Women in Islam: Difference between revisions

Content deleted Content added

Inline

Revision as of 19:18, 14 April 2009

Template:Muslims and controversies The status of women in Islam is that they are equal to men before God. ^[1] According to the Qur’an, men and women are two units of a pair. The Quran says: "O mankind! surely We have created you of a male and a female, and made you tribes and families that you may know each other; surely the most honorable of you with Allah is the one among you most careful (of his duty); surely Allah is Knowing, Aware." (Quran 49:13). ^[2], ^[3]. Meaning that they complement each other in numerous ways both in mental, physical and emotional qualities. Islam looks at the different responsibilities of each gender. These responsibilities are defined as being the traditional family structure, were women are responsible the household and men are responsible for earning the livelihood for the family. However women in Islam are seen as independent and self reliant individuals, therefore challenging the traditional view of a family structure.^[4]

Women in the Islamic World have achived high political status and have produced more than seven head of states including Benazir Bhutto of Pakistan, Mame Madior Boye of Senegal, Tansu Çiller of Turkey, Kaqusha Jashari of Kosovo, Megawati Sukarnoputri of Indonesia and Bangladesh was the first country in the world to have a female head-of-state follow one another four times between Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina — each winning two elections each. ^[5]. Other than this women in Islamic countries have also become the vice president as seen with Masoumeh Ebtekar in Iran.

The complex relationship between women and Islam is defined by both Islamic texts and the history and culture of the Muslim world.^[6] Sharia (Islamic law) provides for differences between women's and men's roles, rights, and obligations. Muslim-majority countries give women varying degrees of rights with regards to marriage, divorce, civil rights, legal status, dress code, and education based on different interpretations.

Even where these differences are acknowledged, scholars and other commentators vary as to whether they are just and whether they are a correct interpretation of religious imperatives. Conservatives argue that differences between men and women are due to different status and responsibilities,^[7] while liberal Muslims, Muslim feminists, and others argue in favor of more original, traditional interpretations.

Sources of influence

Islamic law is the product of Quranic guidelines, as understood by Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), as well as of the interpretations derived from the traditions of Muhammad (hadith), which were also selected by a number of historical Islamic scholars.^[6] These interpretations and their application were shaped by the historical context of the Muslim world.^[6] Furthermore, whether or not Muslims tended to follow these rules was dependent on the prevailing culture, which differed between social classes, local conditions, and regions.^{[citation needed]} Quranic reforms, which in many regions improved the position of women relative to their situation prior to Islam, have often been undermined by the reassertion of tribal customs, or the use of such customs under the name of Islamic law. The spirit of the Quranic reforms may also have been modified by historical or cultural interpretations, trying to reaffirm male dominance and perpetuating gender inequality.^{[citation needed]}

Early historical background

Costumes of Arab women, fourth^{[citation needed]} to sixth^{[citation needed]} century.

To evaluate the effect of Islam on the status of women, many writers have discussed the status of women in pre-Islamic Arabia, and their findings have been mixed.^[8] Some writers have argued that women before Islam were more liberated drawing most often on the first marriage of Muhammad and that of Muhammad's parents, but also on other points such as worship of female goddesses at Mecca.^[8] Other writers, on the contrary, have argued that women's status in pre-Islamic Arabia was poor, citing practices of female infanticide, unlimited polygyny, patrilineal marriage and others.^[8] Valentine M. Moghadam analyzes the situation of women from a marxist theoretical framework and argues that the position of women are mostly influenced by the extent of urbanization, industrialization, proletarization and political ploys of the state managers rather than culture or intrinsic properties of Islam; Islam, Moghadam argues, is neither more nor less patriarchal than other world religions especially Hinduism, Christianity and Judaism. ^[9]^[10]

Islam changed the structure of Arab society and to a large degree unified the people, reforming and standardizing gender roles throughout the region. According to Islamic studies professor William Montgomery Watt, Islam improved the status of women by "instituting rights of property ownership, inheritance, education and divorce."^[11]

Some have argued that in terms of women's rights, women generally had fewer legal restrictions under Islamic law than they did under certain Western legal systems until the 20th century. For example, restrictions on the legal capacity of married women under French law were not removed until 1965.^[12] However this argument is opposed by those^[who?] who state that the consensus of Islamic Jurists has consistently held that in many cases a woman's evidence has half the value of that of a man, and that in some cases it is not admissible. ^{[citation needed]} To clarify, in matters of business, two men's testimony is required, and where there is only one man, two women and one man are required (however, women were less likely to know about business matters in those days, because men had all the financial responsibility, whereas women did not. In this century, it is less likely a woman would not know about financial matters) . In matters of family, marriage, divorce and such, however, one woman's evidence is enough to prove a case.

Noah Feldman, a law professor at Harvard University, notes:

As for sexism, the common law long denied married women any property rights or indeed legal personality apart from their husbands. When the British applied their law to Muslims in place of Shariah, as they did in some colonies, the result was to strip married women of the property that Islamic law had always granted them — hardly progress toward equality of the sexes.^[13]

Early reforms under Islam

During the early reforms under Islam in the 7th century, reforms in women's rights affected marriage, divorce and inheritance.^[14] Women were not accorded with such legal status in other cultures, including the West, until centuries later.^[15] The Oxford Dictionary of Islam states that the general improvement of the status of Arab women included prohibition of female infanticide and recognizing women's full personhood.^[16] "The dowry, previously regarded as a bride-price paid to the father, became a nuptial gift retained by the wife as part of her personal property."^[14]^[17] Under Islamic law, marriage was no longer viewed as a "status" but rather as a "contract", in which the woman's consent was imperative.^[14]^[16]^[17] "Women were given inheritance rights in a patriarchal society that had previously restricted inheritance to male relatives."^[14] Annemarie Schimmel states that "compared to the pre-Islamic position of women, Islamic legislation meant an enormous progress; the woman has the right, at least according to the letter of the law, to administer the wealth she has brought into the family or has earned by her own work."^[18] William Montgomery Watt states that Muhammad, in the historical context of his time, can be seen as a figure who testified on behalf of women’s rights and improved things considerably. Watt explains: "At the time Islam began, the conditions of women were terrible - they had no right to own property, were supposed to be the property of the man, and if the man died everything went to his sons." Muhammad, however, by "instituting rights of property ownership, inheritance, education and divorce, gave women certain basic safeguards."^[19] Haddad and Esposito state that "Muhammad granted women rights and privileges in the sphere of family life, marriage, education, and economic endeavors, rights that help improve women's status in society."^[20]

Female education

Women played an important role in the foundations of many Islamic educational institutions, such as Fatima al-Fihri's founding of the University of Al Karaouine in 859. This continued through to the Ayyubid dynasty in the 12th and 13th centuries, when 160 mosques and madrasahs were established in Damascus, 26 of which were funded by women through the Waqf (charitable trust or trust law) system. Half of all the royal patrons for these institutions were also women.^[21]

According to the Sunni scholar Ibn Asakir in the 12th century, there were opportunities for female education in the medieval Islamic world, writing that women could study, earn ijazahs (academic degrees), and qualify as scholars and teachers. This was especially the case for learned and scholarly families, who wanted to ensure the highest possible education for both their sons and daughters.^[22] Ibn Asakir had himself studied under 80 different female teachers in his time. Female education in the Islamic world was inspired by Muhammad's wives: Khadijah, a successful businesswoman, and Aisha, a renowned hadith scholar and military leader. According to a hadith attributed to Muhammad, he praised the women of Medina because of their desire for religious knowledge:^[23]

"How splendid were the women of the ansar; shame did not prevent them from becoming learned in the faith."

While it was not common for women to enroll as students in formal classes, it was common for women to attend informal lectures and study sessions at mosques, madrasahs and other public places. While there were no legal restrictions on female education, some men did not approve of this practice, such as Muhammad ibn al-Hajj (d. 1336) who was appalled at the behaviour of some women who informally audited lectures in his time:^[24]

"[Consider] what some women do when people gather with a shaykh to hear [the recitation of] books. At that point women come, too, to hear the readings; the men sit in one place, the women facing them. It even happens at such times that some of the women are carried away by the situation; one will stand up, and sit down, and shout in a loud voice. [Moreover,] her 'awra will appear; in her house, their exposure would be forbidden — how can it be allowed in a mosque, in the presence of men?"

While women accounted for no more than one percent of Islamic scholars prior to the 12th century, there was a large increase of female scholars after this. In the 15th century, Al-Sakhawi devotes an entire volume of his 12-volume biographical dictionary Daw al-lami to female scholars, giving information on 1,075 of them.^[25]

Female employment

The labor force in the Caliphate were employed from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds, while both men and women were involved in diverse occupations and economic activities.^[26] Women were employed in a wide range of commercial activities and diverse occupations^[27] in the primary sector (as farmers for example), secondary sector (as construction workers, dyers, spinners, etc.) and tertiary sector (as investors, doctors, nurses, presidents of guilds, brokers, peddlers, lenders, scholars, etc.).^[28] Muslim women also held a monopoly over certain branches of the textile industry,^[27] the largest and most specialized and market-oriented industry at the time, in occupations such as spinning, dying, and embroidery. In comparison, female property rights and wage labour were relatively uncommon in Europe until the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries.^[29]

In the 12th century, the famous Islamic philosopher and qadi (judge) Ibn Rushd, known to the West as Averroes, claimed that women were equal to men in all respects and possessed equal capacities to shine in peace and in war, citing examples of female warriors among the Arabs, Greeks and Africans to support his case.^[30] In early Muslim history, examples of notable female Muslims who fought during the Muslim conquests and Fitna (civil wars) as soldiers or generals included Nusaybah Bint k’ab Al Maziniyyah,^[31] Aisha,^[32] Kahula and Wafeira,^[33] and Um Umarah.

A unique feature of medieval Muslim hospitals was the role of female staff, who were rarely employed in ancient and medieval healing temples elsewhere in the world. Medieval Muslim hospitals commonly employed female nurses, including nurses from as far as Sudan, a sign of great breakthrough. Muslim hospitals were also the first to employ female physicians, the most famous being two female physicians from the Banu Zuhr family who served the Almohad ruler Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur in the 12th century.^[34] This was necessary due to the segregation between male and female patients in Islamic hospitals. Later in the 15th century, female surgeons were illustrated for the first time in Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu's Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye (Imperial Surgery).^[35]

Marriage and divorce

In contrast to the Western world where divorce is relatively common in modern times, divorce was an uncommon occurrence in the pre-modern Muslim world and although it is much more common today, it is still considered a rare event, especially when compared to the Western World. In 15th century Egypt, Al-Sakhawi recorded the marital history of 500 women, the largest sample on married women in the Middle Ages, and found that at least a third of all women in the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and Syria married more than once, with many marrying three or more times. According to Al-Sakhawi, as many as three out of ten marriages in 15th century Cairo ended in divorce.^[36] In the early 20th century, some villages in western Java and the Malay peninsula had divorce rates as high as 70%.Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page).^[37]

In the family unit, Islam honours mothers very highly.

Narrated Abu Huraira: A man came to Allah's Messenger and said, "O Allah's Messenger! Who is more entitled to be treated with the best companionship by me?" The Prophet said, "Your mother." The man said. "Who is next?" The Prophet said, "Your mother." The man further said, "Who is next?" The Prophet said, "Your mother." The man asked for the fourth time, "Who is next?"The Prophet said, "Your father." [Sahih Bukhari 8.73.2] [3]

As men are blessed with more strength, they're commanded to support and take care of women; where as women safeguards.

"Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has given the one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their means. Therefore the righteous women are devoutly obedient, and guard in (the husband's) absence what Allah would have them guard..." ^{[Quran 4:34]}

Still even though men are given more strength, kindness to women are commanded. It is forbidden to take women against their will.

"O you who believe! It is not lawful for you that you should take women as heritage against (their) will, and do not straiten them in order that you may take part of what you have given them, unless they are guilty of manifest indecency; And treat them kindly; then if you hate them, it may be that you dislike a thing while Allah has placed abundant good in it."^{[Quran 4:19]}

"...O People, it is true that you have certain rights with regard to your women, but they also have rights over you. Remember that you have taken them as your wives only under Allah's trust and with His permission. If they abide by your right then to them belongs the right to be fed and clothed in kindness. Do treat your women well and be kind to them for they are your partners and committed helpers. And it is your right that they do not make friends with any one of whom you do not approve, as well as never to be unchaste..." [Prophet's Last Sermon] [4]

In many Islamic societies, there is a division of roles creating a woman’s space in the private sphere of the home and a man’s in the public sphere.^[38]

Sex segregation

Islam discourages social interaction between unmarried or unrelated men and women when they are alone, but not all interaction between men and women. This is shown in the example of Khadijah, a rich, twice widowed businesswoman who employed Muhammad and met with him to conduct trade before they were married, and in the example set by his other wives, who taught and counseled the men and women of Medina.

In strict Islamic countries, such as Saudi Arabia, sex segregation has been or is strictly enforced. The Taliban treatment of women in Afghanistan is an extreme example of this. Even in countries where the sexes mingle socially, they generally remain segregated within the mosque (see Women in religious life below).

Financial matters

Islam gives women the right to own, which entitles them to have personal possessions. While women have no financial obligations like men, some of their financial rights are less. Women's share of inheritance, as outlined in the Qur'an, is typically less than that of men (because women do not have financial obligations,they do not have to pay dowry or pay for child or elderly parents maintenance) , but in some cases, women get more, depending on their placement in the family, and the existence of other heirs. Women's right to work is also disputed. Though you could interpret, that Khadija and Aisha, the prophets wives, were successful business women in their own right(khadija) and great sources of the hadith and experienced physicians (Aisha) and Allah was both pleased with them.

According to Bernard Lewis, while Islam sanctions a social inequality between man and woman, Muslim women have historically had property rights unparalleled in the modern West until comparatively recently.^[39]

In general, as Valentine M. Moghadam argues, "much of the economic modernization [of women] was based on income from oil, and some came from foreign investment and capital inflows. Economic development alters the status of women in different ways across nations and classes"^[40]. This is a proof that since always the status of women was influenced by the economy of the region and its development.

Financial obligations

A woman, when compared with her husband, is far less burdened with any claims on her possessions. Her possessions before marriage do not transfer to her husband and she is encouraged to keep her maiden name. She has no obligation to spend on her family out of such properties or out of her income after marriage. A woman also receives a mahr (dowry), which is given to her by her husband at the time of marriage.^[41] Women are not required to provide financial support for their family under Sharia Law. Men as with women also have the right to be supported financially by their families or State.^[42]^[43]

Inheritance

Inheritance is less for women because of their lack of financial obligations, whereas men are subjected to harsher financial laws under the sharia. In Islam, women are entitled the right of inheritance,

but often a woman's share of inheritance is less than that of a man's. In general circumstances, Islam allows females half the inheritance share available to males who have the same degree of relation to the deceased.^[44] This difference derives from men's obligation to financially aid his parents, wife, children, and sisters, while the women's share would be entirely at her own disposal. Moreover, after her marriage, the woman also has support of her husband's earning and inheritance. ^[6]

In most Muslim nations, the law of the state concerning inheritance is in accordance with this law. though many muslim families, still following tribal rules as family culture, deny them their right and take it for granted that women sacrifice their share in favour of their brothers. ^{[citation needed]}

The Qur'an guarantees women the right to inherit a proportion of their father's estate. A widowed woman inherits a portion of her husband's estate.

Scholars argue under Islamic law, why is a woman's share of the inherited wealth only half that of a man?

Koran contains specific and detailed guidance regarding the division of the inherited wealth, among the rightful beneficiaries.

The Quraanic verses that contain guidance regarding inheritance are:

Surah Baqarah, chapter 2 verse 180 Surah Baqarah, chapter 2 verse 240 Surah Nisa, chapter 4 verse 7-9 Surah Nisa, chapter 4 verse 19 Surah Nisa, chapter 4 verse 33 and Surah Maidah, chapter 5 verse 106-108

There are three verses in the Koran that broadly describe the share of close relatives i.e. Surah Nisah chapter 4 verses 11, 12 and 176.

The translation of these verses are as follows:

"Allah (thus) directs you as regards your children's (inheritance): to the male, a portion equal to that of two females, if only daughters, two or more, their share is two-thirds of the inheritance; If only one, her share is a half. For parents, a sixth share of the inheritance to each, if the deceased left children; If no children, and the parents are the (only) heirs, the mother has a third; if the deceased left brothers (or sisters) the mother has a sixth. (The distribution in all cases is) after the payment of legacies and debts. Ye know not whether your parents or your children are nearest to you in benefit. These are settled portions ordained by Allah; and Allah is All-Knowing, All-Wise. In what your wives leave, your share is half. If they leave no child; but if they leave a child, ye get a fourth; after payment of legacies and debts. In what ye leave, their share is a fourth, if ye leave no child; but if ye leave a child, they get an eight; after payment of legacies and debts. If the man or woman whose inheritance is in question, has left neither ascendants nor descendants, but has left a brother or a sister, each one of the two gets a sixth; but if more than two, they share in a third; after payment of legacies and debts; so that no loss is caused (to anyone). Thus it is ordained by Allah; and Allah is All-Knowing Most Forbearing" [Al-Qur'an 4:11-12]

"They ask thee for a legal decision. Say: Allah directs (them) about those who leave no descendants or ascendants as heirs. If it is a man that dies, leaving a sister but no child, she shall have half the inheritance. If (such a deceased was) a woman who left no child, Her brother takes her inheritance. If there are two sisters, they shall have two thirds of the inheritance (between them). If there are brothers and sisters, (they share), the male having twice the share of the female. Thus doth Allah (swt) makes clear to you (His knowledge of all things). [Al-Qur'an 4:176]

In most of the cases, a woman inherits half of what her male counterpart inherits. However, this is not always the case. In case the deceased has left no ascendant or descendent but has left the uterine brother and sister, each of the two inherit one sixth. If the deceased has left children, both the parents that is mother and father get an equal share and inherit one sixth each. In certain cases, a woman can also inherit a share that is double that of the male. If the deceased is a woman who has left no children, brothers or sisters and is survived only by her husband, mother and father, the husband inherits half the property while the mother inherits one third and the father the remaining one sixth. In this particular case, the mother inherits a share that is double that of the father.

It is true that as a general rule, in most cases, the female inherits a share that is half that of the male. For instance in the following cases:

daughter inherits half of what the son inherits, 1.Wife inherits 1/8th and husband 1/4th if the deceased has no children. 2.Wife inherits 1/4th and husband 1/2 if the deceased has children 3.If the deceased has no ascendant or descendant, the sister inherits a share that is half that of the brother.

In Islam women are required by Sharia to be financially supported by their blood-related relatives. Before a woman is married it is the duty of the father to look after the lodging, boarding, clothing and other financial requirements of the woman. After she is married it is the duty of the husband.

Islam holds the men financially responsible for fulfilling the needs of the family, including women family members.

The men get double the share of the inheritance. For example, if a man dies leaving about Rs. One Hundred and Fifty Thousand, for the children (i.e one son and one daughter) the son inherits One Hundred Thousand dollars and the daughter only Fifty Thousand dollars. Out of the one hundred thousand which the son inherits, as his duty towards his family, he may have to spend on them almost the entire amount or say about eighty thousand and thus he has a small percentage of inheritance, say about twenty thousand, left for himself. On the other hand, the daughter, who inherits fifty thousand is NOT bound to spend the money for his blood-related family members.

Employment

Women are allowed to work in Islam, subject to certain conditions, and even recommended to do so should they be in financial need.^[45] This is supported by the Quranic example of two female shepherds (^{[Quran 28:23]}).^[45] Islam recognizes that the society needs women to work for the sake of development. In general, women's right to work is subject to certain conditions:^[45]

The work should not require the woman to violate Islamic law (e.g., serving alcohol), and be mindful of the woman's safety.
If the work requires the woman to leave her home, she must maintain her modesty.
A woman may not remain in isolation with an adult male in isolation, because as per Hadith, the third one among them is the devil, thus chances of going astray will be avoided.
Her work should not affect more important commitments, such as those towards her family.

Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the Muslim community to organize work for women, so that she can do so in a Muslim atmosphere, where her rights are respected.^[45]

However, the employment of women varies over fields in Islamic law. Whereas women may seek medical treatment from men, it is preferred that they do so from female physicians. It is also preferred that female schools, colleges, sports centers and ministries be staffed by women rather than men. On the contrary, there are disagreements between Islamic schools of thought about whether women should be able to hold the position of judge in a court. Shafi`ites claim that women may hold no judicial office, while Hanafites allow women to act as judges in civil cases only, not criminal ones. These interpretations are based on the above quoted Medinan sura (verse) ^{[Quran 4:34]}.^[46]

Even when women have the right to work and are educated, women's job opportunities may in practice be unequal to those of men. In Egypt for example, women have limited opportunities to work in the private sector because women are still expected to put their role in the family first, which causes men to be seen as more reliable in the long term.^[47]

While many work outside home in responsible positions in Morocco, the law continues to treat them as minors and with discrimination. Specific fields of work clearly spells out that women and children below 16 years are restricted. Whereas this is argued from point of view of protecting them as child potential bearers, in some cases it is on moral grounds. The presumption is that women are less able to protect themselves, or that men are better able to resist the corrupting influences in such places.^[48]

Patterns of women's employment vary throughout the Muslim world: as of 2005, 16% of Pakistani women were "economically active" (either employed, or unemployed but available to furnish labor), whereas 52% of Indonesian women were.^[49]

Legal and criminal matters

The status of women's testimony in Islam is disputed. Some jurists have held that certain types of testimony by women will not be accepted.^[50]. In other cases, the testimony of two women can equal that of one man ( although Quran says 2 women and 2 male are needed but if a male cannot find another male he may carry this testimony out himself).^[50]

^[51] The reason for this disparity has been explained in various manners, including women's lack of intelligence,^[52] women's temperament and sphere of interest,^[53] and sparing women from the burden of testifying.^[54] In other areas, women's testimony may be accepted on an equal basis with men's.^[50]^[55]

Commentators on the status of women in Islam have often focused on disparities in diyyat, the fines paid by killers to victims' next of kin after either intentional or unintentional homicide,^[56] between men and women. Diyya has existed in Arabia since pre-Islamic times.^[57]^[58] While the practice of diyya was affirmed by Muhammed,^[58] Islam does not prescribe any specific amount for diyyat nor does it require discrimination between men and women;^[56] the Qur'an has left open its quantity, nature, and other related affairs to be defined by social custom and tradition.^[56] ^[59]

Rape

Islamic criminal jurisprudence does not discriminate between genders in punishments for crimes.^{[citation needed]}. In case of sexual crimes such as zina (extramarital sex), for both men and women four witnesses are required to testify that they have seen the accused individuals having intercourse, meaning actually four of them should have seen the act as 'insertion of thread through the needle's hole'. According to Islamic law the couple cannot be tried for zina if four witnesses are not available. Thus a strict Islamic punishment is unlikely to be executed, as there is little chance of finding such accurate witnesses. It shows how much Islam discourages advertisement of such a shameful crime, thus discouraging its further spread which may result in great disorders. The punishment for zina varies depending on the marital status of the guilty individuals. If they are single then both receive a hundred lashes^[60]. If they are married the punishment is death, by stoning, or rajam.^[61] The difficulty of prosecuting rapists and the possibility of prosecution for women who allege rape has been of special interest to activists for Muslim women's rights.^[62] In the past decades there have been several high profile cases of pregnant women prosecuted for zina who claim to have been raped.^[63]^[64]^[65] ^[66]

The majority of Muslim scholars believe that a woman should not be punished for having been coerced into having sex.^[67] According to a Sunni hadith, the punishment for committing rape is death, there is no sin on the victim, nor is there any worldly punishment ascribed to her.^[68] However, the probability of victim getting a respectable single or married status in the society is rare, especially if she gets pregnant due to coerced rape. So, the majority of cases are neither reported nor brought to court. However, the stringent requirements for proof of rape under some interpretations of Islamic law, combined with cultural attitudes regarding rape in some parts of the Muslim world, result in few rape cases being reported; even the cases brought forward typically result in minimal punishment for offenders or severe punishment for victims.^[69] It can be difficult to seek punishment against rapists, because a zina case cannot be brought without four witnesses. Most scholars, however, treat rape instead as hiraba (disorder in the land),^[70] which does not require four witnesses. The form of punishment and interpretation of Islamic law in this case is highly dependent on the legislation of the nation in question, and/or of the judge.

Honor killings

According to law professor Noah Feldman in the New York Times, Islam "condemns the vigilante-style honor killings that still occur in some Middle Eastern countries."^[71] So-called honor killings (murders, nearly exclusively of women, of persons who are perceived as having brought dishonor to their families) are often identified with Islam. The hadith refer to a case where Mohammed sanctions the stoning of an adulterous women. Honor killings are sanctioned in Iran's and Afghanistan's penal codes in which honor killing is legal or lightly punished.^[72] Honor killings are more common in Muslim-majority countries, though they occur in other countries as well.^[73] Many Muslim scholars and commentators say that honor killings are a cultural practice which is neither exclusive to, nor universal within, the Islamic world.^[74]^[75]

Marriage and sexuality

Who may be married?

According to Islamic law (sharia), marriage cannot be forced.^[41]^[76]

No age limits have been fixed by Islam for marriage. Though it is said that women should not be married under the age of nine. Children of the youngest age may be married or promised for marriage, although a girl is not handed across to her husband until she is fit for marital sexual relations.^[77]

Islamic jurists have traditionally held that Muslim women may only enter into marriage with Muslim men,^[78] although some contemporary jurists question the basis of this restriction.^[78]^[79]^[80] This is pursuant to the principle that Muslims may not place themselves in a position inferior to that of the followers of other religions.^[81]On the other hand, the Qur'an explicitly allows Muslim men to marry chaste women of the People of the Book, a term which includes Jews and Christians.^[78]^[82] However, fiqh law has held that it is makruh (reprehensible, though not outright forbidden) for a Muslim man to marry a non-Muslim woman in a non-Muslim country.^[78]

Polygamy is permitted under restricted conditions,^[83] but it is not widespread.^[42] However, it is strongly discouraged in Quran which says, 'do justice to them all, but you won't be able to, so don't fall for one totally while ignoring other wife(wives)'. Women are not allowed to engage in polyandry, whereas men are allowed to engage in polygyny (a man can take up to four wives at any given time as mentioned in Quran).^[83] Widow inheritance is 1/4 of the property of her deceased husband, however, if he had children the inheritance reduces to 1/8. The widow woman is allowed to marry any non-mahram person, if she wishes.^{[Quran 4:19]}

Marriage contract

The contract specifies the dowry (mahr) the groom gives to the bride upon their marriage. It may also specify where the couple will live, whether or not the first wife will allow the husband to take a second wife without her consent, whether or not the wife has the right to initiate divorce, and other such matters. The marriage contract somewhat resembles the marriage settlements once negotiated for upper-class Western brides, but can extend to non-financial matters usually ignored by marriage settlements or pre-nuptial agreements.

In practice, most Islamic marriages are entered into without a written contract, or with a "fill in the blanks" form supplied by the officiant. In such cases, Islamic law, influenced by custom and/or rulings by local courts based on local law, governs the treatment of a divorcee or widow, and is often, in the opinion of Islamic feminists, unfair or unkind. Islamic feminists have been active in informing Muslim women of their rights under Islamic law (sharia) and encouraging them to negotiate favorable contracts before marriage.

Behavior within marriage

The Qu'ran considers the love between men and women to be a Sign of God.

Islam advocates a harmonious relationship between husband and wife, and mandates that the will of the woman be honoured.^{[citation needed]} It puts the main responsibility of earning over the husband. Both are asked to fulfill the other's sexual needs.^{[citation needed]} Husbands are asked to be kind to their wives and wives are asked to be obedient to their husbands. The Qur'an also encourages discussion and mutual agreement regarding family decisions.^[41]

There are extreme circumstances however, under which women seem to be treated very unfairly. In Morocco, the penal code contains disciminatory elements. Article 336 for example stipulates that a woman must obtain permission of the court in order to join a civil suit against her huband. Article 418 of the same penal code states that, a man who is a victim of adultery and who as a result commits murder or assault on encountering his wife and her lover benefits from consideration of extenuating circumstances. There is no mention of a parallel right for the wife.

Similarly, a woman who has a child outside of marriage (even if the pregnancy is a result of rape or incest) can be sent to prison for six months. The presumption being that she is a prosititute, the statute of limitations is five years. If a woman has a child out of wedlock and tries to register the case and no father claims it, she can be arrested. In order to prove fatherhood, the woman has to produce twelve witnesses who will testify to the fact that, she had sexual relations with the man in question. Abortion is illegal, and a woman who abandons her child (to avoid possible imprisonment)is also liable for prosecution.^[84]

Sexuality

More positively, some hold that Islam enjoins sexual pleasure within marriage; see Asra Nomani's polemic "Islamic Bill of Rights for Women in the Bedroom".

A high value is placed on chastity (not to be confused with celibacy) for both men and women. To protect women from accusations of unchaste behaviour, the scripture lays down severe punishments towards those who make false allegations about a woman's chastity.^{[Quran 24:4]}

Female genital cutting has been erroneously associated with Islam, but in fact is practiced almost exclusively in Africa and in certain areas has acquired a religious dimension^[85] The factuality of this is disputed though, as a UNICEF study of fourteen African countries found no correlation between religion and prevalence of FGM.^[86]

Divorce

Common belief in the west is that women are not given the power to initiate divorce were in fact the opposite is true. In Sharia Law a woman can file a case in the courts for a divorce in a process called "Khal'a" simply meaning "Break up". Similarly, many wrongly believe that the man can totally divorce his wife by repeating the phrase "I divorce you, I divorce you, I divorce you!" in the presence of the woman. Sharia Law clearly states that divorce has to be confirmed on three separate occasions and not simply three times at once. The first two instances the woman and the man are still in legal marriage. The third occasion of pronouncing divorce in the presence of the woman, the man is no longer legally the husband of the the divorcee and therefore has to leave the house. This procedure of divorce in Islam is such as to encourage reconciliation where possible. Even after divorce, the woman should wait three monthly cycles during which her husband remains responsible for her and her children's welfare and maintenance. He is not permitted to drive her out of the house^[87].

After the third pronouncement they are not allowed to get back together as husband and wife, unless the wife enters into another lawful and fully consummated marriage and is unfortunate in that marriage and has a divorce from her husband. This rule was made to discourage men from easily using the verbal declaration of divorce by knowing that after the third time there will be no way to return to the wife and thus encourage men's tolerance and patience.

Usually, assuming her husband demands a divorce, the divorced wife keeps her mahr (dowry), both the original gift and any supplementary property specified in the marriage contract. She is also given child support until the age of weaning, at which point the child's custody will be settled by the couple or by the courts.

Women’s right to divorce is often extremely limited compared with that of men in the Middle East.^[88] While men can divorce their wives easily, women face many legal and financial obstacles. These obstacles are not based on Islam. In practice in most of the Muslim world today divorce can be quite involved as there may be separate secular procedures to follow as well.

This contentious area of religious practice and tradition is being increasingly challenged by those promoting more liberal interpretations of Islam.

Movement and travel

Both husbands and wives are required to inform their spouses before leaving home.^[89] A woman needs her husband's permission to leave home, though general permission is sufficient for routine trips — with such permission, the wife need not seek permission for each individual trip.^[89]

Although no limitation or prohibition against women's travelling alone is mentioned in Quran, there is a debate in some Islamic sects, especially Salafis, regarding whether women may travel without a mahram (unmarriageable relative).^[89] Some scholars state that a woman may not travel by herself on a journey that takes longer than three days (equivalent to 48 miles in medieval Islam).^[90] According to the European Council for Fatwa and Research, this prohibition arose from fears for women's safety when travel was more dangerous.^[89] Some scholars relax this prohibition for journeys likely to be safe, such as travel with a trustworthy group of men or men and women, or travel via a modern train or plane when the woman will be met upon arrival.^[89]

Sheikh Ayed Al-Qarni, a Saudi Islamic scholar known for his moderate views, has said that neither the Qur'an nor the sunnah prohibits women from driving and that it is better for a woman to drive herself than to be driven by a stranger without a legal escort.^[91] (He also stated, however, that he "personally will not allow [his] wife or daughters or sisters to drive."^[91]) Women are forbidden to drive in Saudi Arabia per a 1990 fatwa (religious ruling);^[92] Saudi Arabia is currently the only Muslim country that bans women from driving. ^[93]^[94] When the Taliban ruled Afghanistan, they issued a 2001 decree that also banned women from driving.^[95] John Esposito, professor of International Affairs and Islamic Studies at Georgetown University, has argued that these restrictions originate from cultural customs and not Islam.^[93]

Dress code

Hijab is the Quranic requirement that Muslims, both male and female, dress and behave modestly. The most important Quranic verse relating to hijab is sura 24:31, which says, "And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and guard their private parts and not to display their adornment except that which ordinarily appears thereof and to draw their headcovers over their chests and not to display their adornment except to their [maharim]..."

Islamic scholars agree that a woman should act and dress in a way that does not draw sexual attention to her when she is in the presence of someone of the opposite sex. Some islamic scholars specify which areas of the body must be covered; most of these require that everything besides the face and hands be covered, and some require all but the eyes to be covered, using garments such as chadors or burqas. Most mainstream scholars say that men, in contrast, should only cover themselves from the navel to the knees.

Sartorial hijab as practiced varies throughout the Muslim world. In Iran, strict hijab requirements are enacted in law, while in Muslim-majority areas of India, social norms rather than law dictate the wearing of hijab. At the opposite end of the spectrum is Tunisia, where the government is actively discouraging women from wearing the veil.

Sartorial hijab, and the veil in particular, has often been viewed by Westerners as a sign of oppression of Muslim women.^[96] It has also been the cause of much debate, especially in Europe amid increasing immigration of Muslims;^[97] the 2006 United Kingdom debate over veils and the 2004 French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools are two notable examples.

Arab women often observe purdah (the practice of preventing men from seeing women). It is important to differentiate between purdah and hijab. Hijab is an Islamic tradition that is based on physical and psychological morality, while purdah does not necessarily conform to Islamic teachings.

Women in religious life

In Islam, there is no difference between men and women's relationship to God; they receive identical rewards and punishments for their conduct.^[98]

According to a saying attributed to Muhammad, women are allowed to go to mosques.^[99] However, as Islam spread, it became unusual for women to worship in mosques because of fears of unchastity caused by interaction between sexes; this condition persisted until the late 1960s.^[100] Since then, women have become increasingly involved in the mosque, though men and women generally worship separately.^[101] (Muslims explain this by citing the need to avoid distraction during prayer prostrations that raise the buttocks while the forehead touches the ground.^[102]) Separation between sexes ranges from men and women on opposite sides of an aisle, to men in front of women (as was the case in the time of Muhammad), to women in second-floor balconies or separate rooms accessible by a door for women only.^[102]

In Islam's earlier history, female religious scholars were relatively common. Mohammad Akram Nadwi, a Sunni religious scholar, has compiled biographies of 8,000 female jurists, and orientalist Ignaz Goldziher earlier estimated that 15 percent of medieval hadith scholars were women.^[103] After the 1500s, however, female scholars became fewer,^[103] and today — while female activists and writers are relatively common — there has not been a significant female jurist in over 200 years.^[104] Opportunities for women's religious education exist, but cultural barriers often keep women from pursuing such a vocation.^[103]

Women's right to become imams, however, is disputed by many. A fundamental role of an imam (religious leader) in a mosque is to lead the salah (congregational prayers). Generally, women are not allowed to lead mixed prayers. However, some argue that Muhammad gave permission to Ume Warqa to lead a mixed prayer at the mosque of Dar.^[105]^[106]

Women and politics

The only hadith relating to female political leadership is , in which Muhammad is recorded as saying that people with a female ruler will never be successful.^[108] (The al-Bukhari collection is generally regarded as authentic, though one Muslim feminist has questioned the reliability of the recorder of this particular hadith.^[108]) However, some classical Islamic scholars, such as al-Tabari, supported female leadership.^[108] In early Islamic history, women including Aisha, Ume Warqa, and Samra Binte Wahaib took part in political activities.^[105] Other historical Muslim female leaders include Razia Sultana, who ruled the Sultanate of Delhi from 1236 to 1239,^[109]^[110] and Shajarat ad-Durr, who ruled Egypt from 1250 to 1257.^[111]

In the past several decades, many countries in which Muslims are a majority, including Indonesia,^[112] Pakistan,^[113] Bangladesh,^[114] and Turkey,^[115] have been led by women. Nearly one-third of the Parliament of Egypt also consists of women.^[116]

Iraqi women waiting to vote in elections, 2005.

According to Sheikh Zoubir Bouchikhi, Imam of the Islamic Society of Greater Houston’s Southeast Mosque, nothing in Islam specifically allows or disallows voting by women.^[117] Until recently most Muslim nations were non-democratic, but most today allow their citizens to have some level of voting and control over their government. The disparate times at which women’s suffrage was granted in Muslim-majority countries is indicative of the varied traditions and values present within the Muslim world. Azerbaijan has had women's suffrage since 1918, but some Islamic states did not have women's suffrage until the last ten years^{[citation needed]}. Today, aside from Brunei (where neither men nor women can vote)^[118], The Vatican city and Saudi Arabia (though Saudi women will be able to vote in 2009^[119]^[120]),^[121] all Muslim-majority nations allow women to vote. (Lebanon requires proof of education for women to vote.^[122])

Modern debate on the status of women in Islam

Within the Muslim community, conservatives and Islamic feminists have used Islamic doctrine as the basis for discussion of women's rights, drawing on the Qur'an, the hadith, and the lives of prominent women in the early period of Muslim history as evidence.^[123] Where conservatives have seen evidence that existing gender asymmetries are divinely ordained, feminists have seen more egalitarian ideals in early Islam.^[123] Still others have argued that this discourse is essentialist and ahistorical, and have urged that Islamic doctrine not be the only framework within which discussion occurs.^[123]

Whether perceived injustice is according to Islamic religious doctrine or culture is disputed.

Conservatives and the Islamist movement

Conservatives reject the assertion that different laws prescribed for men and women imply that men are more valuable than women, arguing that both genders must have a different role in society and the only criterion of value before God is piety.^{[citation needed]} Some Islamic scholars justify the different religious laws for men and women by referring to the biological and sociological differences between men and women^{[citation needed]}. For example, regarding the inheritance law which states that women’s share of inheritance is half that of men, the imam Ali ibn Musa Al-reza reasoned that at the time of marriage a man has to pay something to his prospective bride, and that men are responsible for both their wives' and their own expenses but women have no such responsibility.^[124]

The nebulous revivalist movement termed Islamism is one of the most dynamic movements within Islam in the 20th and 21st centuries. The experience of women in Islamist states has been varied. Women in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan faced treatment condemned by the international community.^[125] Women were forced to wear the burqa in public,^[126] not allowed to work,^[127] not allowed to be educated after the age of eight,^[128] and faced public flogging and execution for violations of the Taliban's laws.^[129]^[130] The position of women in Iran, which has been a theocracy since its 1979 revolution, is more complex. Iranian Islamists are ideologically to sex segregation,^{[citation needed]}but allow many more rights such as allowing female legislators in Iran's parliament^[131] and 60% of university students are women.^[132]

Liberal Islam, Islamic feminism, and other progressive criticism

Liberal Muslims have urged that ijtihad, a form of critical thinking, be used to develop a more progressive form of Islam with respect to the status of women.^[133] In addition, Islamic feminists have advocated for women's rights, gender equality, and social justice grounded in an Islamic framework. Although rooted in Islam, pioneers of Islamic feminism have also used secular and western feminist discourses and have sought to include Islamic feminism in the larger global feminist movement. Islamic feminists seek to highlight the teachings of equality in Islam to question patriarchal interpretations of Islamic teachings.^[134]

After the September 11, 2001 attacks, international attention was suddenly focused on the condition of women in the Muslim world. ^[135] Critics asserted that women are not treated as equal members of Muslim societies^[136]^[137] and criticized Muslim societies for condoning this treatment.^[136] Some critics have gone so far as to make allegations of gender apartheid due to women's status.^[138] At least one critic has alleged that Western academics, especially feminists, have ignored the plight of Muslim women to be "politically correct."^[139]

The Indonesian Islamic professor Nasaruddin Umar is at the forefront of a reform movement from within Islam that aims at giving women equal status. Among his works is a book "The Qur'an for women", which provides a new feminist interpretation.

References

^ http://www.themodernreligion.com/women/w_status_gen_ques.htm
^ Ethiopian Muslims History
^ 49. Al-Hujraat (The Private Apartments), translated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali"13 O mankind?! We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, that ye may know each other (not that ye may despise (each other). Verily the most honoured of you in the sight of Allah is (he who is) the most righteous of you. And Allah has full knowledge and is well acquainted (with all things)."
^ http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2002/569/cu1.htm
^ http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/Features/Columns/?article=WomenWhoRule
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Haddad and Esposito, pp. xii
^ Amin Ahsan Islahi, Tadabbur-i-Qur'an, 2nd ed., vol. 2, (Lahore: Faran Foundation, 1986), p. 278
^ ^a ^b ^c Turner, Brian S. Islam (ISBN 041512347X). Routledge: 2003, p77-78.
^ Unni Wikan, review of Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East, American Ethnologist, Vol. 22, No. 4 (Nov., 1995), pp. 1078-1079
^ Valentine M. Moghadam. Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East. (Lynne Rienner Publishers, USA, 1993) p. 5
^ Maan, Bashir and Alastair McIntosh. "'The whole house of Islam, and we Christians with them...': An interview with 'the Last Orientalist' - the Rev Prof William Montgomery Watt." Internet version from www.alastairmcintosh.com. Also published in The Coracle, the Iona Community, summer 2000, issue 3:51, pp. 8-11.
^ Badr, Gamal M. (Winter 1984), "Islamic Criminal Justice", The American Journal of Comparative Law, 32 (1): 167–169 [167–8]
^ Noah Feldman (March 16, 2008). "Why Shariah?". New York Times. Retrieved 2008-10-05.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Esposito (2005) p. 79
^ Jones, Lindsay. p.6224
^ ^a ^b Esposito (2004), p. 339
^ ^a ^b Khadduri (1978)
^ Schimmel (1992) p.65
^ Maan, McIntosh (1999)
^ Haddad, Esposito (1998) p.163
^ Lindsay, James E. (2005), Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 197, ISBN 0313322708
^ Lindsay, James E. (2005), Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World, Greenwood Publishing Group, pp. 196 & 198, ISBN 0313322708
^ Lindsay, James E. (2005), Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 196, ISBN 0313322708
^ Lindsay, James E. (2005), Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 198, ISBN 0313322708
^ Guity Nashat, Lois Beck (2003), Women in Iran from the Rise of Islam to 1800, University of Illinois Press, p. 69, ISBN 0252071212
^ Maya Shatzmiller, pp. 6–7.
^ ^a ^b Maya Shatzmiller (1994), Labour in the Medieval Islamic World, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004098968, pp. 400–1
^ Maya Shatzmiller, pp. 350–62.
^ Maya Shatzmiller (1997), "Women and Wage Labour in the Medieval Islamic West: Legal Issues in an Economic Context", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 40 (2), pp. 174–206 [175–7].
^ Ahmad, Jamil (September 1994), "Ibn Rushd", Monthly Renaissance, 4 (9), retrieved 2008-10-14{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
^ Girl Power, ABC News
^ Black, Edwin (2004). Banking on Baghdad: Inside Iraq's 7,000 Year History of War, Profit, and Conflict. John Wiley and Sons. p. 34. ISBN 047170895X.
^ Hale, Sarah Josepha Buell (1853). Woman's Record: Or, Sketches of All Distinguished Women, from "The Beginning Till A.D. 1850, Arranged in Four Eras, with Selections from Female Writers of Every Age. Harper Brothers. p. 120.
^ The Art as a Profession, United States National Library of Medicine
^ G. Bademci (2006), First illustrations of female "Neurosurgeons" in the fifteenth century by Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu, Neurocirugía 17: 162-165.
^ Rapoport, Yossef (2005), Marriage, Money and Divorce in Medieval Islamic Society, Cambridge University Press, pp. 5–6, ISBN 052184715X
^ Haddad, Moore, and Smith, p155.
^ Hessini.
^ Lewis, What Went Wrong? 2002, pages 82-83
^ Valentine M. Moghadam. Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East. (Rienner Publishers, USA, 1993)
^ ^a ^b ^c Jamal Badawi, The status of women in Islam
^ ^a ^b The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2002), AltaMira Press. ISBN 0-7591-0189-2 . p.477
^ Fathi, Asghar. Women and the Family in Iran. Brill (1985), p25. ISBN 9004074260.

^ For example, where the deceased has both male and female children, a son's share is double that of a daughter's. Additionally, the sister of a childless man inherits half of his property upon his death, while a brother of a childless woman inherits all of her property.^{[citation needed]}

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Al Qaradawy, Yusuf. The Status Of Women In Islam. Chapter: The Woman as Member of the Society: When is a woman allowed to work?
^ Haddad/Esposito pg.41
^ Assaad, R., 2003, Gender & Employment: Egypt in Comparative Perspective, in Doumato, E.A. & Posusney, M.P., Women and Globalization in the Arab Middle East: Gender, Economy and Society, Colorado, Lynne Rienner Publishers
^ Laurie A. Brand (1998), Women, State and Political Liberalisation: New York: Columbia University Press, P. 57 -58
^ Women of Our World 2005
^ ^a ^b ^c Ibn Rushd. Bidayatu’l-Mujtahid, 1st ed., vol. 4, (Beirut: Daru’l-Ma‘rifah, 1997), p. 311.
^ According to Averroes, a 12th-century Maliki, "There is a general consensus among the jurists that in financial transactions a case stands proven by the testimony of a just man and two women." (Ibn Rushd. Bidayatu’l-Mujtahid, 1st ed., vol. 4, (Beirut: Daru’l-Ma‘rifah, 1997), p. 311).
^
^ Ghamidi. Burhan:The Law of Evidence. Al-Mawrid
^ Half of a Man!, Renaissance - Monthly Islamic Journal, 14(7), July 2004
^ Azeem, Sherif Abdel. "Women In Islam Versus Women In The Judaeo-Christian Tradition." World Assembly of Muslim Youth (1995).
^ ^a ^b ^c Ghamidi, Mizan, The Penal Law of Islam.
^ El Fadl, p86.
^ ^a ^b Hallaq, Wael B. A History of Islamic Legal Theories: An Introduction to Sunni Usul Al-fiqh. Cambridge University Press (1997), p7. ISBN 0521599865.
^ Joseph and Najmabadi, p407.
^ quran24:2
^ Asifa Quraishi. "Her Honor: An Islamic Critique of the Rape Laws of Pakistan from a Woman-Sensitive Perspective," in Windows of Faith: Muslim Women Scholar-Activists in North America, Gisela Webb (Ed.), Syracuse University Press (June 2000). The author also argues that this traditional view may be inconsistent with the requirements outlined in the Qur'an.
^ See, e.g., http://www.geo.tv/zs/Zina_article_Final.pdf.
^ In Pakistan, Rape Victims Are the 'Criminals' By SETH MYDANS From: New York Times, May 17, 2002
^ Saudi Rape Case Spurs Calls for Reform By RASHEED ABOU-ALSAMH Published: December 1, 2007
^ Nigeria: Under Islamic Law, Rights Still Unprotected
^ Changing Rape Laws in Pakistan
^ According to Ibn Qudamah, "This is the view of Omar, al-Zuhri, Qatadah, al-Thawri, al-Shafi'i, and others and we do not know anyone who has departed from this view." (Although this seems to indicate unanimity, Ibn Qudamah himself uses the language "overwhelming majority.") Muwaffaq al-Din Ibn Qudamah, al-Mughni (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-'Arabi n.d), Vol. 10, p. 159, quoted in http://www.geo.tv/zs/Zina_article_Final.pdf.
^ Sunan Abu Dawud Template:Abudawud-usc.
^ http://www.islam-democracy.org/documents/pdf/6th_Annual_Conference-JulieNorman.pdf
^ See, e.g., http://www.thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=1369 and Asifa Quraishi. "Her Honor: An Islamic Critique of the Rape Laws of Pakistan from a Woman-Sensitive Perspective," in Windows of Faith: Muslim Women Scholar-Activists in North America, Gisela Webb (Ed.), Syracuse University Press (June 2000). Mentioned in verses ^{[Quran 5:33]}
^ Feldman, Noah (2008-03-16). "Why Shariah?". New York Times.
^ Joseph and Najmabadi, p215.
^ http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/reports/E_CN_4_2000_3.pdf Chapter V, Section C
^ "Q&A: Honour killings explained". BBC News. 2004-06-22. Retrieved 2007-07-09. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ For instance, the practice is little known in Indonesia, the world's most populous Islamic country, as well as in parts of West Africa with majority-Muslim populations.http://www.nuradeen.com/Reflections/ElementsOfSufism3.htm
^ "Ibni `Abbaas reported that a girl came to the Messenger of God, Muhammad (sws), and she reported that her father had forced her to marry without her consent. The Messenger of God gave her the choice [between accepting the marriage or invalidating it]." Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal 2469. "...the girl said: "Actually I accept this marriage but I wanted to let women know that parents have no right [to force a husband on them]". Sunan Ibn Maja 1873.
^ Levy, p.106
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d On Christian Men marrying Muslim Women
^ Imam Khaleel Mohammed's defense of inter-faith marriage
^ Asharq Al-Awsat Interviews Sudanese Islamist leader Dr. Hassan Turabi
^ Friedmann (2003), p. 162
^ Qur'an, ^[Quran 5:5]
^ ^a ^b Ghamidi, Mizan, The Social Law of Islam.
^ Laurie A. Brand (1998), Women, State and Political Liberalisation: New York: Columbia University Press, P. 58.
^ Mohd. Salih al-Munajjid (Hafizullah) (Unknown). "Is there any saheeh hadeeth about the circumcision of females?". Fatwa (Religious verdict, suggestion). MuslimAccess.Com. Retrieved 2007-04-06. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ UNICEF. "Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Statistical Exploration." Unicef.org, 2005.
^ http://www.jamaat.org/islam/WomanDivorce.html
^ Joseph and Najmabadi, p99.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Women Traveling without Mahram. European Council for Fatwa and Research.
^ Muhammad ibn Adam al-Kawthari. "Can Women Travel Without A Mahram?" Sunnipath.com (July 03, 2005).
^ ^a ^b Somayya Jabarti & Maha Akeel. "Women Not Prohibited From Driving in Islam, Says Al-Qarni." Arab News (January 11, 2004).
^ Amnesty International. "Saudi Arabia: Women." Amnesty.org.
^ ^a ^b John L. Esposito(2002), p.99, What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam, Oxford University Press
^ Natana J. Delong-Bas(2004), p.123, Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad, Oxford University Press
^ The Situation of Women in Afghanistan - United Nations Report
^ McGoldrick, Dominic. Human Rights and Religion: The Islamic Headscarf Debate in Europe. Hart Publishing (2006), p13. ISBN 1841136522.
^ Alam, Fareena. "Beyond the Veil." Newsweek (Nov. 26, 2006).
^ USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts
^ "Do not stop Allah's women-slave from going to Allah's Mosques." (.)
^ Mattson, Ingrid. "Women, Islam, and Mosques." In Encyclopedia of Women And Religion in North America (Rosemary Skinner Keller, Rosemary Radford Ruether, and Marie Cantlon, ed.). Indiana University Press (2006), p616. ISBN 0253346886.
^ Mattson, Ingrid. "Women, Islam, and Mosques." In Encyclopedia of Women And Religion in North America (Rosemary Skinner Keller, Rosemary Radford Ruether, and Marie Cantlon, ed.). Indiana University Press (2006), p616-17. ISBN 0253346886.
^ ^a ^b Smith, Jane L. Islam in America. Columbia University Press (2000): p111. ISBN 0231109679.
^ ^a ^b ^c Power, Carla. "A Secret History." New York Times (Feb. 25, 2007).
^ Khaled Abou El Fadl. "In Recognition of Women." Themodernreligion.com. Originally published (in a slightly different form) in The Minaret (July/Aug 1991) and reprinted in Voices vol. 1, no. 2 (Dec/Jan 1992).
^ ^a ^b Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, Religious leadership of women in Islam, April 24, 2005, Daily Times, Pakistan
^ Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, (Bayrut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al- ‘Arabi, n.d.) vol.5, 3:1375
^ "Benazir Bhutto: Daughter of Tragedy" by Muhammad Najeeb, Hasan Zaidi, Saurabh Shulka and S. Prasannarajan, India Today, January 7, 2008
^ ^a ^b ^c Anne Sofie Roald. Women in Islam: The Western Experience, p186-7.
^ Beale, Thomas William and Henry George Keene. An Oriental Biographical Dictionary. W.H. Allen (1894), p392.
^ Ahmed, Nazeer. Islam in Global History: From the Death of Prophet Muhammed to the First World War. Xlibris (2000), p284-86..
^ Shajarat (Shaggar, Shagar) al-Durr And her Mausoleum in Cairo
^ Karon, Tony. "Megawati: The Princess Who Settled for the Presidency." Time (July 27, 2001).
^ Ali A. Mazrui, Pretender to Universalism: Western Culture in a Globalizing Age, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volume 21, Number 1, April 2001
^ MacDonald, Elizabeth and Chana R. Schoenberger. "The 100 Most Powerful Women: Khaleda Zia." Forbes (Aug. 30, 2007}.
^ "Tansu Çiller." About.com.
^ Shaheen, Jack G. (2003), "Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People", The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 588 (1): 171-193 [184]
^ Islam Online.net
^ Central Intelligence Agency. "Brunei." World Factbook (2007).
^ "[http://www.arabnews.com/?page=1&section=0&article=57051&d=4&m=1&y=2005 Saudi Women Will Be Allowed to Vote in ’09]," Arab News. January 4, 2005
^ In addition, Saudi women have voted in some elections. See: "Saudi women take part in election ," BBC News.
^ Central Intelligence Agency. "Saudi Arabia." World Factbook (2007).
^ Central Intelligence Agency. "Lebanon." World Factbook (2007).
^ ^a ^b ^c Deniz Kandiyoti, "Women, Islam and the State", Middle East Report, No. 173, Gender and Politics. (Nov.-Dec., 1991), pp. 9-14.
^ Quoted in Grand Ayatollah Makarim Shirazi, Tafsir Nemoneh, on verse 4:12.
^ M. J. Gohari (2000). The Taliban: Ascent to Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 108-110. For an example, see http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/6185.htm.
^ M. J. Gohari (2000). The Taliban: Ascent to Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 108-110.
^ Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "Chronology of Events January 1995 - February 1997." UNHCR.org.
^ U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. "Report on the Taliban's War Against Women." State.gov (November 17, 2001).
^ Template:PDFlink, Physicians for Human Rights, August 1998.
^ A woman being flogged in public
^ See, e.g., Tahereh Saffarzadeh, Masumeh Ebtekar, Marzieh Dabbaq and Zahra Rahnavard.
^ Esfandiari, Golnaz. "Iran: Number Of Female University Students Rising Dramatically." Radio Free Europe/Free Liberty (November 19, 2003).
^ Haddad, Moore, and Smith, p19.
^ Madran, Margot. "Islamic feminism: what's in a name?" Al-Ahram Weekly Online, issue no. 569 (January 17-23, 2002).
^ United States Institute of Peace. "Women, Human Rights, and Islam." Peace Watch (August 2002).
^ ^a ^b Timothy Garton Ash (10-05-2006). "Islam in Europe". The New York Review of Books. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ Kamguian, Azam. "The Liberation of Women in the Middle East." NTPI.org.
^ Feminist author Phyllis Chesler, for example, asserted: "Islamists oppose the ideals of dignity and equality for women by their practice of gender apartheid."[1] For further examples, see http://www.google.com/search?q=%22gender+apartheid%22+islam
^ Lopez, Katherine Jean. A survey conducted by the Gallup Organization found that most Muslim women did not see themselves as oppressed.[2] "Witness to the Death of Feminism: Phyllis Chesler on Her Sisterhood at War." National Review (March 08, 2006).

Works cited

El Fadl, Khaled Abou. "The Death Penalty, Mercy, and Islam: A Call for Retrospection." In Religion and the Death Penalty: A Call for Reckoning (Erik C. Owens, John David Carlson, and Eric P. Elshtain, eds.). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (2004), ISBN 0802821723.
Friedmann, Yohanan (2003). Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521026994.
Glassé, Cyril. The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2002), AltaMira Press, ISBN 0-7591-0189-2.
Yvonne Haddad and John Esposito. Islam, Gender, and Social Change, Published 1998. Oxford University Press, US. ISBN 0-19-511357-8.
Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Kathleen M. Moore, and Jane I Smith. Muslim Women in America: The Challenge of Islamic Identity Today. Oxford University Press (2006): ISBN 0195177835.
Hessini, L., 1994, Wearing the Hijab in Contemporary Morocco: Choice and Identity, in Göçek, F. M. & Balaghi, S., Reconstructing Gender in the Middle East: Tradition, Identity & Power, New York, Columbia University Press
Suad Joseph and Afsaneh Najmabadi. Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures BRILL (2005), ISBN 9004128182
Javed Ahmed Ghamidi. Mizan. Al-Mawrid (2001-present).
Levy, Reuben (1969). The Social Structure of Islam. UK: Cambridge University Press.