethnic Town Heilongjiang Suihua Beilin
Hongqi Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Suihua Beilin
Huiqi Manchu Ethnic Town Heilongjiang Suihua Wangkui
Xiangbai Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Suihua Wangkui
Lingshan Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Suihua Wangkui
Fuxing Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Hegang Suibin
Chengfu Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township Heilongjiang Shuangyashan Youyi
Longshan Manchu Ethnic Township Jilin Siping Gongzhuling
Ershijiazi Manchu Ethnic Town Jilin Siping Gongzhuling
Sanjiazi Manchu Ethnic Township Jilin Yanbian Hunchun
Yangpao Manchu Ethnic Township Jilin Yanbian Hunchun
Wulajie Manchu Ethnic Town Jilin Jilin City Longtan
Dakouqin Manchu Ethnic Town Jilin Jilin City Yongji
Liangjiazi Manchu Ethnic Township Jilin Jilin City Yongji
Jinjia Manchu Ethnic Township Jilin Jilin City Yongji
Tuchengzi Manchu and Korean Ethnic Township Jilin Jilin City Yongji
Jindou Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township Jilin Tonghua Tonghua County
Daquanyuan Korean and Manchu Ethnic Township Jilin Tonghua Tonghua County
Xiaoyang Manchu and Korean Ethnic Township Jilin Tonghua Meihekou
Sanhe Manchu and Korean Ethnic Township Jilin Liaoyuan Dongfeng County
Mantang Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Shenyang Dongling
Liushutun Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Shenyang Kangping
Shajintai Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Shenyang Kangping
Dongsheng Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Township Liaoning Shenyang Kangping
Liangguantun Mongol and Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Shenyang Kangping
Shihe Manchu Ethnic Town Liaoning Dalian Jinzhou
Qidingshan Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Dalian Jinzhou
Taling Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Dalian Zhuanghe
Gaoling Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Dalian Zhuanghe
Guiyunhua Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Dalian Zhuanghe
Sanjiashan Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Dalian Zhuanghe
Yangjia Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Dalian Wafangdian
Santai Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Dalian Wafangdian
Laohutun Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Dalian Wafangdian
Dagushan Manchu Ethnic Town Liaoning Anshan Qianshan
Songsantaizi Korean and Manchu Ethnic Town Liaoning Anshan Qianshan
Lagu Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Fushun Fushun County
Tangtu Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Fushun Fushun County
Sishanling Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Benxi Nanfen
Xiamatang Manchu Ethnic Town Liaoning Benxi Nanfen
Huolianzhai Hui and Manchu Ethnic Town Liaoning Benxi Xihu
Helong Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Dandong Donggang
Longwangmiao Manchu and Xibe Ethnic Town Liaoning Dandong Donggang
Juliangtun Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Jinzhou Yi
Jiudaoling Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Jinzhou Yi
Dizangsi Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Jinzhou Yi
Hongqiangzi Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Jinzhou Yi
Liulonggou Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Jinzhou Yi
Shaohuyingzi Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Jinzhou Yi
Dadingpu Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Jinzhou Yi
Toutai Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Jinzhou Yi
Toudaohe Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Jinzhou Yi
Chefang Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Jinzhou Yi
Wuliangdian Manchu Ethnic Town Liaoning Jinzhou Yi
Baichanmen Manchu Ethnic Town Liaoning Jinzhou Heishan
Zhen'an Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Jinzhou Heishan
Wendilou Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Jinzhou Linghai
Youwei Manchu Ethnic Town Liaoning Jinzhou Linghai
East Liujiazi Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Town Liaoning Fuxin Zhangwu
West Liujiazi Manchu and Mongol Ethnic Town Liaoning Fuxin Zhangwu
Jidongyu Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Liaoyang Liaoyang County
Shuiquan Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Liaoyang Liaoyang County
Tianshui Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Liaoyang Liaoyang County
Quantou Manchu Ethnic Town Liaoning Tieling Changtu County
Babaotun Manchu, Xibe and Korean Ethnic Town Liaoning Tieling Kaiyuan
Huangqizhai Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Tieling Kaiyuan
Shangfeidi Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Tieling Kaiyuan
Xiafeidi Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Tieling Kaiyuan
Linfeng Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Tieling Kaiyuan
Baiqizhai Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Tieling Tieling County
Hengdaohezi Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Tieling Tieling County
Chengping Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Tieling Xifeng
Dexing Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Tieling Xifeng
Helong Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Tieling Xifeng
Jinxing Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Tieling Xifeng
Mingde Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Tieling Xifeng
Songshu Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Tieling Xifeng
Yingcheng Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Tieling Xifeng
Xipingpo Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Suizhong
Dawangmiao Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Suizhong
Fanjia Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Suizhong
Gaodianzi Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Suizhong
Gejia Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Suizhong
Huangdi Manchu Ethnic Town Liaoning Huludao Suizhong
Huangjia Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Suizhong
Kuanbang Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Suizhong
Mingshui Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Suizhong
Shahe Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Suizhong
Wanghu Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Suizhong
Xiaozhuangzi Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Suizhong
Yejia Manchu Ethnic Town Liaoning Huludao Suizhong
Gaotai Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Suizhong
Baita Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Caozhuang Manchu Ethnic Town Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Dazhai Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Dongxinzhuang Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Gaojialing Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Guojia Manchu Ethnic Town Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Haibin Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Hongyazi Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Jianjin Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Jianchang Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Jiumen Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Liutaizi Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Nandashan Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Shahousuo Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Wanghai Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Weiping Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Wenjia Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Yang'an Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Yaowangmiao Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Yuantaizi Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Xingcheng
Erdaowanzi Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Jianchang
Xintaimen Manchu Ethnic Township Liaoning Huludao Lianshan
Manzutun Manchu Ethnic Township Inner Mongolia Hinggan Horqin Right Front Banner
Guanjiayingzi Manchu Ethnic Township Inner Mongolia Chifeng Songshan
Shijia Manchu Ethnic Township Inner Mongolia Chifeng Harqin Banner
Caonian Manchu Ethnic Township Inner Mongolia Ulanqab Liangcheng
Sungezhuang Manchu Ethnic Township Tianjin N/A Ji

Other Areas

Further information: Manchu people in Taiwan

Manchu people can be found living outside mainland China. There are approximately 12,000 Manchus now in Taiwan. Most of them moved to Taiwan with the ROC government in 1949. Puru was a famous painter, calligrapher and also the founder of the Manchu Association of Republic of China.[3] There are also Manchus who settled in the United States and Japan, such as John Fugh, Garry Guan and Fukunaga Kosē.

Culture

Language & Script

Language

Main article: Manchu language

Manchu is a branch of the Tungusic languages and has many dialects：

  • Standard Manchu： Standard Manchu originates from the accent of Jianzhou Jurchens.[50] It was standardized by the Qianlong Emperor under his reign.[51] During the Qing period, Manchus at court were required to speak Standard Manchu[52] or face the emperor's reprimand.[52] This applied equally to the palace presbyter of shamanic fete when performing sacrifice.[52]。
  • Beijing dialect[n 5]： The Manchus who lived in Beijing were not only Jianzhou Jurchens, but also Haixi Jurchens and Yeren Jurchens. Over time, the mingling of their accents produced Beijing dialect. Beijing dialect is really close to Standard Manchu[53]。
  • Mukden-South Manchurian dialect[n 6]：Mukden-South Manchurian dialect, aka, "Mukden-Girin dialect",[n 7] was originally spoken by the Manchus who lived in Liaoning and the western and southern areas of Jilin, having an accent very close to the Xibe language spoken by the Xibes living in Qapqal.[54]

There are also Ningguta, Alcuka dialects, etc., of Manchu which have their own particular characteristics.[55]

Script

Main article: Manchu alphabet
Wikipedia in Manchu script

Jurchens, ancestors of the Manchu, had created Jurchen script in the Jin Dynasty. After Jin collapsed, Jurchen script was gradually lost. In the Ming period, 60%-70% of Jurchens used Mongolian script to write letters and 30%-40% of Jurchens used Chinese characters.[56] This persisted until Nurhaci revolted against the Ming reign. Nurhaci considered it a major impediment that his people lacked a script of their own, so he commanded his scholars, Gagai and Eldeni, to create Manchu characters by reference to Mongolian scripts.[57] They dutifully complied with the Khan's order and created Manchu script, which is called "script without dots and circles" or "old Manchu script".[n 8][58] Due to its hurried creation, the script has its defects. Some vowels and consonants were difficult to distinguish.[59][60] Shortly afterwards, their successor Dahai used dots and circles to distinguish vowels, aspirated and non-aspirated consonants and thus completed the script. His achievement is called "script with dots and circles" or "new Manchu script".[61] Since then, Manchu scripts were successfully created.[62]

Current Situation

After the 1800s, most Manchus had perfected Standard Chinese and the number who knew Manchu was dwindling.[63] Although the Qing emperors emphasized the importance of Manchu language again and again, the tide could not be turned. After the Qing collapsed, the Manchu language lost its status as a national language and its use officially in education ended. Manchus today generally speak Standard Chinese. The remaining skilled native Manchu speakers number less than 100,[64] most of whom are to be found in Sanjiazi, Heilongjiang Province.[65] In recent years, with the help of the governments in Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang, many schools of northeastern China have classes in Manchu.[66][67][68] There are also Manchu volunteers in many places of China who freely teach Manchu in the desire to rescue of the language.[69][70][71][72]

Name

Family Names

Main article: Manchu family name
the cover of the Eight Manchu Banners' Surname-Clans' Book

The history of Manchu family names is quite long. Fundamentally, it succeeds the Jurchen family name of the Jin Dynasty.[73] However, after the Mongols extinguished the Jurchen empire, Manchus started to adopt Mongol culture, including their custom of using only their given name till the end of the Qing Dynasty,[74] a practice confounding non-Manchus, leading them to conclude, erroneously, that they simply don't have family names.[75]

A Manchu family name usually has two portions: the first is "Mukūn" () which literally means "branch name"; the second, "Hala" (), represents the name of a person's clan.[76] According to the Book of the Eight Manchu Banners' Surname-Clans,[n 9] there are 1,114 Manchu family names. Gūwalgiya, Niohuru, Šumulu, Tatara, Gioro, Nara are considered as "famous clans"[n 10] among Manchus.[77]

Given Names

Main article: Manchu given name

Manchus given names are distinctive. Generally, there are several forms, as below:

Current Situation

Nowadays, Manchus primarily use Chinese family and given names, but some still use a Manchu family name and Chinese given name,[n 15] a Chinese family name and Manchu given name[n 16] or both Manchu family and given names.[n 17]

Traditional Clothes & Accessories

A Manchu young man dressed in traditional clothes

Clothes

  • Hats: Wearing hats is a part of Manchu traditional culture.[81] Conventionally, especially different from Han Chinese culture of "Starting to wear hats in 20 year-old"[n 18], Manchu people wear hats in all ages and seasons.[81] Manchu hats has formal and casual ones. Formal hats also have two different styles. One is straw hats wearing in spring and summer; another is warm hat wearing in fall and winter. Manchu casual hat is more known as "Mandarin hat" in English[82].
  • Robe: Sijigiyan(ᠰᡳᠵᡳᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨ), the Manchu robe, is the most representative clothing of the Manchu people.[83] Modern Chinese female suit Cheongsam deverted from Manchu robe[83].
  • Mandarin Jacket: Mandarin Jacket was a military uniform of Eight banners army[84]. Since Kangxi period, Mandarin Jacket got popular in third estate[85]. The Chinese suit "Tangzhuang" is directly deverted from Mandarin Jacket.

Body Jewelry

"Fergetun", Manchu traditional thumb ring for archery

Manchus have many distinctive traditional accessories. Women traditionally wear 3 earrings in each ear, a tradition that is maintained by many older Manchu women.[86][87] Manchu men also traditionally wear piercings, but they tend to only have one earring in their youth and do not continue to wear it as adults.[88]

The Manchu people also have traditional jewelry which evokes their past as hunters. The fergetun (), a thumb ring traditionally made out of reindeer bone, was worn to protect the thumbs of archers. After the Manchu conquest of China in 1644, the fergetun gradually became simply a form of jewelry, with the most valuable ones made in jade and ivory.[89]

Religion

The religions of the Manchus are diverse. Originally, Manchus, and their predecessors, were principally Shamanists. After the conquest of China in the 17th century, Manchus came into contact with Chinese culture. They were markedly influenced by Chinese folk religion and retained only some Shamanic customs. Buddhism and Christianity also had their impacts. Manchus are today mostly irreligious.[4]

Shamanism

Shamanism has a long history in Manchu civilization and influenced them tremendously over thousands of years. After the conquest of China in the 17th century, although Manchus widely adopted Chinese folk religion, Shamanic traditions can still be found in the aspects of soul worship, totem worship, belief in nightmares and apotheosis of philanthropists.[90] Since the Qing rulers considered religion as a method of controlling other powers such as Mongolians and Tibetans,[91] there was no privilege for Shamanism, their native religion. Apart from the Shamanic temples in the Qing palace, no temples erected for worship of Manchu gods could be found in Beijing.[91] Thus, the story of competition between Shamanists and Lamaists was oft heard in Manchuria but the Manchu emperor helped Lamaists to persecute Shamanists which led to their considerable frustration and dissatisfaction.[91]

Buddhism

Jurchens, the predecessors of the Manchus, were influenced by the Buddhism of Balhae, Goryeo, Khitan and Song in the 10-13th centuries,[92] so it was not something new to the rising Manchus in the 16-17th centuries. Qing emperors were always entitled "Buddha". They were regarded as Mañjuśrī in Tibetan Buddhism[93] and had high attainments.[92] However, Buddhism was used by rulers to control Mongolians and Tibetans; it was of little relevance to ordinary Manchus in the Qing Dynasty.[91]

Folklore

Guan Yu who was regarded as the God Protector of the Nation

Manchus were affected by Chinese folk religions for most of the Qing Dynasty.[91] Save for ancestor worship, the gods they consecrated were virtually identical to those of the Han Chinese.[91] Guan Yu worship is a typical example. He was considered as the God Protector of the Nation and was sincerely worshipped by Manchus. They called him "Lord Guan".[n 19] Uttering his name was taboo.[91] In addition, Manchus worshipped Cai Shen and The Kitchen god just as the Han Chinese did. The worship of Mongolian and Tibetan gods has also been reported.[91]

Christianity

There were Manchu Christians in the Qing Dynasty. In Yongzheng and Qianlong's era, Depei, the Hošo Jiyan Prince,[n 20] was a Catholic whose baptismal name was "Joseph". His wife was also baptised and named “Maria”.[94][95] At the same time, the sons of Doro Beile[n 21] Sunu were devout Catholics, too.[95][96][97] In the Jiaqing period, Tong Hengšan and Tong Lan were Catholic Manchu Bannermen.[95] These Manchu Christians were proselytized and persecuted by Qing emperors but they steadfastly refused to convert.[95] There were Manchu Christians in modern times, too, such as Ying Lianzhi, Lao She and Philip Fugh.

Traditional Activities

Riding and Archery

the paint of Qianlong Emperor's hunting
A Dutch researcher of Manchu archery demonstrates Manchu traditional shooting skills.[98]

Riding and Archery (Manchu: , Möllendorff: niyamniyambi) is significant to the Manchu. They were well-trained horsemen from their teenage[99] years. Hong Taiji, the Qing Taizong emperor, said, "Riding and Archery is the most important martial art of our country".[100][101] Every generation of the Qing dynasty treasured Riding and Archery the most[102]。 Every spring and fall, from ordinary Manchus to aristocrats, all had to take a riding and archery test. Their test results could even affect their rank in the nobility.[103] The Manchus of the early Qing had excellent shooting skills and their arrows were reputed to be capable of penetrating two people.[104]

From the middle period of Qing, archery became more a form of entertainment, in the form of games such as, hunting swans, shooting fabric or silk target. The most difficult is shooting a candle hanging in the air at night.[105] Gambling was banned in the Qing reign but there was no limitation on Manchus engaging in shooting skill contests. It was common to see Manchus putting signs in front of their houses to invite challenges.[105] After the Qianlong period, Manchus gradually neglected the practice of riding and archery, even though their rulers tried their best to encourage Manchus to continue their riding and archery traditions,[104] but the tradition still kept among some Manchus even nowadays.[106]

Manchu Wrestling

Manchu wrestlers competed in front of Qianlong Emperor

Manchu Wrestling (Manchu: , Möllendorff: buku) [107] is also an important martial art of the Manchu people.[108] Buku, meaning "wrestling" or "man of unusual strength" in Manchu, was originally from a Mongolian word, “bökh”.[107] The history of Manchu wrestling can be traced back to Jurchen wrestling in the Jin Dynasty which was originally from Khitan wrestling; it was very similar to Mongolian wrestling.[109] In the Yuan Dynasty, the Jurchens who lived in northeast China adopted Mongol culture including wrestling, bökh.[110] In the latter Jin and early Qing period, rulers encouraged the populace, including aristocrats, to practise buku as a feature of military training.[111] At the time, Mongol wrestlers were the most famous and powerful. By the Chongde period, Manchus had developed their own well-trained wrestlers[112] and, a century later, in the Qianlong period, they surpassed Mongol wreslers.[113] The Qing court established the "Shan Pu Battalion" and chose 200 fine wrestlers divided into three levels. Manchu wrestling moves can be found in today's Chinese wrestling, Shuai jiao.[114] Among many branches, Beijing wrestling adopted most Manchu wrestling moves.[n 22]

Falconry

File:Manchu falconer.jpg
A Manchu falconer

As a result of their hunting ancestry, Manchus are traditionally interested in falconry.[115] Gyrfalcon (Manchu: , Möllendorff: šongkoro) is the most highly valued discipline in the Manchu falconry social circle.[116] In the Qing period, giving a gyrfalcon to the royal court in tribute could be met with a considerable reward.[116] There were professional falconers in Ningguta area.[n 23] It was a big base of falconry.[115] Beijing's Manchus also like falconry. Compared to the falconry of Manchuria, it is more like an entertainment.[102] Imperial Household Department of Beijing had professional falconers, too. They provided outstanding falcons to the emperor when he went to hunt every fall.[102] Even today, Manchu traditional falconry is well practised in some regions.[117]

Ice-Skating

1930s, Wu Tongxuan skates in Zhongnanhai Park

Ice-skating (Manchu: , Möllendorff: nisume efimbi) is another Manchu pastime. Emperor Qianlong called it “national custom”.[118][119] It is one of the most important winter events of the Qing royal household,[120] performed by "Eight Banner Ice Skating Battalion" [n 24][120] which was a special force trained to do battle on icy terrain.[120] The battalion consisted of 1600 soldiers. In the Jiaqing period, it was reduced to 500 soldiers and transferred to the Jing Jie Battalion[n 25][120]。

In 1930s-1940s, there was a famous Manchu skater in Beijing whose name was Wu Tongxuan, from the Uya clan and one of the royal household skaters in Empress Dowager Cixi's reign.[121] He frequently appeared in many of Beijing's skating rinks.[121] Nowadays, there are still Manchu figure skaters of which world champions Zhao Hongbo and Tong Jian are the pre-eminent examples.

Traditional holidays

the performance of Manchu palace skaters on holiday

Manchus have many traditional holidays. Some are diverted from Chinese culture, such as "Spring Festival"[122] and Duanwu Festival[123]. Some are Manchu origin:

  • Day of running out of food：In every August 26th of lunar calendar. It is said that once Nurhaci and his troops was in a battle with emenies and almost running out of food. The villagers who lived near the battlefield heard the emergency and came to help. There were no tableware on battlefield. They had to use perilla to wrap the rice. Afterwards, they won the battle. For later generation could memorize this hardship, Nurhaci made this day the "day of running out of food". Traditionally on this day, Manchu people usually eat perilla or cabbage wraps with rice, grambled eggs, beef or pork.[124]。
  • Banjin Inenggi ()：It's the anniversary of the name creation of Manchu in October 13th of lunar calendar.[40] This day in 1635, Qing Taizong Emperor, Hong Taiji, made the change of the ethnic name from "Jušen"(Jurchen) to "Manju"(Manchu).[125][126]

Literature

The Tale of the Nisan Shaman is the most important literature of Manchus.[127] It primarily tells the process of how Nisan Shaman helps a young hunter revives. The story spreads not long among Manchus, but also in Xibe, Nanai, Daur, Oroqen, Evenk and other Tungusic peoples. It basically has for versions: the handwriting version from Qiqihar (Manchu: , Möllendorff: cicigar); two different handwriting versions from Aigun (Manchu: , Möllendorff: aihūn); the one which was wrote by a Manchu writer Dekdengge () in Vladivostok (Manchu: , Möllendorff: haišenwei). The pilot of four versions are similar, but the version of Haišenwei has the most complete content. It is already translated in Russian, Chinese, English and other languages[128].

There are also literature written in Chinese by Manchu writers, such as the Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters, Song Of Drinking Water and The collection of Tianyouge.

Folk art

Eight-corner drum

File:八角鼓演出劇照.jpg
A Manchu artist performing Eight-corner drum on stage

Eight-corner drum (Manchu: , Möllendorff: imcin) is a folk art of Manchu culture and was very popular among bannermen, especially in Beijing.[129]. It is said that Eight-corner drum was originally from the snare drum of Eight-banner military and the melody was made by the banner soldiers who was on the way back home from winng the battle of Jinchuan.[129] The drum is composed by woods with bells around. And the drumhead is made by wyrmhide with tassels at the bottom.[129] The colors of tassels is yellow, white, red and blue which represent the four colors of Eight Banners.[130] When artists perform, they use fingers to hit the drumhead and also shake the drum to ring the bells.[129] Traditionally, Eight-corner drum is performed by three people. One is the harpist; one is the clown who is responsible for harlequinade; and the rest arstist is the singer.[129]

Akšan, Manchu singer and ulabun artist

"Zidishu" is the main libretto of Eight-corner drum which can be traced back to a traditional folk music called "Manchu Rhythm".[131] Although Zidishu was not created by Chinese people, it still contains many themes of Chinese historical stories.[132] Such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Dream of the Red Chamber, Romance of the West Chamber, Legend of the White Snake and Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio.[132] Otherwise, there are many works which talks about the life of Bannermen. Aisin Gioro Yigeng, who was pen named "Helü" and wrote the sigh of old imperial bodyguard, is the representative author.[133] Zidishu have two kinds of acts of singing which is dongcheng and xicheng.[134]

After the fall of Qing, the influence of Eight-corner drum gradually reduced. However, the Chinese monochord[134] and crosstalk[135] which derived from Eight-corner are still popular in Chinese society. Many famous Chinese monochord performers and crosstalkers were the artists of Eight-corner drum. Such as De shoushan and Zhang Sanlu. [136]

Ulabun

Ulabun () is a Manchu storytelling entertainment which is performed in Manchu language.[137] Different from Eight-corner drum, ulabun is popular among the Manchu people who lives in Manchuria. It has two main categories. One is popular folk literature such as the Tale of the Nisan Shaman; Another classification is from folk music which is informative and has independent pilot, complete structure.[137] Song Xidong aka. Akšan () is a famous artist in performing ulabun.[138]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Also known as "Man", "Bannermen", "Tartars", "Red tasseled Manchus" and "Red tasseled Mongols".
    "Man" is a Chinese abbreviation, see Manchus on Chinese Wikipedia. Vietnamese also adopted the name from Chinese, See Manchus on Vietnamese Wikipedia, also see Manchu (people) on Encyclopædia Britannica;
    The althernative "Bannermen" (旗人 in Chinese) was named after Eight Banners. See Manchus on Chinese Wikipedia;
    "Tartars" was mostly called by European missionaries in 17th century, see: Martinius, Martin (1655). Bellum Tartaricumor, or, The conquest of the great and most renowned empire of China, by the invasion of the Tartars. E. Tyler for I. Crook in London. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help);
    Manchus are also famous as "Red tasseled Manchus" (红缨满洲 in original). Because they have red tassels on their traditional hat as adornment (Zheng 2010, p. 79). Accourding to this, Jasaktu Khan of Khalka Right Banner of Outer Mongolia called Manchus, "Red tasseled Mongols" (Various authors 2008, p. 262: "汉人八十万众，原系我攻城敌也，今闻尔已收服，念总属我红缨蒙古所得，甚为喜悦，故去年我曾遣使朝贺。" Literally: "Chinese who have 800,000 soldiers were my enemies. I heard you have conquered them. At least it belongs to our red tasseled Mongols, so I feel very happy and that was the reason I sent envoy to pay homage to you last year.")
  2. ^ northeastern China and Russia's Primorsky Krai nowadays
  3. ^ aka. Manchuria in 17th century
  4. ^ e.g. Möngke Temür, Qing's emperors' ancestor
  5. ^ “京语” in original
  6. ^ “盛京南满语”
  7. ^ “盛京吉林语” in original
  8. ^ “无圈点满文” 、“老满文” in Chinese; "tongki fuka akū hergen" in Manchu
  9. ^ 《八旗滿洲氏族通譜》 in Chinese
  10. ^ “著姓” in original
  11. ^ Seventy
  12. ^ Five
  13. ^ Sixty-seven, a Mandarin homophone
  14. ^ Eight-five, a Mandarin homophone
  15. ^ e.g. Aisin-Gioro Yuzhan
  16. ^ e.g. Ying Batu, Ying Bayan, the sons of famous Manchu-Chinese director, Ying Da
  17. ^ e.g. Aisin-Gioro Ulhicun
  18. ^ “二十始冠” in Chinese
  19. ^ “关老爷” originally
  20. ^ “和硕简亲王” originally, Heshuo Jian Qinwang in Pinyin
  21. ^ “多罗贝勒” originally, Duoluo Beile in Pinyin
  22. ^ see Shuai Jiao (Chinese Wikipedia)
  23. ^ Heilongjiang province and the northern part of today's Jilin province
  24. ^ “八旗冰鞋营” originally
  25. ^ “精捷营” originally, literally meaning "chosen agile battalion"

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h 中国2010年人口普查资料[上中下](the Data of 2010 China Population Census). China Statistics Press. 2012. ISBN 9787503765070. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help), or simply see Manchu population on Chinese Wikipedia if has a Chinese reading ability
  2. ^ 《我所认识的香港民族问题》，刊载于《民族团结》1996年第8期(Wo Suo Ren Shi De Xiang Gang Min Zu Wen Ti, The problem of the ethnicities of Hong Kong I know, Min Zu Tuan Jie magazine, the 8 edition, 1996)
  3. ^ a b Manchusoc：The Origins of Manchu People in Taiwan (Chinese traditional)
  4. ^ a b the gospel need of Manchu people(Chinese traditional)
  5. ^ Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. Springfield, MA: Merriam Webster. 2003. p. 754. ISBN 978-0-87779-807-1. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  6. ^ "Eras Journal - Tighe, J: Review of "The Manchus", Pamela Kyle Crossley". Retrieved 2011-04-27.
  7. ^ Association for Asian Studies (1987). The Journal of Asian studies, Volume 46, Issues 3-4. Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Association for Asian Studies. p. 767.
  8. ^ a b Meng 2006, p. 7
  9. ^ Meng 2006, pp. 7, 9
  10. ^ Meng 2006, p. 8
  11. ^ Huang, P.: "New Light on the origins of the Manchu," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, vol. 50, no.1 (1990): 239-82. Retrieved from JSTOR database July 18, 2006
  12. ^ a b Toqto'a 1975, p. 19-46
  13. ^ Toqto'a 1975, p. 47-67
  14. ^ Zheng 2009, pp. 18
  15. ^ Zheng 2009, pp. 39
  16. ^ Jin 2006, p. 107
  17. ^ Peterson 2006, p. 11
  18. ^ a b Meng 2006, p. 21
  19. ^ Meng 2006, pp. 97, 120
  20. ^ a b Peterson 2006, p. 15
  21. ^ Meng 2006, p. 120
  22. ^ Peterson 2006, p. 15
  23. ^ Lee 1970, pp. 182–184
  24. ^ Lee 1970, pp. 20–23, 78–90, 112–115
  25. ^ Lee 1970, p. 117
  26. ^ Lee 1970, pp. 124–125
  27. ^ Lee 1970, p. 103,sq
  28. ^ Sergeĭ Mikhaĭlovich Shirokogorov (1924). Social organization of the Manchus: A study of the Manchu clan organization. Royal Asiatic Society. p. 4. Retrieved 2011-06-01.
  29. ^ Edward J. M. Rhoads (2001). Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861-1928. University of Washington Press. p. 72. ISBN 0-295-98040-0. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  30. ^ Rhoads 2000, p. 265
  31. ^ Rhoads 2000, p. 275
  32. ^ Shirokogorov 1924, p. i,3-4
  33. ^ Rhoads 2000, p. 270
  34. ^ Rhoads 2000, pp. 270, 283
  35. ^ Rhoads 2000, p. 277
  36. ^ Rhoads 2000, p. 276
  37. ^ Rhoads 2000, p. 280
  38. ^ Rhoads 2000, p. 282
  39. ^ Rhoads 2000, p. 283
  40. ^ a b Yan 2008, p. 49
  41. ^ Agui (1988). 满洲源流考 (the Origin of Manchus). Liaoning Nationality Publishing House. ISBN 9787805270609. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  42. ^ 《御制全韵诗》，(清)高宗撰
  43. ^ Meng 2006, p. 6
  44. ^ Meng 2006, p. 4-5
  45. ^ Meng 2006, p. 5
  46. ^ 《族称manju词源探析》，长山作，刊载于《满语研究》2009年第01期
  47. ^ 《满洲名称之种种推测》，馮家昇作，《东方杂誌》30卷第17號
  48. ^ 《筆苑雜記》，徐居正撰
  49. ^ 《“满洲”名称考述》，滕绍箴撰，《民族研究》1996年04月，70-77页
  50. ^ Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 246
  51. ^ Tong 2009, p. 40
  52. ^ a b c Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 247
  53. ^ Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 248
  54. ^ Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 319
  55. ^ Aisin Gioro 2004, p. 264
  56. ^ Fuge 1984, p. 152
  57. ^ Jiang 1980, p. 4
  58. ^ 《无圈点字书》，鄂尔泰、徐元梦等撰
  59. ^ Ortai 1985, p. 5324-5327
  60. ^ Tong 2009, pp. 11–17
  61. ^ 满文老档. Zhonghua Book Company. 1980. pp. 1196–1197. ISBN 710100587X. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  62. ^ Zhao 2009, p. 9256-9258
  63. ^ Tong 2009, p. 33
  64. ^ 人民网：全国现有满族人口1000多万 会说满语者已不足百人
  65. ^ 人民日报：满语“活化石”――“伊兰孛”
  66. ^ 辽宁新闻网：本溪桓仁29名满语教师上岗
  67. ^ 中国新闻网：辽宁一高中开设满语课 满族文化传承引关注
  68. ^ 新浪教育：满语课首次进入吉林一中学课堂
  69. ^ 中国民族报：四合院中读书声 “逆流而上”救满文
  70. ^ 中国吉林网：金标的十年“满语梦”
  71. ^ 沈阳日报：抢救满语，沈阳小伙自费办班教满语
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  86. ^ 《清高宗实录》记载清高宗于乾隆四十年曾发布上谕“旗妇一耳戴三钳，原系满洲旧风，断不可改饰，朕选包衣佐领之秀女，皆戴一坠子，并相沿至于一耳一钳，则竟非满洲矣，立行禁止。”
  87. ^ 辽宁省政协：旗袍来历与满族发饰文化
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  89. ^ 新华网：小小扳指大有身价 (Chinese simplified)
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  92. ^ a b 满族帝王与佛教的渊源(in Chinese simplified)
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  98. ^ Fe Doro Manchu Archery: Technique
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  100. ^ Jiang 1980, p. 46
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  106. ^ 吉祥满族：文化遗产日——香山团城演武厅“访古·论箭”(in Chinese simplified)
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  117. ^ 新华网吉林频道：“中国鹰屯”吉林渔楼村将举办首届鹰猎文化节 (Chinese simplified)
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  135. ^ 遼寧電視台《有話好好說2011年12月4日》，郭德綱與德雲社眾演員，1分30秒—1分45秒處
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  137. ^ a b 富育光：《满族传统说部艺术——“乌勒本”研考》，中國社會科學院民族文化研究所
  138. ^ 文汇报：满语濒危 歌者唱作品传承

References

In Chinese

In English

In Manchu

Further reading

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