Assyrian people

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Template:Assyrian/Syriac infobox The Assyrian/Chaldean/Syriac people[1] (also known as Assyrians, Syrians, Syriacs, Syrian Christians, Syriac Christians,Suroye/Suryoye[2] and other variants, see names of Syriac Christians) are an ethnic group whose origins lie in the Levant, their homeland today being divided between Northern Iraq, Syria, Western Iran, and Turkey's Southeastern Anatolia.[3] Many have migrated to the Caucasus, North America and Europe during the past century. The major sub-ethnic division is between an Eastern group ("Nestorians" and "Chaldeans") and a Western one ("Jacobites").

There are Assyrian/Syriac diaspora and Iraqi refugee communities in Europe, the former Soviet Union, North America, Australia, New Zealand, Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon. Emigration was triggered by the Assyrian genocide in the wake of the First World War and the breakup of the Ottoman Empire, the Simele massacre in Iraq (1933) and the Islamic revolution in Iran (1979).[4]

The latest event to affect the Assyrian community is the war in Iraq; of the one million or more Iraqis reported by the United Nations to have fled, nearly forty percent (40%) are Assyrian, although Assyrians comprise only three percent of the Iraqi population.[5][6][7]

Note that the Syrian Malabar Nasrani, also known as Saint Thomas Christians, of Malabar are another Syriac Christian group, but ethnically distinct from the Assyrian/Syriac people of the Middle East.

History

Main article: History of the Assyrian people
Celebration at a Syriac Orthodox monastery in Mosul, Ottoman Syria, early 20th century.

The Assyrian people trace their origins to the population of the pre-Islamic Levant and Mesopotamia, since the time of the Neo-Assyrian Empire speaking Aramaic, the language of the Aramaean tribes who had been assimilated into the Assyrian empire in the 8th century BC.[8] due in part to the mass relocations enforced by Assyrian kings of the Neo-Assyrian period.[9]

They were Christianized in the 1st to 3rd centuries,[10] in Roman Syria and Persian Assyria.[11] They were divided by the Nestorian Schism in the 5th century, and from the 8th century, they became a religious minority following the Islamic conquest of Mesopotamia.

Culturally and linguistically distinct from, although quite influenced by, their neighbours in the Middle East - the Arabs, Persians, Kurds, Turks, and Armenians - the Assyrians have endured much hardship throughout their recent history as a result of religious and ethnic persecution.[12][13]

The most significant recent persecution against the Assyrian population was the Assyrian genocide, which occurred at the onset of the First World War. This led to a large-scale resettlement of the Assyrian people in countries such as Syria, Iran and Iraq, as well as other neighbouring countries in and around the Middle East.[14][15][16][17]


Demographics

Homeland

the Euphrates-Tigris watershed

The Assyrian/Syriac people are considered to be one of the indigenous people in the Middle East and specifically located in the area around Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The largest Assyrian/Syriac community is in Syria, where an estimated 877,000 Assyrian/Syriac live. In Tur Abdin, mostly known as the homeland, there are only 3,000 left,[18] and an estimated 15,000 in all of Turkey.[19] After the Assyrian genocide many Assyrian/Syriac also fled into Lebanon, Jordan, Iran, Iraq and into the Western world.

The Assyrian/Syriac people can be divided along geographic, linguistic, and denominational lines, the three main groups being:

Syria

The strongest Assyrian/Syriac stronghold in the Middle East is in Syria, specifically in the cities of Qamishli and Al-Hassakeh. Assyrian/Syriac who fled from the Seyfo, fled into the newly formed country known as Syria.

Qamishli was from the 1920s to 1980s known as the Capital for the Assyrian/Syriac.

Turkey

In Tur Abdin, mostly known as the homeland, there are only 3,000 left,[18] and an estimated 15,000–50,000 in all of Turkey.[19] Assyrian/Syriac is ranked as the largest Christian denomination in Turkey.[21]

The name "Tur Abdin" has the meaning of "The mountains of servants of God". This area was known as the world's most church and monastery closed area.

After the Assyrian genocide many Assyrian/Syriac also fled into Lebanon, Jordan, Iran, Iraq and the Western world.

In 1995 there were still 50,000 Assyrian/Syriac left in Tur Abdin. [21]

In later years, many Assyrian/Syriac have quit their homes in Europe for good and moved back into Tur Abdin. Many Assyrian/Syriac are returning to villages such as Kafro Tahtejto, Enhil, and villages in Mardin province. With almost 1000 Assyrian/Syriac who already have returned back to their homeland in Tur Abdin, another 5,000 are expected to return. [22][23]

Iraq

There are currently 90,000-150,000 Syriacs and one million Assyrians living in Iraq. The Assyrians, togheter with Chaldeans and Syriacs made a majority in many villages in Iraq but have, since the Iraq invasion, fled into nearby countries such as Syria, and into Europe. [24][25][26] Assyrians in Iraq account for a slight majority in two Ninewa counties, Tel Kaif and Al-Hamdaniya.]] Assyrian populations are distributed between the Assyrian homeland and the Assyrian diaspora. There are no official statistics, and estimates vary greatly, between less than one and more than three million, mostly due to the uncertainty of the number of Assyrians in Iraq. Since the 2003 Iraq war, Iraqi Assyrians have been dislocated to Syria in significant but unknown numbers. The diaspora population accounts for roughly 300,000 people,[citation needed] the largest diaspora community in the Near East being in Jordan, and the largest oversea communities found in the United States and in Sweden.

Population movements due to the Iraq War

Main article: Assyrians in Post-Saddam Iraq

Since the Iraq War starting in 2003, there has been a massive persecution of Assyrians in Iraq, mostly by Islamic extremists. In places like Dora, an estimated 90% of Iraq's Assyrian population has either fled or been murdered.[27] Incidents such as the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons and the Pope Benedict XVI Islam controversy have hit the Assyrian communities directly. Since the start of the Iraq war, there have been at least 46 churches and monasteries bombed. [28]

Diaspora

In 1967 the first large group of Assyrian/Syriac left Lebanon and moved into Sweden. Since that time over houndred of thousands Assyrian/Syriac have left their original homeland and moved into Europe, the Americas and Australia. The Assyrian/Syriac has created large diaspora communities.

A total of 550,000 Assyrian/Syriac is currently living in Europe.[29] Large Assyrian/Syriac diaspora communities can be found in Germany, Sweden, Netherlands and Switzerland. The largest Assyrian diaspora community can be found Södertälje, Sweden, where approx. 40,000 Assyrian/Syriac live.

Identity

Further information: Assyrianism, Aramaeanism, Arabization, and Turkification
Assyrian flag (since 1968)[30]
File:Chaldean flag.jpg
Chaldean flag (since 1997)
Syriac flag [31]

Assyrians are divided among several churches (see below). They speak and many can read and write modern Assyrian, a dialect of Neo-Aramaic.[32]

In certain areas of the Assyrian homeland, identity within a community depends on a person's village of origin (see List of Assyrian villages) or Christian denomination, for instance Chaldean Catholic.[33]

Today, Assyrians and other minority ethnic groups in the Middle East, feel pressure to identify as "Arabs",[34][35] and "Kurds".[36] Assyrians in Syria are disappearing as an ethnic group, due to assimilation.[37]

Neo-Aramaic (sometimes also called "Modern Assyrian"[38]) exhibits remarkably conservative features compared with Imperial Aramaic,[39] and the earliest European visitors to northern Mesopotamia in modern times encountered a people called "Assyrians" and men with ancient Assyrian names such as Sargon and Sennacherib.[40][41][42] The Assyrians manifested a remarkable degree of linguistic, religious, and cultural continuity from the time of the ancient Greeks, Persians, and Parthians through periods of medieval Byzantine, Arab, Persian, and Ottoman rule.[43]

Assyrian nationalism emphatically connects Modern Assyrians to the population of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. A historical basis of this sentiment has been disputed by a few early historians,[44] but receives support from modern Assyriologists like H.W.F. Saggs, Robert D. Biggs and Simo Parpola,[45][46][47] and Iranologists like Richard Nelson Frye.[11][48]

Self-designation

Main article: Names of Syriac Christians

The various communities of Syriac Christians and speakers of Neo-Aramaic advocate different terms for ethnic self-designation:

The terminological problem goes back to colonial times, but it became more acute in 1946, when with the independence of Syria, the adjective Syrian referred to an independent state. The controversy isn't restricted to exonyms like English "Assyrian" vs. "Aramaean", but also applies to self-designation in Neo-Aramaic, the "Aramaean" faction endorses both Sūryāyē ܐ݇ܣܘܪܝܝܐ and Ārāmayē ܐܪܡܝܐ, while the "Assyrian" faction insists on Āṯūrāyē ܐܬܘܪܝܐ but also accepts Sūryāyē ܐ݇ܣܘܪܝܝܐ.

Syriac Christians from the Middle East shouldn't be confused with Syriac Christian Dravidians from India, who are an entirely different ethnic group but follow the same version of Christianity that was spread by Syriac Christians from the Middle East, centuries earlier.

Alqosh, located in the midst of Assyrian contemporary civilization.

The question of ethnic identity and self-designation is sometimes connected to the scholarly debate on the etymology of "Syria". The question has a long history of academic controversy, but mainstream opinion currently favours that Syria is indeed ultimately derived from the Assyrian term Aššūrāyu.[50][48][51]

Rudolf Macuch points out that the Eastern Neo-Aramaic press initially used the term "Syrian" (suryêta) and only much later, with the rise of nationalism, switched to "Assyrian" (atorêta).[52] According to Tsereteli, however, a Georgian equivalent of "Assyrians" appears in ancient Georgian and Armenian documents.[53] This correlates with the theory of the nations to the East of Mesopotamia knew the group as Assyrians, while to the West, beginning with Greek influence, the group was known as Syrians.

Culture

Assyrian child dressed in traditional clothes.
Main article: Assyrian culture

Assyrian culture is largely influenced by religion.[54] The language is tied to the church as well for it uses the Syriac language in liturgy.[clarification needed] Festivals occur during religious holidays such as Easter and Christmas. There are also secular holidays such as Akitu (the Assyrian New Year).[55]

People often greet and bid relatives farewell with a kiss on each cheek and by saying "Peace be upon you." Others are greeted with a handshake with the right hand only; according to Middle Eastern customs, the left hand is associated with evil. Similarly, shoes may not be left facing up, one may not have their feet facing anyone directly, whistling at night is thought to waken evil spirits, etc.[56]

There are many Assyrian customs that are common in other Middle Eastern cultures. A parent will often place an eye pendant on their baby to prevent "an evil eye being cast upon it".[57] Spitting on anyone or their belongings is seen as a grave insult.

There are Assyrians that are not very religious yet they may be very nationalistic. Assyrians are proud of their heritage, their Christianity, and of speaking the language of Christ. Children are often given Christian or Assyrian names such as Ashur, Sargon, Shamiram, Nineveh, Ninos, Nimrod, etc. Baptism and First Communion are heavily celebrated events similar to how a Bris and a Bar Mitzvah are in Judaism. When an Assyrian person dies, three days after they are buried they gather to celebrate them rising to heaven (as did Jesus), after seven days they again gather to commemorate their passing. A close family member wears only black clothes for forty days and forty nights, or sometimes one year, as a sign of respect.[58]

Language

Main article: Neo-Aramaic languages
Syriac alphabet
(200 BCE–present)
ܐ    ܒ    ܓ    ܕ    ܗ    ܘ
ܙ    ܚ    ܛ    ܝ    ܟܟ    ܠ
ܡܡ    ܢܢ    ܣ    ܥ    ܦ
ܨ    ܩ    ܪ    ܫ    ܬ

Most Assyrians speak a modern form of Syriac,[59] an Eastern Aramaic language whose dialects include Chaldean and Turoyo as well as Assyrian. All are classified as Neo-Aramaic languages and are written using Syriac script, a derivative of the ancient Aramaic script. Assyrians also may speak one or more languages of their country of residence.

To the native speaker, "Syriac" is usually called Soureth or Suryoyo. A wide variety of dialects exist, including Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, and Turoyo. [60][61] To the native speaker, "Syriac" is usually called Suryoyo. A wide variety of dialects exist, including Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, and Turoyo.

The Turoyo language, which is a dialect of Aramaic, is a West Syriac language. Turoyo is spoken in eastern Turkey, Mardin province and north-eastern Syria, Al-Hasakah Governorate by members of the Syriac Orthodox Church. In Turoyo, the language is frequently called Suryoyo.

What remains of actual Western Neo-Aramaic, sometimes noted as the surviving language that would be the closest to the language spoken by Jesus, Western Neo-Aramaic is still spoken in Syria, but with only three villages left; Ma`loula, Bakh'a, and Jubb'adin, lie about 35 miles (56 km) northeast of Damascus.

In earlier days, Mlahsô, which is a Modern West Syriac language was traditionally spoken in eastern Turkey and north-eastern Syria. It was spoken in the villages of Mlahsó and `Ansha near Lice, Diyarbakır, Turkey. The name of the village and the language comes from the Syriac word melħo meaning 'salt'. The last speaker of Mlahsô, Ibrahim Hanna, died in 1998 in Qamishli.[62]

As the Neo-Assyrian Empire expanded westward, Old Aramaic gradually became the dominant tongue.[63] By 800 BC, it became the lingua franca throughout the Mesopotamian area. It was the language of commerce, trade and communication and became the vernacular language of Assyria.[64] Akkadian-influenced Aramaic was declared an auxiliary language by King Ashur-nirari V in 752 BC[65] and became a lingua franca under Achaemenid Dynasty of Persia.[66] By the first century AD, Akkadian was extinct. Modern Syriac, however, shares some of its vocabulary, as both are Semitic languages,[67] and a result of vocabulary remnants from the Akkadian language still being preserved in the modern Syriac language.[68]

Being stateless, Assyrians also learn the language or languages of their adopted country, usually Arabic, Armenian, Persian or Turkish. In northern Iraq and western Iran, Kurdish is widely spoken.

Literature

Main article: Syriac literature

The Syriac literature is literature written in the Syriac language. The majority of classical Syriac literature is of a Christian religious nature.

The earliest Syriac inscription is dated to AD 6 and comes from Edessa. There are about eighty inscriptions from the region of Osrhoene dating from the first three centuries AD. All of these early inscriptions are non-Christian or pre-Christian.

The earliest Christian literature was the biblical translation, the Peshitta and the Diatessaron. During the fourth century Ephrem the Syrian was considered to be a big giant during this period. It is also known that this period was the golden age of Syriac literature. Ephrem the Syrian wrote hymns, poetry and prose for the church.

The fifth century and sixth century is considered to be a continuation of the Syriac golden age. During this time, there were Syriac poets and theologians such as Jacob of Serugh, Narsai, Isaac of Nineveh, Philoxenus of Mabbog, Babai the Great and Jacob of Edessa.

Composition in the classical Syriac language still continues among members of the Syriac Orthodox Church, where students in the church's monasteries are taught living, spoken Syriac, which also are known as Kṯoḇonoyo.[69]

Sports

Main article: Syriac sports
File:Syrianskavis copy.jpg
Valsta Syrianska is one of many Syriac football clubs in Sweden.

The Syriac people have made a great success within the sports world, especially within the soccer world.

The teams Assyriska FF, Syrianska FC, Valsta Syrianska IK and Arameiska/Syrianska KIF, plays at present in the third highest level in Sweden, Division 1 Norra. Also there is Syrianska IF Kerburan, playing in the fourth highest level, Division 2 Norra Svealand, and Örebro Syrianska IF in the fifth highest level, Division 3 Västra Svealand. Among these Syriac soccer teams, there are also another 21 Syriac soccer teams playing in Sweden.

Syriac soccer players like Daniel Unal, Abgar Barsom, Suleyman Sleyman, Kennedy Bakircioglu, Louay Chanko, Sharbel Touma, Stefan Batan and Gabriel Özkan have made great success within the soccer world.

The Syriac soccer is very popular for many Syriacs all around the world, especially in Sweden. The fight between the two rivals Syrianska FC and Assyriska Föreningen which was played at 2007 drew 7 146 spectators. [70] The match was broadcasted to over 80 countries through the Syriac channel Suryoyo Sat and drew much interest in Swedish media.

Because of the increasing interest for the Syriac football, and the great Syriac players, the newly Aramean Syriac Football Association has been established for the Aramean-Syriac people all around the world. [71]

The Aramean Syriac football team Arameans Suryoye attended in 2008 VIVA World Cup, and reached the final, but lost against Padania with 2-0. [72]

In 2008 the Syriac team Syrianska FC reaches the second highest division in Sweden, Superettan for the first time in the history.[73][74]

Religion

Main article: Syriac Christianity
File:Chaldean.jpg
File:Assyrian Church of the East Symbol.JPG
Emblem of Syriac Orthodox Church

Most Syriacs belong to the Syriac Orthodox Church (ʿIdto Suryoyto Triṣaṯ Šuḇḥo) which got 4,000,000 members around the world.[75] The current Patriarch of the Syriac Orthodox Church is Ignatius Zakka I Iwas. The Syriac Orthodox Church's headquarters are located in Damascus, Syria.

About 161,000 Syriacs are members of the Syriac Catholic Church, which has its headquarters in Beirut, Lebanon. In the eighteenth century many Syriacs left the Syriac Orthodox Church and joined the Roman Catholic Church, and later the Syriac Catholic Church.

In the 19th century there were anglican missionary activities in the Middle East. And they spread protestantism among the Syriac orthodox community and some of them founded their own protestant fractions but many of them returned to the orthodox denomination a few years later.

The Syriac-maronites are named after a hermit named Mar Maroun (died 410). The exact worldwide Maronite population is not known, although it is at least 8 million according to CNEWA (Catholic Near East Welfare Association). It is estimated that 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 remain in Lebanon where they constitute up to 25% of the population. The current Patriarch and also Cardinal (since 1986) is Mar Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir who resides in Bkirki, north of Beirut (the Maronite Patriarch resides in the northern town of Dimane during the summer months).

Most known Syriac Doctors of the church are the following: Ephrem the Syrian, Jacob of Edessa, Bar-Hebraeus, Bardaisan and Jacob of Serug.

Nearly all Assyrians became Christians during the first century AD,[45] Many Assyrians are able to trace their Christian ancestry back to the lifetime of Jesus.[76] Jesus spoke of "Men of Nineveh", repenting from their old sins; this refers to when the prophet Jonah visited the Assyrian capital Nineveh:

The men of Nineveh shall rise up in the judgment with this generation, and shall condemn it: for they repented at the preaching of Jonas; and, behold, a greater than Jonas is here.

— Luke 11:32, King James Version

Many members of the following churches consider themselves Assyrian. Ethnic identities are deeply intertwined with religion, a legacy of the Ottoman Millet system. The group is traditionally characterized as adhering to various churches of Syriac Christianity and speaking Neo-Aramaic languages. It is subdivided into:

A small minority of Assyrians accepted the Protestant Reformation in the 20th century, possibly due to British influences, and is now organized in the Assyrian Evangelical Church, the Assyrian Pentecostal Church and other Protestant Assyrian groups.

Based on the following Bible passage, many Assyrians hold apocalyptic beliefs regarding the future of their nation:[77]

In that day there shall be a way from Egypt to the Assyrians, and the Assyrian shall enter into Egypt, and the Egyptian to the Assyrians, and the Egyptians shall serve the Assyrian. In that day shall Israel be the third to the Egyptian and the Assyrian: a blessing in the midst of the land, Which the Lord of hosts hath blessed, saying: "Blessed be my people of Egypt, the work of my hands Assyria, and Israel my inheritance."

— Isaiah 19:23-25

Festivals

The Syriac people celebrates Easter the first sunday after full moon that occurs on vernal equinox or afterwards. The Syriac people is following an older calendar than the calendar that the Western Churches is following, therefore their Easter occures a bit later.

The Syriacs are fasting normally 50 days, and the fast is voluntary. In the modern society, many Syriacs are chooses to only fast on the first and the last week.

During Maundy Thursday all Syriacs takes the Eucharist on their first churchvisit in the morning and on afternoon is it Foot washing. Twelve persons in the parish, which symbolizes Twelve Apostles are choosen to perform the Foot washing.

The Good Friday is the big mourning ceremony. A crucifix is washed, which is a symbol for Jesus body, with water and dries it of and then wrap it in a piece of material. Then the crucifix is placed in a flower-decorated coffin. The coffin is carried around in the church and finally, the coffin gets hanged over the church-door so all church-visitors can walk beneath it and show reverence for Jesus Christ. Afterwards, the coffin is carried down and the crucifix is placed in a smaller coffin with a seal, just like when Jesus was placed in his coffin.

Then the water, where the crucifix was washed, gets mixed up with vinegar and myrrh is dealt out to the the visitors. The bitter taste is a sign of participation of Jesus suffering.

Holy Saturday is a day of peace and quietness. There is only a Service of worship at night, but the big day is Easter Sunday. During Easter Sunday, the little coffin gets opened and the crucifix is held up as a sign that Jesus is alive.[78]

Music

File:Assyrmardin.JPG
Typical Syriac clothing in Mardin, Tur abdin, Early 20th century
Main article: Syriac music

At early times of Syriac Christianity, the Syriac music was only used within the churches. In later times, the Syriac people felt that they wanted a new musical culture, to express the Syriac people´s feelings, ideas and sufferings without associating to the church. Great Syriac music writers studied the music used in the church, and established new styles of music. [79]

In 1962 a Syriac called Chabo Bahé, wrote lyrics for Syriac music. The first song he wrote was Grishlah Idi, translated into English: She pulled my hand, and this song was the ground for the new style of Syriac music. Most early Syriacs songs was written and performed by Syriacs in Syria, Al Qamishli that reached out to the whole world. [79] Syriac music is very impressive and has been a inspiration for many cultures.

The most known Syriac singers in modern time is Ishok Yakub, Josef Özer, Jean Karat and Habib Mousa.

The first International Aramaic Music Festival was held in Lebanon year 2008, 1-4 August for the Aramean-Syriac people around the world.[80]

Assyrian music is divided into three main periods: ancient music written in Ur, Babylon and Nineveh; a middle period of tribal and folkloric music; and the modern period.

Dance

Main article: Assyrian folk dance
Main article: Syriac dance

Syriac dance is a group of traditional hand-holding dances similar to those from the Lebanon, Iraq and Syria. It is a form of round dancing, with a single or a couple of figure dancers often added to the geometrical centre of the dancing circle.

Syriacs sing and dance in all of their festivals, birthdays, and marriage ceremonies. There are several types of Syriac dances, depending on with ceremony or which song is played.

Several instruments such as Oud, Zurna and Davul is used within singing or dancing.

Assyrian Folk Dances are dances that are performed throughout the world by Assyrians, mostly on occasions such as weddings.

Art

Main article: Assyrian art

An Assyrian artistic style distinct from that of Babylonian art which was the dominant contemporary art in Mesopotamia, began to emerge c.1500 B.C. and lasted until the fall of Nineveh in 612 BC. The characteristic Assyrian art form was the polychrome carved stone relief that decorated imperial monuments.

Cuisine

Main article: Assyrian cuisine

Assyrian cuisine is very closely related to other Middle Eastern cuisines, predating both Arab and Turkish cuisine. It is also similar to Armenian, Persian and Greek cuisine. It is believed that Assyrians invented baklava in the eighth century BC.[81]

Names

Distinctively Assyrian language names are attested into the Sassanid period before they are replaced by Christian names.[82] Biblical names in English/Arab/Aramaic variants are Syriac tradition. Names like Gabriel, George, Jacob, Josef, Thomas, Peter, James, John, Elias and Maria are of clear religious origin. Aramaic names like Charbel, Aram and Ninorta are among traditional names.

French and Italian names are also given (predominantly by West Levant Syriacs); Jean, Pierre, Lawrence. Because of historical oppression from the larger Arab peoples and Turks where Syriacs live, names of foreign origin is prominent in Syriacs, for instance, Syriacs from Turkey (ex. Tur Abdin, Midyat) have predominantly Turkish surnames.

The most common surname is Haddad.

Institutions

Political parties

Other institutions

Genetics

Further information: Genetic history of the Near East

Late 20th century DNA analysis conducted by Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi and Alberto Piazza, "shows that Assyrians have a distinct genetic profile that distinguishes their population from any other population."[83] Genetic analysis of the Assyrians of Persia demonstrated that they were "closed" with little "intermixture" with the Muslim Persian population and that an individual Assyrian's genetic makeup is relatively close to that of the Assyrian population as a whole.[84] Cavalli-Sforza et al. state in addition, "[T]he Assyrians are a fairly homogeneous group of people, believed to originate from the land of old Assyria in northern Iraq," and "they are Christians and are possibly bona fide descendants of their namesakes."[85] Regarding the homogeneity of the Assyrian people, according to a recent study by Kevin MacDonald, the Assyrians tend to encourage endogamy.[3] "The genetic data are compatible with historical data that religion played a major role in maintaining the Assyrian population's separate identity during the Christian era".[83]

See also

Assyrian people
Culture
Music
Language
Cuisine
Folk Dance
Religion
Clothing
Settlements
Tribes

References

  1. ^ so identified in the current US census
  2. ^ an anglicization of the Aramaic name, also as Suraye/Suryaye; e.g. in Al-Ali et al., New Approaches to Migration? (Routledge 2002, p. 20) used synonymously with "Syriac Christians".
  3. ^ a b *MacDonald, Kevin (2004-07-29). "Socialization for Ingroup Identity among Assyrians in the United States". Paper presented at a symposium on socialization for ingroup identity at the meetings of the International Society for Human Ethology, Ghent Belgium. Based on interviews with community informants, this paper explores socialization for ingroup identity and endogamy among Assyrians in the United States. The Assyrians have lived as a linguistic, political, religious, and ethnic minority in Iran, Iraq, and Turkey since the fall of the Assyrian Empire in 612 B.C. Practices that maintain ethnic continuity in the United States include language and residential patterns, ethnically based Christian churches characterized by unique holidays and rites, and culturally specific practices related to life-cycle events and food preparation. The interviews probe parental attitudes and practices related to ethnic identity and encouragement of endogamy. Results are presently being analyzed. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |quotes= and |month= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  4. ^ Dr. Eden Naby. "Documenting The Crisis In The Assyrian Iranian Community". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessdaymonth=, |month=, |accessyear=, |accessmonthday=, and |coauthors= (help)
  5. ^ "Assyrian Christians 'Most Vulnerable Population' in Iraq". The Christian Post. Retrieved 2006-12-05. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  6. ^ "Iraq's Christian community, fights for its survival". Christian World News. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  7. ^ "U.S. Gov't Watchdog Urges Protection for Iraq's Assyrian Christians". The Christian Post. Retrieved 2007-12-31. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  8. ^ Parpola, National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times. pp. 8-9
  9. ^ Hooker, Richard. "Mesopotamia, the Assyrians, 1170-612, The Assyrian Period". Washington State University. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  10. ^ Parpola, Simo (2004). "National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times" (PDF). Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies. Vol. 18 (No. 2). JAAS: pp. 21. From the third century AD on, the Assyrians embraced Christianity in increasing numbers {{cite journal}}: |issue= has extra text (help); |pages= has extra text (help); |volume= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laysource=, |laydate=, |month=, |laysummary=, and |quotes= (help)
  11. ^ a b Frye, Richard N. (1992). "Assyria and Syria: Synonyms" (HTML). PhD., Harvard University. Journal of Near Eastern Studies. The ancient Greek historian, Herodotus, wrote that the Greeks called the Assyrians, by the name Syrian, dropping the A. And that's the first instance we know of, of the distinction in the name, of the same people. Then the Romans, when they conquered the western part of the former Assyrian Empire, they gave the name Syria, to the province, they created, which is today Damascus and Aleppo. So, that is the distinction between Syria, and Assyria. They are the same people, of course. And the ancient Assyrian empire, was the first real, empire in history. What do I mean, it had many different peoples included in the empire, all speaking Aramaic, and becoming what may be called, "Assyrian citizens." That was the first time in history, that we have this. For example, Elamite musicians, were brought to Nineveh, and they were 'made Assyrians' which means, that Assyria, was more than a small country, it was the empire, the whole Fertile Crescent. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  12. ^ Parpola, National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times, pp. 21
  13. ^ "Assyrians". World Culture Encyclopedia.
  14. ^ The Plight of Religious Minorities: Can Religious Pluralism Survive? - Page 51 by United States Congress
  15. ^ The Armenian Genocide: Wartime Radicalization Or Premeditated Continuum - Page 272 edited by Richard Hovannisian
  16. ^ Not Even My Name: A True Story - Page 131 by Thea Halo
  17. ^ The Political Dictionary of Modern Middle East by Agnes G. Korbani
  18. ^ a b *SOC News report , He was documenting life in the Tur Abdin, where about 3,000 members of the Aramean minority still live.' Cite error: The named reference "3000turabdin" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  19. ^ a b Statement on Assyrians/Syriacs in Turkey/Iraq
  20. ^ http://74.125.95.132/search?q=cache:F0rveNQBQ7MJ:www.zindamagazine.com/iraqi_documents/whoareassyrians.html+term+assyrian+added+to+church&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=7&gl=us
  21. ^ a b Religion in Turkey - Religious Minorities
  22. ^ Mardin’s Bakok Mountain draws Syriac diaspora back home
  23. ^ SOCNews - Syriacs Migrating Home to SE Turkey
  24. ^ Note on the Modern Assyrians, & Other Nationalistic Issues
  25. ^ http://www.themesopotamian.org/magazine/mesopotamian_v1_i4_jan05.pdf
  26. ^ http://www.kristdemokraterna.se/PressOchMedia/Pressmeddelanden/Internationellt/~/media/DBB059D6B89C42C1B8CB49B55C7CAC49.ashx
  27. ^ "Vicar: Dire Times For Iraq's Christians". CBS News. Retrieved 2007-12-04. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  28. ^ "Church Bombings in Iraq Since 2004". Aina.org. Retrieved 2008-11-16.
  29. ^ http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=70134
  30. ^ "Assyria". Crwflags.com. Retrieved 2008-11-16.
  31. ^ "Syriac-Aramaic People (Syria)". Crwflags.com. Retrieved 2008-11-16.
  32. ^ Florian Coulmas, The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems 23 (1996)
  33. ^ Note on the Modern Assyrians
  34. ^ Iraqi Assyrians: A Barometer of Pluralism
  35. ^ "Arab American Institute Still Deliberately Claiming Assyrians Are Arabs". Aina.org. Retrieved 2008-11-16.
  36. ^ "In Court, Saddam Criticizes Kurdish Treatment of Assyrians". Aina.org. Retrieved 2008-11-16.
  37. ^ Britannica Online: Syria :: Ethnic groups
  38. ^ "Assyrians". so called by e.g. Andrew Dalby, Dictionary of Languages: The definitive reference to more than 400 languages (2004): 32; Dr. J. F. Coakley, "The First Modern Assyrian Printed Book," Journal of the Assyrian Academic Society, vol. 9 (1995), Eden Naby & Michael E. Hopper eds., The Assyrian Experience: Sources for the study of the 19th and 20th centuries: from the holdings of the Harvard University Libraries (with a selected bibliography) (Cambridge, MA: Harvard College Library, 1999)
  39. ^ J.G. Browne, ‘‘The Assyrians,’’ Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 85 (1937)
  40. ^ George Percy Badger, The Christians of Assyria Commonly Called Nestorians (London: W.H. Bartlett, 1869)
  41. ^ J.F. Coakley, The Church of the East and the Church of England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), pp. 5, 89, 99, 149, 366–67, 382, 411
  42. ^ Michael D. Coogan, ed., The Oxford History of the Biblical World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 279
  43. ^ ‘‘Parthia,’’ in The Cambridge Ancient History: The Roman Republic, 2nd ed., vol. 3, pt. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 597–98; Patricia Crone and Michael Cook, Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 55–60; ‘‘Ashurbanipal and the Fall of Assyria,’’ in The Cambridge Ancient History: The Assyrian Empire, vol. 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1954), 130–31; A.T. Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), 168; Albert Hourani, Minorities in the Arab World (London: Oxford University Press, 1947), 99; Aubrey Vine, The Nestorian Churches (London: Independent Press, 1937); Flavius Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews, trans. William Whiston (1737), bk. 13, ch. 6, http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/ant-13.htm; Simo Parpola, ‘‘National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in the Post-Empire Times,’’ Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies 18, 2 (2004): 16–17; Simo Parpola, ‘‘Assyrians after Assyria,’’ Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies 12, 2 (2000): 1–13; R.N. Frye, ‘‘A Postscript to My Article [Assyria and Syria: Synonyms],’’ Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies 11 (1997): 35–36; R.N. Frye, ‘‘Assyria and Syria: Synonyms,’’ Journal of the Near East Society 51 (1992): 281–85; Michael G. Morony, Iraq after the Muslim Conquest (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), 336, 345; J.G. Browne, ‘‘The Assyrians,’’ Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 85 (1937)
  44. ^ Smith, Sidney (1925). "Early History of Assyria to 1000 B.C." The disappearance of the Assyrian people will always remain a unique and striking phenomenon in ancient history. Other, similar kingdoms and empires have indeed passed away but the people have lived on... No other land seems to have been sacked and pillaged so completely as was Assyria. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  45. ^ a b Saggs, The Might That Was Assyria, pp. 290, “The destruction of the Assyrian empire did not wipe out its population. They were predominantly peasant farmers, and since Assyria contains some of the best wheat land in the Near East, descendants of the Assyrian peasants would, as opportunity permitted, build new villages over the old cities and carry on with agricultural life, remembering traditions of the former cities. After seven or eight centuries and various vicissitudes, these people became Christians.”
  46. ^ Biggs, Robert (2005). "My Career in Assyriology and Near Eastern Archaeology" (PDF). Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies. Vol. 19 (No. 1). {{cite journal}}: |issue= has extra text (help); |volume= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month=, |laydate=, |laysource=, |quotes=, and |laysummary= (help) pp. 10, “Especially in view of the very early establishment of Christianity in Assyria and its continuity to the present and the continuity of the population, I think there is every likelihood that ancient Assyrians are among the ancestors of modern Assyrians of the area.”
  47. ^ Parpola, National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times, pp. 22
  48. ^ a b Frye, R. N. (1992). "Assyria and Syria: Synonyms" (PDF). Journal of Near Eastern Studies. Vol. 51 (No. 4): 281–285. {{cite journal}}: |issue= has extra text (help); |volume= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laydate=, |laysource=, |quotes=, and |laysummary= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) pp. 281-285
  49. ^ "Eastern Churches", Catholic Encyclopedia, see Eastern Syrians and Western Syrians respectively. Modern terminology within the group is Western Assyrians and Eastern Assyrians respectively, while those who reject the Assyrian identity opt for Syriacs rather than Assyrian or Syrian.
  50. ^ Rollinger, Robert (2006). "The terms "Assyria" and "Syria" again" (PDF). Journal of Near Eastern Studies. Vol. 65 (No. 4): 283–287. {{cite journal}}: |issue= has extra text (help); |volume= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month=, |laydate=, |laysource=, |quotes=, and |laysummary= (help)
  51. ^ Parpola, National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times, pp. 16
  52. ^ Rudolf Macuch, Geschichte der spät- und neusyrischen Literatur, New York: de Gruyter, 1976.
  53. ^ Tsereteli, Sovremennyj assirijskij jazyk, Moscow: Nauka, 1964.
  54. ^ http://www.aina.org/articles/chicago.pdf
  55. ^ The Assyrian New Year
  56. ^ Chamberlain, AF. Notes on Some Aspects of the Folk-Psychology of Night. The American Journal of Psychology, 1908 - JSTOR.
  57. ^ Gansell, AR. FROM MESOPOTAMIA TO MODERN SYRIA: ETHNOARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON FEMALE ADORNMENT DURING RITES. Ancient Near Eastern Art in Context. 2007 - Brill Academic Publishers.
  58. ^ Chambers, C. End-of-Life Rituals. 2006. Cherrytree Books. pp 76-81.
  59. ^ The British Survey, By British Society for International Understanding, 1968, page 3
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  61. ^ Brock, Sebastian (2006). An Introduction to Syriac Studies. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. ISBN 1-59333-349-8
  62. ^ Jastrow, Otto (1994). Der neuaramäische Dialekt von Mlaḥsô. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-03498-X.
  63. ^ Britannica Online: Akkadian language
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  66. ^ Aramaic Documents of the Fifth Century B. C. by G. R. Driver
  67. ^ Akkadian Words in Modern Assyrian
  68. ^ Kaufman, Stephen A. (1974),The Akkadian influences on Aramaic. University of Chicago Press
  69. ^ W. Wright: A Short History of Syriac Literature, 1894, 1974 (reprint)
  70. ^ : Syrianska FC :
  71. ^ Syrianska Föreningen i Södertälje
  72. ^ VIVA World Cup Official Website
  73. ^ http://www.lt.se/index.asp?kat=st&i1=index_red_2007.asp&i2=1&Id=29332&isp2=hela
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  75. ^ Adherents.com
  76. ^ "The Religion Report - 30 May 2007 - Christian Minorities in the Islamic Middle East : Rosie Malek-Yonan on the Assyrians". Abc.net.au. Retrieved 2008-11-16.
  77. ^ Assyria in Prophecy
  78. ^ http://www.na.se/artikel.asp?intId=1323753
  79. ^ a b Syriac Music: History
  80. ^ ankawa.com » Blog Archive » The First Aramaic International Music Festival in the Open Air
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  82. ^ Parpola, Simo (1999). "Assyrians after Assyria". Assyriologist. Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies, Vol. XIII No. 2,. Distinctively Assyrians names are also found in later Aramaic and Greek texts from Assur, Hatra, Dura-Europus and Palmyra, and continue to be attested until the beginning of the Sasanian period. These names are recognizable from the Assyrian divine names invoked in them; but whereas earlier the other name elements were predominantly Akkadian, they now are exclusively Aramaic. This coupled with the Aramaic script and language of the texts shows that the Assyrians of these later times no longer spoke Akkadian as their mother tongue. ... It is also worth pointing out that many of the Aramaic names occurring in the post-empire inscriptions and graffiti from Assur are already attested in imperial texts from the same site that are 800 years older. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  83. ^ a b Dr. Joel J. Elias, Emeritus, University of California, The Genetics of Modern Assyrians and their Relationship to Other People of the Middle East
  84. ^ M.T. Akbari, Sunder S. Papiha, D.F. Roberts, and Daryoush D. Farhud, ‘‘Genetic Differentiation among Iranian Christian Communities,’’ American Journal of Human Genetics 38 (1986): 84–98
  85. ^ Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi, Alberto Piazza, The History and Geography of Human Genes, p. 243 [1]

Further reading

External links

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