Zand dynasty
Zand dynasty دودمان زندیان | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1751–1794 | |||||||||||
 The Zand dynasty at its zenith under Karim Khan in 1776. | |||||||||||
| Capital | Shiraz | ||||||||||
| Official languages | Persian | ||||||||||
| Religion | Twelver Shi'ism | ||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||
| Vakilol Ro'aya (Advocate of People) | |||||||||||
• 1751–1779 | Karim Khan Zand (first) | ||||||||||
• 1789–1794 | Lotf Ali Khan Zand (last) | ||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||
• Established | 1751 | ||||||||||
• Qajar conquest | 1794 | ||||||||||
| |||||||||||
| History of Iran |
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Timeline Iran portal |
The Zand dynasty (Persian: دودمان زندیان, Dudmane Zandiyan) was an Iranian dynasty,[1] founded by Karim Khan Zand (r. 1751–1779) that initially ruled southern and central Iran in the 18th century. It later quickly came to expand to include much of the rest of contemporary Iran (except for the provinces of Balochistan and Khorasan) as well as parts of Iraq. The lands of present-day Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia were controlled by khanates which were de jure part of the Zand realm, but the region was de facto autonomous.[2] The island of Bahrain was also held for the Zands by the autonomous Al-Mazkur sheikhdom of Bushire.[3]
The reign of its most important ruler, Karim Khan, was marked by prosperity and peace. With its capital at Shiraz, arts and architecture flourished under Karim Khan's reign, with some themes in architecture being revived from the nearby sites of the Achaemenid (550–330 BC) and Sasanian (224–651 AD) era's of pre-Islamic Iran. The tombs of the medieval Persian poets Hafez and Saadi Shirazi were also renovated by Karim Khan. Distinctive Zand art which was produced at the behest of the Zand rulers became the foundation of later Qajar arts and crafts. Following the death of Karim Khan, Zand Iran went into decline due to internal disputes amongst members of the Zand dynasty. Its final ruler, Lotf Ali Khan Zand (r. 1789–1794), was eventually executed by Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar (r. 1789–1797) in 1794.
As noted by The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, "Karim Khan Zand holds an enduring reputation as the most humane Iranian ruler of the Islamic era".[4] When following the Islamic Revolution of 1979 the names of the past rulers of Iran became a taboo, the citizens of Shiraz refused to rename the Karim Khan Zand and Lotf Ali Khan Zand streets, the two main streets of Shiraz.[5]
History
Karim Khan Zand
The dynasty was founded by Karim Khan Zand, chief of the Zand tribe, which is a tribe of Laks,[6][7][8] a branch of Lurs[6][9] who may have been originally Kurdish.[7][8] Nader Shah moved the Zand tribe from their home in the Zagros mountains to the eastern steppes of Khorasan. After Nader's death, the Zand tribe, under the guidance of Karim Khan, went back to their original land.[10] After Adil Shah was made king Karim Khan and his soldiers defected from the army and along with Ali Morad Khan Bakhtiari and Abolfath Khan Haft Lang, two other local chiefs, became a major contender but was challenged by several adversaries.[11] Abolfath Khan was the Vizier, Karim Khan became the army chief commander and Ali Morad Khan became the regent.[11]
Karim Khan declared Shiraz his capital, and in 1778 Tehran became the second capital. He gained control of central and southern parts of Iran. In order to add legitimacy to his claim, Karim Khan placed the infant Shah Ismail III, the grandson of the last Safavid king, on the throne in 1757. Ismail was a figurehead king and real power was vested in Karim Khan. Karim Khan chose to be the military commander and Alimardan Khan was the civil administrator. Soon enough Karim Khan managed to eliminate his partner as well as the puppet king and in 1760, founded his own dynasty. He refused to accept the title of the king and instead named himself Vakilol Ro'aya (Advocate of the People).
By 1760, Karim Khan had defeated all his rivals and controlled all of Iran except Khorasan, in the northeast, which was ruled by Shah Rukh. His foreign campaigns against Azad Khan in Azerbaijan and against the Ottomans in Mesopotamia brought Azerbaijan and the province of Basra into his control. But he never stopped his campaigns against his arch-enemy, Mohammad Hassan Khan Qajar, the chief of the Qoyunlu Qajars. The latter was finally defeated by Karim Khan and his sons, Agha Mohammad Khan and Hossein Qoli Khan Qajar, were brought to Shiraz as hostages.
Karim Khan's monuments in Shiraz include the famous Arg of Karim Khan, Vakil Bazaar, and several mosques and gardens. He is also responsible for building of a palace in the town of Tehran, the future capital of the Qajar dynasty.
Decline and fall
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Karim Khan's death in 1779 left his territory vulnerable to threats from his enemies. His son and successor Abu al-Fath was an incompetent ruler who was heavily influenced by his half uncle (and Karim Khan's commander), Zaki Khan. Other rulers such as Ali Morad and Jafar Khan also failed to follow the policies of Karim Khan and soon enough, the country was under attack from all sides.
The biggest enemies of the Zands, the Qajar chiefs, led by the former hostage, Agha Mohammad Khan, were advancing fast against the declining kingdom. Finally, in 1789, Lotf Ali Khan, a grand-nephew of Karim Khan, declared himself the new king. His reign (until 1794) was spent mostly in war with the Qajar khan. He was finally captured and brutally killed in the fortress of Bam, putting an effective end to the Zand Dynasty.
Politically, it is also important that the Zands, especially Karim Khan, chose to call themselves Vakilol Ro'aya (Advocate of the People) instead of kings. Other than the obvious propaganda value of the title, it can be a reflection of the popular demands of the time, expecting rulers with popular leanings instead of absolute monarchs who were totally detached from the population, like the earlier Safavids.
Foreign policy
In foreign policy, Karim Khan attempted to revive the Safavid era trade by allowing the British to establish a trading post in the port of Bushehr. This opened the hands of the British East India company in Iran and increased their influence in the country.[12] The taxation system was reorganized in a way that taxes were levied fairly. The judicial system was fair and generally humane. Capital punishment was rarely implemented.
Art
The Zand era was an era of relative peace and economic growth for the country. Many territories that were once captured by the Ottomans in the late Safavid era were retaken, and Iran was once again a coherent and prosperous country. From 1765 onwards Karim Khan promoted art and architecture at his capital Shiraz.[13] After Iranian painting reached its height at the end of the 17th century, a special school of painting took shape during the Zand era in the 17th and 18th centuries.[14] Painting thrived under Karim Khan, and notable paintings from this era include Muhammad Karim Khan Zand and the Ottoman Ambassador which was created c. 1775.[13] The most important painter of the Zand era was Mohammad Sadiq.[13] The art of this era is remarkable and, despite the short length of the dynasty, a distinct Zand art had the time to emerge. Many Qajar artistic traits were copied from the Zand examples and Zand art became the foundation of Qajar arts and crafts.[5] Following Karim Khan's death, the Zand dynasty became embroiled in disputes over succession and other intrigues, which put a halt to further significant patronage of the arts.[13]
Architecture
Karim Khan's first architectural considerations were focussed on defense and he therefore rebuilt the city walls of Shiraz in 1767.[13] He decorated Shiraz with new buildings including the Arg of Karim Khan, the Vakil Bazaar and the Kulah-e Farangi and grouped these around a public square (maidan in Persian).[5][13] Zand-era architecture is notable in Iranian history for "its revetments in carved marble and overglaze-painted tiles with flowers, animals and people".[13] The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture notes that some themes employed by Zand architecture were knowingly revived from the nearby ancient Achaemenid and Sasanian sites, such as Persepolis and Naqsh-e Rostam.[13]
Cultural patronage
According to the Italian scholar Alessandro Bausani: "The eighteenth century, which in Europe (and partly also in India, for example) was a ferment of renewal, is the darkest and most sterile period in Persian literature and culture." Scholars of Persian literature have also made a similar conclusion. John Perry commented on these statements: "While regrettably true of literature, this view is somewhat too sweeping to be fair to the fine and applied arts." Like Nader Shah, Karim Khan was uninterested in poetry panegyric and had no more than a passing tolerance for history. He supported the court artisans and artists, albeit in an indifferent manner.[15]
The numerous artists active during Karim Khan's time who were born in or educated in Isfahan, many of whom carry the surname "Esfahani," can be considered as representations of the lengthy political and cultural traditions of the Safavid court; they account for at least seventeen of the twenty-seven identified by Abu'l-Hasan Mostawfi Ghaffari. In the 1750s, some people—including the poet Hazin Lahiji—had immigrated to India. Others, like Vafa of Qom, departed for India under Nader Shah's rule but later came back to Iran under Karim Khan. During the interim period, a large number of people, primarily in the central region of Isfahan, Qom, and Kashan, remained in Iran. These people included Moshtaq, Azar Bigdeli, Hatef Esfahani, and Rafiq. Shiraz largely took up Isfahan's role as the patronage hub.[16]
Imperial ideology
The distinguishing quality of Karim Khan's leadership came from his refusal to exercise royal authority independent of nominal Safavid sovereignty. However, his decision to continue serving as vakil al-dowleh ("deputy of the state") marked a subtle change from his previous role as the regent of a prince distantly related to the Safavid dynasty and of no importance. The subtle change reflected Karim Khan's standing among his subjects, particularly the urban people. He also drew on Iranian monarchy traditions that were directly related to the Fars province in order to distance himself from the distressing events of recent times.[17]
Karim Khan attempted to recreate the territorial Iran of the Safavid era, just like Nader Shah and Agha Mohammad Khan.[18] A common reference for consecutive rulers was Nader Shah's mention of Iran's established borders during the Safavid dynasty. Karim Khan made use of the same justification for similar land dispute resolutions.[19]
Court and administration
When compared to the complex structure of hierarchy and ceremony that distinguished the Safavid court, Karim Khan's household in Shiraz was smaller, simpler, and more focused on real administrative and military requirements than on the lavish display of the Safavid shah.[20] The Zand nobility was a remnant of the Safavid nobility and was later almost entirely absorbed into the Qajar nobility.[21] As with previous dynasties, the official language and court literature was in Persian, and the majority of the chancellors, ministers, and bureaucrats were well-educated and talented Persian speakers.[22]
Religious policy
Karim Khan might have been anticipated to seek the ulama's approval for his unusual position as the head of an nominally neo-Safavid (but in reality kingless) monarchy. However, he refused to comply with this. By minting coins under the name of the hidden imam, erecting mosques and shrines, and probably participating in Friday prayers—though this is not mentioned—Karim Khan supported the Shia beliefs in a traditional manner. Abu'l-Hasan Qazvini, who was one the more religious historians, claims that Karim Khan never prayed throughout his entire life. The government-appointed shaykh ol-eslam was the most important religious figure in Shiraz. His responsibilities seemed to be more constrained than those of his Safavid predecessors, and the title molla-bashi (chief theologian) created by Soltan Hoseyn was not retained.[23]
Religious officers typically selected by the crown got degrees and set payments from Karim Khan, such as the guardian of the Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine at Ray in 1765 and the supervisor of religious activities at Qazvin. However, the lesser akhunds, theologians, Alavid seyyeds, and dervishes who anticipated living off of government pensions were let down. They were reportedly seen as parasites by Karim Khan, who claimed that by controlling pricing, they could live happily with what they had just like others.[24] Presentations of the passion play, which reenacted the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali, gained popularity from Karim Khan's reign onward, possibly as a result of the more tolerant religious climate.[25]
Both Karim Khan in 1764 and Ali-Morad Khan in 1781 issued farmans (royal edicts) that ensured freedom of residence, worship, and trade to Christian missionary groups in Iran, including the Carmelites, Benedictines, Jesuits, Capuchins, Augustinians, and others. The only requirement was that they behaved in a manner that did not anger the Shia and its supporters.[25]
Coinage
Various anonymous or semi-anonymous currencies were struck by Karim Khan and his successors, but the abbasi of 4.6 gram and the rupee of 11.5 gram seemed to be the most common.[26] Isfahan, Kashan, Yazd, Shiraz, Tabriz, Qazvin, Rasht, Mazandaran, and the court mint were the main coin mints under Karim Khan. There was no monetary unity in Iran even though Karim Khan was acknowledged as the overlord of the majority of the country after 1763, as many regions remained independent or semi-autonomous. This was especially true for the semi-autonomous local khans that controlled the Caspian and Caucasian regions, as well as Khorasan, which was ruled by the Durranids and Afsharids.[27]
A number of these khanates, including Ganja, Shirvan, Shaki, Derbent, and Karabakh, produced their own coins, first in the name of Nader Shah and then in the name of Karim Khan. A large portion of their coinage was completely nameless by the end of the 18th-century. While a few uncommon issues of Derbent contain a vague reference to one of their khans, none of the khans ever put their names on their coins, due to lacking the legitimacy of an sovereign monarch and any claims to independence.[27][28] These northern Iranian coins were made entirely of silver and copper.[27]
Legacy
As noted by The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, "Karim Khan Zand holds an enduring reputation as the most humane Iranian ruler of the Islamic era".[4] Karim Khan is the subject of many stories about his "kindness, generosity and justice".[5] The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World adds that he is described as "a model ruler who never took the title of Shah".[5] The Zand entity of Karim Khan was at peace and the roads within the realm were reportedly free of bandits.[5] Karim Khan rebuilt Shiraz, his capital, and decorated it with new buildings including the Arg of Karim Khan, the Vakil Bazaar and the Kulah-e Farangi.[5] He also restored the tombs of the medieval Persian poets Hafez and Saadi Shirazi.[5] Until this day, the inhabitants of Shiraz honor Karim Khan.[5] When following the Islamic Revolution of 1979 the names of the past rulers of Iran became a taboo, the citizens of Shiraz refused to rename the Karim Khan Zand Street and Lotf-Ali Khan Zand Street, the two main streets of Shiraz.[5]
Rulers/kings
- Karim Khan Zand, 1751–1779 کریم خان زند
- Mohammad Ali Khan Zand, 1779 محمدعلی خان زند
- Abol-Fath Khan Zand, 1779 ابوالفتح خان زند
- Sadeq Khan Zand, 1779–1782 صادق خان زند
- Ali-Morad Khan Zand, 1782–1785 علیمراد خان زند
- Jafar Khan, 1785–1789 جعفر خان زند
- Sayed Morad Khan, 1789 سيد مراد خان زند
- Lotf Ali Khan, 1789–1794 لطفعلی خان زند
Other notable members
Family tree
Budaq Khan | Bay Agha | Inaq Khan | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Allah Morad Khan | Bay Agha II | Zaki Khan Zand | Karim Khan Zand 1751–1779 | Sadeq Khan Zand 1779–1781 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Koda Morad Khan | Ali-Morad Khan Zand 1782–1785 | Akbar Khan Zand | Abol-Fath Khan Zand 1779 | Mohammad Ali Khan Zand 1779 | Jafar Khan Zand 1785–1789 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sayed Morad Khan 1789 | Rostam Khan Zand | Lotf Ali Khan 1789–1794 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
See also
References
- ^ "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica".
- ^ Perry, John R. (14 May 2015). Karim Khan Zand: A History of Iran, 1747-1779. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-66102-5.
- ^ Floor, Willem M. (2007). The Persian Gulf: The Rise of the Gulf Arabs : the Politics of Trade on the Persian Littoral, 1747-1792. Mage Publishers. ISBN 978-1-933823-18-8.
- ^ a b Esposito, John L., ed. (2003). "Zand Dynasty". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512558-0.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Frye, Richard N. (2009). "Zand Dynasty". In Esposito, John L. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530513-5.
- ^ a b Tucker, Ernest (2020). "Karīm Khān Zand". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE. Brill Online.
The Zands were a branch of the Laks, a subgroup of the northern Lurs, who spoke Luri, a Western Iranian language.
- ^ a b Perry, John. "ZAND DYNASTY". iranicaonline.org. Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
The founder of the dynasty was Moḥammad Karim Khan b. Ināq Khan (...) of the Bagala branch of the Zand, a pastoral tribe of the Lak branch of Lors (perhaps originally Kurds; see Minorsky, p. 616) (...)
- ^ a b ...the bulk of the evidence points to their being one of the northern Lur or Lak tribes, who may originally have been immigrants of Kurdish origin., Peter Avery, William Bayne Fisher, Gavin Hambly, Charles Melville (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran: From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic, Cambridge University Press, 1991, ISBN 978-0-521-20095-0, p. 64.
- ^ Muhammad Karim Khan, of the Zand clan of the Lur tribe, succeeded in imposing his authority on parts of the defunct Safavid empire, David Yeroushalmi, The Jews of Iran in The Nineteenth Century: Aspects of History, Community, and Culture, BRILL, 2009, ISBN 978-90-04-15288-5, p. xxxix.
- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 21 February 2006. Retrieved 21 February 2006.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ a b "History of Iran". farhangsara.com. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 9 May 2017.
- ^ "Afshar and Zand". 23 February 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2017.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S., eds. (2009). "Zand". Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195309911.
- ^ "New Page 1". Archived from the original on 2 October 2011. Retrieved 9 May 2017.
- ^ Perry 1979, p. 243.
- ^ Perry 1979, p. 244.
- ^ Amanat 2017, p. 153.
- ^ Amanat 2012, p. 14.
- ^ Atabaki 2012, p. 75.
- ^ Perry 1979, p. 279.
- ^ Amanat 2012, p. 15.
- ^ Katouzian 2007, p. 128.
- ^ Perry 1979, p. 220.
- ^ Perry 1979, p. 221.
- ^ a b Perry 1979, p. 222.
- ^ Matthee, Floor & Clawson 2013, p. 169.
- ^ a b c Matthee, Floor & Clawson 2013, p. 170.
- ^ Akopyan & Petrov 2016, pp. 1–2.
Sources
- Akopyan, Alexander; Petrov, Pavel (2016). "The Coinage of Īrawān, Nakhjawān, Ganja and Qarabāḡ Khānates in 1747–1827". State Hermitage: 1–9.
- Amanat, Abbas (2012). "Introduction: Iranian Identity Boundaries: A Historical Overview". In Amanat, Abbas; Vejdani, Farzin (eds.). Iran Facing Others: Identity Boundaries in a Historical Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–38. ISBN 978-1137013408.
- Amanat, Abbas (2017). Iran: A Modern History. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300112542.
- Atabaki, Touraj (2012). "Iranian History in Transition: Recasting the Symbolic Identity of Babak Khorramdin". In Amanat, Abbas; Vejdani, Farzin (eds.). Iran Facing Others: Identity Boundaries in a Historical Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 65–80. ISBN 978-1137013408.
- Katouzian, Homa (2007). Iranian History and Politics: The Dialectic of State and Society. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415297547.
- Matthee, Rudi (2008). "Safavid dynasty". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
- Matthee, Rudi; Floor, Willem; Clawson, Patrick (2013). The Monetary History of Iran: From the Safavids to the Qajars. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85772-172-3.
- Matthee, Rudi (2018). "Historiographical Reflections on the Eighteenth Century in Iranian History: Decline and Insularity, Imperial Dreams, or Regional Specificity?". In Axworthy, Michael (ed.). Crisis, Collapse, Militarism and Civil War: The History and Historiography of 18th Century Iran. Oxford University Press. pp. 21–43. ISBN 978-0-19-025033-1.
- Perry, John R. (1979). Karim Khan Zand: A History of Iran, 1747–1779. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226660981.
- Perry, John R. (2000). "Zand dynasty". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
- Perry, John R. (2011). "Karim Khan Zand". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume XV/6: Karim Khan Zand–Kašḡari, Saʿd-al-Din. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 561–564. ISBN 978-1-934283-29-5.
- Perry, John R. (2022). "Sir William Jones and the Migration of the Idea of Iran to India". In Melville, Charles Melville (ed.). The Contest for Rule in Eighteenth-Century Iran: Idea of Iran Vol. 11. I.B.Tauris. pp. 215–226. ISBN 978-0755645992.
- Tucker, Ernest (2006). "Nāder Shāh". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
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