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=== Organized plunder ===
=== Organized plunder ===
{{Further|Art theft and looting during World War II}}

Nazi Germany plundered cultural property in Germany and from all the territories they occcupied, targeting Jewish property in particular. Several organizations were created expressly for the purpose of looting books, paintings, and other cultural artefacts.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nazi Looting and Plunder|url=https://www.holocaust.com.au/the-facts/the-outbreak-of-world-war-ii-and-the-war-against-the-jews/nazi-looting-and-plunder/|access-date=2020-12-12|website=The Holocaust|language=en}}</ref>

==== Rosenberg Taskforce ====
{{Main|Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce}}


In 1940, an organization known as the [[Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce]] was formed, headed by {{ill de|Gerhard Utikal}}. The first operating unit, called the ''Dienststelle Westen'' (Western Agency), was located in Paris. Its original purpose was to collect Jewish and [[Freemasonic]] books and documents, either for destruction or for removal to Germany for further "study". However, in late 1940 [[Hermann Göring]] issued an order the ERR to seize "Jewish" art collections and other objects. The [[war loot]] had to be collected in a central place in Paris, the [[Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume|Museum Jeu de Paume]], where [[art historian]]s and other personnel inventoried the loot before sending it to Germany. Göring also ordered the loot to be divided between Hitler and himself. Göring traveled to Paris twenty times to Paris between 1940 and 1942. At the Jeu de Paume, art dealer [[Bruno Lohse]] staged 20 expositions of the newly looted art objects especially for Göring, who selected at least 594 pieces for his collection.<ref name="Petropoulos1999">{{cite book |last=Petropoulos |first=Jonathan |title=Art as Politics in the Third Reich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjQO61bvE7gC&pg=PA190 |date=1 February 1999 |publisher=UNC Press Books |location=Chapel Hill |isbn=978-0-8078-4809-8 |oclc=754708947 |page=190}}</ref> Göring made Lohse his liaison-officer and installed him in the ERR in March 1941 as the deputy leader of this unit. Items which Hitler and Göring did not want were made available to other Nazi leaders. Under Rosenberg and Göring's leadership, the ERR seized 21,903 art objects from German-occupied countries.<ref name="Walker-2006">{{cite book |last=Walker|first= Andrew |title=Nazi War Trials |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U6XRAAAACAAJ&pg=PA141 <!--|alt-url=https://archive.org/details/naziwartrials00walk--> |series=Mazal Holocaust Collection. |url-access=limited |publisher=Pocket Essentials |location=Harpenden U.K. |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-903047-50-7 |oclc=46499078 |page=141 <!--page-url=https://archive.org/details/naziwartrials00walk/page/n139 (p.141)-->}}</ref>
In 1940, an organization known as the [[Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce]] was formed, headed by {{ill de|Gerhard Utikal}}. The first operating unit, called the ''Dienststelle Westen'' (Western Agency), was located in Paris. Its original purpose was to collect Jewish and [[Freemasonic]] books and documents, either for destruction or for removal to Germany for further "study". However, in late 1940 [[Hermann Göring]] issued an order the ERR to seize "Jewish" art collections and other objects. The [[war loot]] had to be collected in a central place in Paris, the [[Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume|Museum Jeu de Paume]], where [[art historian]]s and other personnel inventoried the loot before sending it to Germany. Göring also ordered the loot to be divided between Hitler and himself. Göring traveled to Paris twenty times to Paris between 1940 and 1942. At the Jeu de Paume, art dealer [[Bruno Lohse]] staged 20 expositions of the newly looted art objects especially for Göring, who selected at least 594 pieces for his collection.<ref name="Petropoulos1999">{{cite book |last=Petropoulos |first=Jonathan |title=Art as Politics in the Third Reich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjQO61bvE7gC&pg=PA190 |date=1 February 1999 |publisher=UNC Press Books |location=Chapel Hill |isbn=978-0-8078-4809-8 |oclc=754708947 |page=190}}</ref> Göring made Lohse his liaison-officer and installed him in the ERR in March 1941 as the deputy leader of this unit. Items which Hitler and Göring did not want were made available to other Nazi leaders. Under Rosenberg and Göring's leadership, the ERR seized 21,903 art objects from German-occupied countries.<ref name="Walker-2006">{{cite book |last=Walker|first= Andrew |title=Nazi War Trials |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U6XRAAAACAAJ&pg=PA141 <!--|alt-url=https://archive.org/details/naziwartrials00walk--> |series=Mazal Holocaust Collection. |url-access=limited |publisher=Pocket Essentials |location=Harpenden U.K. |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-903047-50-7 |oclc=46499078 |page=141 <!--page-url=https://archive.org/details/naziwartrials00walk/page/n139 (p.141)-->}}</ref>

Revision as of 04:22, 11 July 2021

Note: If you drop translated/copied content anywhere in this article, you must provide proper attribution in the edit summary, per Wikipedia's licensing requirements. Either of these two edit summaries satisfies the requirement:
  • Content in this edit is translated from the existing French Wikipedia article at [[:fr:Antisémitisme en France]]; see its history for attribution.
  • Content in this edit is copied from the existing Wikipedia article at [[Antisemitism in France]]; see its history for attribution.

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Antisemitism in France is the expression through words or actions of an ideology of hatred of Jews on French soil.

In the Middle Ages, France was a center of Jewish learning, but over time, persecution increased, including multiple expulsions and returns.

During the French Revolution in the late 18th century, on the other hand, France was the first country in Europe to emancipate its Jewish population. Antisemitism still occurred in cycles, reaching a high level in the 1890s, as shown during the Dreyfus affair, and in the 1940s, under German occupation and the Vichy regime.[citation needed]

During World War II, the Vichy government collaborated with Nazi occupiers to deport a large number of both French Jews and foreign Jewish refugees to concentration camps.[1] Another 110,000 French Jews were living in the colony of French Algeria.[2] By the war's end, 25% of the Jewish population of France had perished in the Holocaust, though this was a lower proportion than in most other countries under Nazi occupation.[3][4]

Since 2010 or so, more have been making aliyah in response to rising antisemitism in France.[5]

Early period

There have been Jews in France for two millenia.[6] In the year 6 C.E. there were Jews at Vienne and Gallia Celtica; in the year 39 at Lugdunum (Lyon)".[7] Information is sketchy, but there is evidence, some dating to the first century, of geographically widespread habitation in Metz, Poitiers, or Avignon. By the fifth century, there is evidence of settlements in Brittany, Orleans, Narbonne and elsewhere.[6]

From the fifth to the eighth century, the Merovingians ruled France.[6] The emperors Theodosius II and Valentinian III sent a decree to Amatius, prefect of Gaul (9 July 425), that prohibited Jews and pagans from practising law or holding public offices. This was to prevent Christians being subject to them and possibly incited to change their faith.[7] Clovis I converted to Catholicism in 496, along with the majority of the population which brought pressure on Jews to convert as well. The bishops in some localities offered Jews in their pervue a choice between baptism and expulsion.[6] In the sixth century, Jews were documented in Marseilles, Arles, Uzès, Narbonne, Clermont-Ferrand, Orléans, Paris, and Bordeaux.[7]

The conversion to Christianity of the Visigoths and Franks made the condition of the Jews difficult: a succession of ecumenical councils diminished their rights until Dagobert I forced them to convert or leave France in 633.[8] During the councils of Elvira (305), Vannes (465), the three Councils of Orleans (533, 538, 541), and the Council of Clermont (535), the Church forbade Jews to have meals together with Christians, to have mixed marriages and proscribed the celebration of the shabbat, the aim being to limit the influence of Judaism on the population.[citation needed]

Middle Ages

Further information: Medieval antisemitism

Persecutions under the Capets

Further information: History of the Jews in France § Persecutions under the Capets

Expulsions

Further information: History of the Jews in France § Expulsions and Returns

Crusades

Further information: History of the Jews in France § The Crusades

Black Death

Main article: Persecution of Jews during the Black Death
Further information: Medieval antisemitism § The Black Death

Early Modern Period

Renaissance (14th – 17th century)

Enlightenment (18th century)

Revolution and Napoleonic era (1789–1815)

Nineteenth century

Further information (in French): Antisemitism in the Third Republic [fr]

Panama Canal Scandal

Main article: Panama Canal Scandal
1891 Panama Canal Company Liquidation Court Trial in Paris

The Panama Canal Scandal was a corruption affair that broke out in the French Third Republic in 1892, linked to a French company's failed attempt at building a canal through Panama. Close to half a billion francs were lost. Members of the French government took bribes to keep quiet about the Panama Canal Company's financial troubles in what is regarded as the largest monetary corruption scandal of the 19th century.[9]

Hannah Arendt argues that the affair had an immense importance in the development of French antisemitism, due to the involvement of two Jews of German origin, Baron Jacques de Reinach and Cornelius Herz. Although they were not among the bribed Parliament members or on the company's board, according to Arendt they were in charge of distributing the bribe money, Reinach among the right wing of the bourgeois parties, Herz among the anti-clerical radicals. Reinach was a secret financial advisor to the government and handled its relations with the Panama Company. Herz was Reinach's contact in the radical wing, but Herz's double-dealing blackmail ultimately drove Reinach to suicide.

However, before his death Reinach gave a list of the suborned members of Parliament to La Libre Parole, Edouard Drumont's antisemitic daily, in exchange for the paper's covering up Reinach's own role. Overnight, the story transformed La Libre Parole from an obscure sheet into one of the most influential papers in the country. The list of culprits was published morning by morning in small installments, so that hundreds of politicians had to live on tenterhooks for months. In Arendt's view, the scandal showed that the middlemen between the business sector and the state were almost exclusively Jews, thus helping to pave the way for the Dreyfus Affair.[10]

Dreyfus Affair

Antisemitic riots in a print from Le Petit Parisien
Main article: Dreyfus Affair
Further information: History of the Jews in France § Dreyfus affair

The Dreyfus affair was a political scandal that divided the Third French Republic from 1894 until its resolution in 1906. "L'Affaire", as it is known in French, has come to symbolise modern injustice in the Francophone world,[11] and it remains one of the most notable examples of a complex miscarriage of justice and antisemitism. The role played by the press and public opinion proved influential in the conflict.

The scandal began in December 1894 when Captain Alfred Dreyfus of Alsatian Jewish descent was convicted of treason. He was sentenced to life imprisonment for allegedly communicating French military secrets to the Germans, and was imprisoned in Devil's Island in French Guiana, where he spent nearly five years.

Antisemitism was a prominent factor throughout the affair. Existing prior to the Dreyfus affair, it had expressed itself during the boulangisme affair and the Panama Canal scandal but was limited to an intellectual elite. The Dreyfus Affair spread hatred of Jews through all strata of society, a movement that certainly began with the success of Jewish France by Édouard Drumont in 1886.[12] It was then greatly amplified by various legal episodes and press campaigns for nearly fifteen years. Antisemitism was thenceforth official and was evident in numerous settings including the working classes.[13] Candidates for the legislative elections took advantage of antisemitism as a watchword in parliamentary elections. This antisemitism was reinforced by the crisis of the separation of church and state in 1905, which probably led to its height in France. Antisemitic actions were permitted on the advent of the Vichy regime, which allowed free and unrestrained expression of racial hatred.[citation needed]

Vichy and World War II

Main articles: Vichy France and Vichy anti-Jewish legislation
Further information: Collaboration with Nazi Germany

During World War II, the Vichy government collaborated with Nazi Germany to arrest and deport a large number of both French Jews and foreign Jewish refugees to concentration camps.[1] By the war's end, 25% of the Jewish population of France had perished in the Holocaust.[3][4]

Propaganda

Banner above the entrance to a Paris exhibition called "The Jew and France"
Main article: Le Juif et la France

Le Juif et la France (The Jews and France) was an antisemitic propaganda exhibition that took place in Paris from 5 September 1941 to 15 January 1942[14] during the German occupation of France. A film version of the exhibition came out in French cinemas in October 1941.[15]

It was organized and financed by the propaganda arm of the German military administration in France via the Institut d'étude des questions juives (IEQJ) (Institute for the Study of Jewish Questions) under regulation by the Gestapo and attracted around half a million visitors.[14][15] This exhibition was based on the work of Professor George Montandon at the School of Anthropology in Paris, author of the book Comment reconnaître le Juif? (How to recognize a Jew?) published in November 1940. It had pretensions of being "scientific". It was opened by Carltheo Zeitschel and Theodor Dannecker on 5 September 1941[16][page needed][17] at the Palais Berlitz.[18]

Anti-Jewish legislation

Headline of Le Matin on 19 Oct 1940 announcing the passage of the Jewish laws.
Main article: Vichy anti-Jewish legislation
Further information: Law on the status of Jews and Révolution nationale

Anti-Jewish laws were enacted by the Vichy government in 1940 and 1941 affecting metropolitan France and its overseas territories during World War II. These laws were, in fact, decrees by head of state Marshal Philippe Pétain, since Parliament was no longer in office as of 11 July 1940. The motivation for the legislation was spontaneous and was not mandated by Germany.[19][20]

In July 1940, Vichy set up a special commission charged with reviewing naturalizations granted since the 1927 reform of the nationality law.[21] Between June 1940 and August 1944, 15,000 persons, mostly Jews, were denaturalized.[22] This bureaucratic decision was instrumental in their subsequent internment in the green ticket roundup.[citation needed]

Pétain personally made the 3 October 1940 law even more aggressively antisemitic than it initially was, as can be seen by annotations made on the draft in his own hand.[23] The law "embraced the definition of a Jew established in the Nuremberg Laws",[24] deprived the Jews of their civil rights, and fired them from many jobs. The law also forbade Jews from working in certain professions (teachers, journalists, lawyers, etc.) while the law of 4 October 1940 provided authority for the incarceration of foreign Jews in internment camps in southern France such as Gurs.

The statutes were aimed at depriving Jews of the right to hold public office, designating them as a lower class, and depriving them of citizenship.[25][26][27] Many Jews were subsequently rounded up at Drancy internment camp before being deported for extermination in Nazi concentration camps.

After the liberation of Paris when the Provisional government was in control under Charles de Gaulle, these laws were declared null and void on 9 August 1944.[28]

Between 1940 and 1944 Jews in occupied France, the zone libre, and in Vichy-controlled French North Africa as well as Romani people were persecuted, rounded up in raids, and deported to Nazi death camps. The persecution began in 1940, and culminated in deportations of Jews from France to Nazi concentration camps in Nazi Germany and Nazi-occupied Poland. The deportations started in 1942 and lasted until July 1944. Of the 340,000 Jews living in metropolitan/continental France in 1940, more than 75,000 were deported to death camps, where about 72,500 were killed. The government of Vichy France and the French police organized and implemented the roundups of Jews.[29]

The Holocaust in France

Two Jewish women in occupied Paris wearing yellow badges before the mass arrests
Main article: The Holocaust in France
See also: Vichy Holocaust collaboration timeline and Timeline of deportations of French Jews to death camps
Further information (in French): Deportation convoys [fr]

Between 1940 and 1944 Jews in occupied France, the zone libre, and in Vichy-controlled French North Africa as well as Romani people were persecuted, rounded up in raids, and deported to Nazi death camps. The persecution began in 1940, and culminated in deportations of Jews from France to Nazi concentration camps in Nazi Germany and Nazi-occupied Poland. The deportations started in 1942 and lasted until July 1944. Of the 340,000 Jews living in metropolitan/continental France in 1940, more than 75,000 were deported to death camps, where about 72,500 were killed. The government of Vichy France and the French police organized and implemented the roundups of Jews.[29]

July 1942 Vel' d'Hiv Roundup

Main article: Vel' d'Hiv Roundup

In July 1942 the French police organized the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup (Rafle du Vel' d'Hiv) under orders of René Bousquet and his second in Paris, Jean Leguay, with co-operation from authorities of the SNCF, the state railway company. The police arrested 13,152 Jews, including 4,051 children—which the Gestapo had not asked for—and 5,082 women, on 16 and 17 July and imprisoned them in the Vélodrome d'Hiver. They were led to Drancy internment camp and subsequently crammed into box cars and shipped by rail to Auschwitz extermination camp. Most of the victims died en route due to lack of food or water. Survivors were sent to the gas chambers. This action alone represented more than a quarter of the 42,000 French Jews sent to concentration camps in 1942, of whom only 811 would survive the war. Although the Nazis had directed the action, French police authorities vigorously participated without resisting.[30]

1941 Paris synagogue attacks

Main article: 1941 Paris synagogue attacks

Organized plunder

Further information: Art theft and looting during World War II

Nazi Germany plundered cultural property in Germany and from all the territories they occcupied, targeting Jewish property in particular. Several organizations were created expressly for the purpose of looting books, paintings, and other cultural artefacts.[31]

Rosenberg Taskforce

Main article: Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce

In 1940, an organization known as the Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce was formed, headed by Template:Ill de. The first operating unit, called the Dienststelle Westen (Western Agency), was located in Paris. Its original purpose was to collect Jewish and Freemasonic books and documents, either for destruction or for removal to Germany for further "study". However, in late 1940 Hermann Göring issued an order the ERR to seize "Jewish" art collections and other objects. The war loot had to be collected in a central place in Paris, the Museum Jeu de Paume, where art historians and other personnel inventoried the loot before sending it to Germany. Göring also ordered the loot to be divided between Hitler and himself. Göring traveled to Paris twenty times to Paris between 1940 and 1942. At the Jeu de Paume, art dealer Bruno Lohse staged 20 expositions of the newly looted art objects especially for Göring, who selected at least 594 pieces for his collection.[32] Göring made Lohse his liaison-officer and installed him in the ERR in March 1941 as the deputy leader of this unit. Items which Hitler and Göring did not want were made available to other Nazi leaders. Under Rosenberg and Göring's leadership, the ERR seized 21,903 art objects from German-occupied countries.[33]

Post-World War II

1980 Paris synagogue bombing

The Copernic Street synagogue in Paris
Main article: 1980 Paris synagogue bombing

On 3 October 1980, the rue Copernic synagogue in Paris, France was bombed in a terrorist attack. The attack killed four and wounded 46 people. The bombing took place in the evening near the beginning of Shabbat, during the Jewish holiday of Sim'hat Torah. It was the first deadly attack against Jewish people in France since the end of the Second World War.[34] The Federation of National and European Action (FANE) claimed responsibility,[35] but the police investigation later concluded that Palestinian nationalists were likely responsible.[36][37]

1982 Paris restaurant bombing

Main article: Goldenberg restaurant bombing

On 9 August 1982 the Abu Nidal Organization carried out a bombing and shooting attack on a Jewish restaurant in Paris's Marais district. Two assailants threw a grenade into the dining room, then rushed in and fired machine guns.[38] They killed six people, including two Americans[39] and injured 22 others. Business Week later said it was "the heaviest toll suffered by Jews in France since World War II."[40][41] The restaurant closed in 2006 and former owner Jo Goldenberg died in 2014.[42]

Although the Abu Nidal Organization had long been suspected,[43][44] suspects from the group were only definitively identified 32 years after the attacks, in evidence given by two former Abu Nidal members granted anonymity by French judges.[45]

In December 2020 one of the suspects, Walid Abdulrahman Abou Zayed, was handed over to French police (at a Norwegian airport) and flown to France.[46][47][48] Later in December, he was being held at La Sante Prison in Paris.[49] As of March 2021, he is still in prison.[50]

Carpentras cemetery 1990

Further information (in French): Desecration of the Jewish cemetery of Carpentras [fr]

On 10 May 1990, a Jewish cemetery at Carpentras was desecrated. This led to a public uproar, and a protest demonstration in Paris attended by 200,000 persons, including French President François Mitterrand. After several years of investigation, five people, among them three former members of the extremist far-right French and European Nationalist Party confessed on 2 August 1996.[51][52] On 5 June 1990, the PNFE magazine Tribune nationaliste was banned by the French authorities.[53]

Since 2000

Main article: Antisemitism in 21st-century France

France has the largest population of Jews in the diaspora after the United States—an estimated 500,000–600,000 persons. Paris has the highest population, followed by Marseilles, which has 70,000 Jews, most of North African origin. Expressions of anti-semitism were seen to rise during the Six-Day War of 1967 and the French anti-Zionist campaign of the 1970s and 1980s.[54][55] Following the electoral successes achieved by the extreme right-wing National Front and an increasing denial of the Holocaust among some persons in the 1990s, surveys showed an increase in stereotypical antisemitic beliefs among the general French population.[56][57][58]

Speech and writing

Dieudonné

Dieudonné in 2009.
Main article: Dieudonné M'bala M'bala

Public personalities have caused controversy by their positions which they call "anti-Zionist". This is the case of comedian Dieudonné,[59][60] who was convicted of incitement to racial hatred,[61] and who, during the European elections of 2009, led an "Anti-Zionist slate"[62] along with essayist Alain Soral, president of Égalité et Réconciliation, and Yahia Gouasmi, creator of the Anti-Zionist Party.[63][64][65]

Attacks

Passover 2002 attacks

A series of attacks on Jewish targets in France took place in a single week in 2002, coinciding with the Jewish holiday of Passover, including at least five synagogues.[66][67] The targeted synagogues include the Or Aviv synagogue in Marseille, which burned to the ground; a synagogue in Strasbourg, where a fire was set that burned the doors and facade of the building before being doused;[68] and the firebombing of a synagogue in the Paris suburb of Le Kremlin-Bicêtre.[67]

Lyon synagogue
Main article: Lyon synagogue attack

On 30 March 2002, a group of masked men rammed two cars through the courtyard gates of a synagogue in the Template:Ill fr neighborhood of Lyon, France, then rammed one of the cars into the prayer hall before setting the vehicles on fire and causing severe damage to the synagogue.

The attack took place at 1:00 am on a Saturday morning; the building was empty at the time. The attackers wore masks or hoods covering their faces, eyewitnesses reported seeing twelve or fifteen attackers.[69][70][66][71]

2006 murder of Ilan Halimi

Main article: Kidnapping and murder of Ilan Halimi

Ilan Halimi was a young Frenchman of Moroccan Jewish ancestry living in Paris with his mother and his two sisters.[72] On 21 January 2006, Halimi was kidnapped by a group calling itself the Gang of Barbarians. The kidnappers, believing that all Jews are rich, repeatedly contacted the victim's family of modest means demanding very large sums of money. [73]

After three weeks and no success in finding the captors, the family and the police stopped receiving messages from the captors. Halimi, severely tortured, burned over more than 80% of his body, was dumped unclothed and barely alive by the side of a road in Sainte-Geneviève-Des-Bois on 13 February 2006. He was found by a passerby who immediately called for an ambulance, but Halimi died from his injuries on the way to the hospital.[citation needed]

The French police were heavily criticized because they initially believed that antisemitism was not a factor in the crime.[74] The case drew national and international attention as an example of antisemitism in France.[73]

2012 Jewish day-school shooting

Main article: 2012 Ozar Hatorah Toulouse shooting

The Ozar Hatorah school in Toulouse is part of a national chain of at least twenty Jewish schools throughout France. It educates children of primarily Sephardic, Middle Eastern and North African descent, who with their parents have made up the majority of Jewish immigrants to France since the late 20th century. The school is a middle and secondary school, with most children between the ages of 11 to 17.

At about 8:00 am on 19 March 2012, a man rode up to the Ozar Hatorah school on a motorcycle. Dismounting, he immediately opened fire toward the schoolyard. The first victim was 30-year-old Jonathan Sandler, a rabbi and teacher at the school who was shot outside the school gates as he tried to shield his two young sons from the gunman. The gunman shot both the boys—5-year-old Arié and 3-year-old Gabriel[75]—before walking into the schoolyard, chasing people into the building.

Inside, he shot at staff, parents, and students. He chased 8-year-old Myriam Monsonego,[76] the daughter of the head teacher, into the courtyard, caught her by her hair and raised a gun to shoot her. The gun jammed at this point. He changed weapons from what the police identified as a 9mm pistol to a .45 calibre gun, and shot the girl in her temple at point-blank range.[40][77][78][79] Bryan Bijaoui, a 17-year-old[80] boy, was also shot and gravely injured.[81] The gunman retrieved his scooter and rode away.

The government was already providing continuous protection to many Jewish institutions, but it increased security and raised the terrorist warnings to the highest level. Traffic on streets in France with Jewish institutions were closed for additional security.[40] The election campaign was suspended and President Nicolas Sarkozy, as well as other candidates in the presidential elections, immediately traveled to Toulouse and the school.[82]

Supermarket siege

Main article: Hypercacher kosher supermarket siege

On 9 January 2015, Amedy Coulibaly, who had pledged allegiance to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant,[83] attacked the people in a Hypercacher kosher food supermarket at Porte de Vincennes in east Paris. He killed four people, all of whom were Jewish,[84][85][86] and took several hostages.[87][88] Some media outlets claimed he had a female accomplice, speculated initially to be his common-law wife, Hayat Boumeddiene.[89]

2017 Killing of Sarah Halimi

Main article: Killing of Sarah Halimi

Sarah Halimi (no relation to Ilhan Halimi) was a retired doctor and schoolteacher who was attacked and killed in her apartment on 4 April 2017. The circumstances surrounding the killing—including the fact that Halimi was the only Jewish] resident in her building, and that the assailant shouted Allahu akbar during the attack and afterward proclaimed "I killed the Shaitan"—cemented the public perception of the incident, particularly among the French Jewish community, as a stark example of antisemitism in modern France.

For several months the government and some of the media hesitated to label the killing as antisemitic, drawing criticism from public figures such as Bernard-Henri Lévy. The government eventually acknowledged an antisemitic motivation for the killing. The assailant was declared to be not criminally responsible when the judges ruled he was undergoing a psychotic episode due to cannabis consumption, as established by an independent psychiatric analysis.[90] The decision was appealed to the supreme Court of Cassation,[91] who in 2021 upheld the lower court's ruling.[92]

The killing has been compared to the murder of Mireille Knoll in the same arrondissement less than a year later, and to the murder of Ilan Halimi (no relation) eleven years earlier.[93]

Murder of Mireille Knoll

Main article: Murder of Mireille Knoll

Mireille Knoll was an 85-year-old French Jewish woman holocaust survivor who was murdered in her Paris apartment on 23 March 2018. The murder has been officially described by French authorities as an antisemitic hate crime.

Of the two alleged assailants, one was a 29-year-old neighbor of Knoll, who suffered from Parkinson's disease,[94] and had known her since he was a child, and the other, an unemployed 21-year-old. The two suspects entered the apartment and reportedly stabbed Knoll eleven times before setting her on fire.[95][96][97]

The Paris prosecutor’s office characterized the 23 March murder as a hate crime, a murder committed because of the “membership, real or supposed, of the victim of a particular religion.” The New York Times noted, "The speed with which the authorities recognized the hate-crime nature of Ms. Knoll’s murder is being seen as a reaction to the anger of France’s Jews at the official response to that earlier crime, which prosecutors took months to characterize as anti-Semitic."[98][99][100]

Note: move these into the article as it expands to make room for them.

  • Caricature by C.Léandre (France, 1898) showing Rothschild with the world in his hands
    Caricature by C.Léandre (France, 1898) showing Rothschild with the world in his hands
  • Poster for an official anti-semitic exposition, "The Jew and France", (Bundesarchiv, 1941)
    Poster for an official anti-semitic exposition, "The Jew and France", (Bundesarchiv, 1941)
  • A German sign outside a Paris restaurant announces that Jews are not admitted (Bundesarchiv, 1 September 1940)
    A German sign outside a Paris restaurant announces that Jews are not admitted (Bundesarchiv, 1 September 1940)
  • Jewish women were required to wear a yellow Star of David (Bundesarchiv, 1 June 1942)
    Jewish women were required to wear a yellow Star of David (Bundesarchiv, 1 June 1942)
  • The Synagogue of Montmartre and several others were attacked and vandalized in 1941.(Bundesarchiv)
    The Synagogue of Montmartre and several others were attacked and vandalized in 1941.(Bundesarchiv)
  • A Jewish-owned shop in the Marais, wrecked in May 1941 (Bundesarchiv)
    A Jewish-owned shop in the Marais, wrecked in May 1941 (Bundesarchiv)

See also

References

  1. ^ a b "France". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
  2. ^ Blumenkranz, Bernhard (1972). Histoire des Juifs en France. Toulouse: Privat. p. 376.
  3. ^ a b "Le Bilan de la Shoah en France [Le régime de Vichy]". bseditions.fr.
  4. ^ a b Yad Vashem [1]
  5. ^ "Jews are leaving France in record numbers amid rising antisemitism and fears of more Isis-inspired terror attacks". The Independent. 25 January 2016.
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  18. ^ Centre de documentation juive contemporaine (1974). Inventaires des archives. Vol. 3. Paris: Editions du Centre. p. 155. OCLC 3531615. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
  19. ^ Fresco 2021, p. 20-21.
  20. ^ Rayski 2005, p. 12.
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  22. ^ François Masure, "État et identité nationale. Un rapport ambigu à propos des naturalisés" [The State, and national Identity. An ambiguous relationship about naturalized citizens], in Journal des anthropologues, hors-série 2007, pp. 39–49 (see p. 48) (in French)
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  24. ^ Yahil 1990, p. 173.
  25. ^ Epstein 1942, p. xxxv.
  26. ^ Klarsfeld 1983, p. xiii.
  27. ^ Joly 2008, p. 25-40.
  28. ^ "Ordonnance du 9 août 1944 relative au rétablissement de la légalité républicaine sur le territoire continental – Version consolidée au 10 août 1944" [Law of 9 August 1944 Concerning the reestablishment of the legally constituted Republic on the mainland – consolidated version of 10 August 1944]. gouv.fr. Legifrance. 9 August 1944. Archived from the original on 16 July 2009. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
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  51. ^ "Les attentats contre les foyers Sonacotra devant la cour d'assises des Alpes-Maritimes - Les commanditaires occultes de Gilbert Hervochon" [The attacks against the Sonacotra homes before the Alpes-Maritimes Assize Court - The hidden sponsors of Gilbert Hervochon]. Le Monde (in French). 30 October 1991. Retrieved 16 June 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
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Notes
Footnotes

Works cited

  • Epstein, Mortimer (1942). "The Statesman's Year-Book : Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1942". The Statesman's Year-Book. The Statesman's Year-Book. 79. Palgrave Macmillan. OCLC 1086492287. Legal position of Jews in Vichy France.—Almost immediately after the armistice, the Vichy government proclaimed its intention to deprive of their civil rights French people who are of Jewish faith or origin, and to place the Jews in the position of legal inferiority in which they find themselves in all other German-dominated countries. On October 3, 1940 (Journel Officiel of October 18), a law was published fixing the conditions under which a person is considered as being of Jewish origin. Access to all public offices, professions, journalism, executive positions in the film industry, etc. was prohibited to all such persons.
  • Fresco, Nadine (4 March 2021) [1st pub. La mort des juifs. Paris : Seuil, 2008]. On the Death of Jews: Photographs and History. Translated by Clift, Sarah. New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-78920-882-5. OCLC 1226797554. On the preceding page, the law from the day before (3 October 1940), signed by Marshall Philip Pétain and nine of his ministers, is the 'law on the status of the Jews.' We know that those in charge of Vichy, 'complicit even before having understood the inevitable extent of their own compromise', did not wait for it to be imposed by the occupying power before enacting it.73 We also know that whereas the German ordinance of the preceding month defined Jews by 'religion', the French statute of 3 October defined them by race.74
  • Joly, Laurent (2008). "L'administration française et le statut du 2 juin 1941" [French administration and the law of 2 June 1941]. Archives Juives. Revue d'histoire des juifs de France. 41 (1). Paris: fr:Les Belles Lettres: 25–40. doi:10.3917/aj.411.0025. ISSN 1965-0531. OCLC 793455446. Archived from the original on 21 March 2015. This ... was reflected in the drafting of the law of 2 June. In close collaboration and in perfect symbiosis with Admiral Darlan's services and the ministries concerned, the General Commission for Jewish Questions tightened the definition of a Jew (in order to escape the increased strictures of the law, "demi-Jews" had to have belonged to some religion other than Judaism before 25 June 1940) and extended the scope of prohibited occupations. Ce ... se ressent dans la rédaction de la loi du 2 juin. En étroite collaboration et en parfaite symbiose avec les services de l'amiral Darlan et les ministères concernés, le commissariat général aux Questions juives aggrave la définition du Juif (les « demi-juifs » doivent obligatoirement avoir adhéré à une religion autre que la religion juive avant le 25 juin 1940 pour échapper aux rigueurs de la loi) et étend le champ des interdictions professionnelles.

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