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(See also [[Michael Persinger#Tectonic Strain Theory|Tectonic Strain Theory]])
(See also [[Michael Persinger#Tectonic Strain Theory|Tectonic Strain Theory]])


===UFO organizations===
==Notable UFO organizations==
{{Main|UFO organizations}}
{{Main|List of UFO organizations}}

{{Prose|date=April 2008}}
===United States===
* [[United States Air Force]] [[Project Blue Book]]: Small, public Air Force UFO investigation, from 1952 until discontinued in 1969. Preceded by [[Project Sign]] (1947–1948) and [[Project Grudge]] (1948–1952).
In the US, groups and affiliates interested in UFO investigation number in the hundreds, of which only a limited number have achieved prominence based on their longevity, size and the involvement of researchers with scientific credentials.<ref name ="markovsky162">Markovsky (2002) pp. 270</ref>
* [[Aerial Phenomena Research Organization]] (APRO) (1952–1988): Early, national U.S. civilian research organization with many PhD consulting scientists.
The first significant UFO interest group in the US was the '''[[Aerial Phenomena Research Organization]]''' (APRO), formed in 1952 by Coral and James Lorenzen.<ref name ="markovsky162"/> The organization closed down in 1988.<ref name ="markovsky162"/> The '''[[National Investigations Committee on Aerial Phenomena]]''' (NICAP) was formed in 1957 and closed down in the 1970ṣ.<ref name ="markovsky162"/> At a time it was the largest UFO organization in the country, with numerous chapters.<ref name ="markovsky162"/> In 1957, Brothers W. H. and J. A. Spaulding founded the '''Ground Saucer Watch''', which later became famous when in 1977 the group filed a suit under the [[Freedom of Information Act]] against the CIA.<ref name ="markovsky162"/>
* [[National Investigations Committee On Aerial Phenomena]] (NICAP)(1956–1980), Early, national U.S. civilian research organization, very large and powerful at one time, with many scientists and military consultants.

* [[Mutual UFO Network]] (MUFON): Large, international, U.S. based civilian research organization stressing field investigations and data collection. MUFON is the largest civilian UFO research group in the United States today.
The two major UFO groups active today are the '''[[Mutual UFO Network]]''' (MUFON), founded in 1969, and the '''[[Center for UFO Studies]]''' (CUFOS), founded in 1973 by J. Allen Hynek.<ref name ="markovsky162"/> MUFON grew as the key members of NICAP joined the organization in the 1970s.<ref name ="markovsky162"/> CUFOS has tried to limit its membership to established researchers, but has found little academic acceptance.<ref name ="markovsky162"/>
* [[Center for UFO Studies]] (CUFOS): Founded by Project Blue Book consultant, astronomer and ufologist [[J. Allen Hynek]]; stresses scientific investigations; large archives, including old NICAP files.

* [[Fund for UFO Research]]: Funds scientific UFO research; many consulting PhD scientists; does photoanalysis.
===United Kingdom===
* [[National Institute of Discovery Science]] (NIDS): Private, somewhat clandestine organization with insider government scientists and military people stressing scientific forensic analysis of UFO and paranormal phenomena.
The '''[[British UFO Research Association]]''' (BUFORA) is the largest and oldest of the active British UFO organizations.<ref name="bufora">{{cite web|last=|first= |publisher=BUFORA|url=http://www.bufora.org.uk/AboutBUFORA/tabid/65/Default.aspx |title=About BUFORA|quote=|date=accessdate= May 6, 2010}}</ref> It traces its roots to the '''London UFO Research Association''' (founded in 1959) which merged with the '''British UFO Associatio'''n (BUFOA) to form BUFORA in 1964.<ref name="bufora"/>
* [[Phenomena Research Australia]] (PRA): This group has grew out of the Aeronautical Research Laboratory – Melbourne, Victoria c1949.

* [[Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal]], (CSICOP), a UFO and [[paranormal]] skeptics organization, which classifies ufology as a [[pseudoscience]] and claims all UFO reports are ultimately explainable as mundane phenomena or hoaxes. CSICOP is the largest and most prominent group of UFO [[skeptics]] and [[debunker]]s in the United States.
===Australia===
* [[UFO-Norge]], a Norwegian project dedicated to collect all material on observations and physical traces of UFO activity in [[Norway]].
{{See|Australian ufology}}
* [[Erich von Däniken]]'s controversial theories (along with [[Peter Kolosimo]]), where he combines what he considers historical proof of [[extraterrestrial life|extraterrestrial]] visits with a theory on extraterrestrial help in the evolution of humanity.
'''
*[[SOBEPS]]: Société Belge d'Etude des Phénomènes Spatiaux(1971–2007). This group gained fame to have investigated the Belgian Wave (see [[Black triangle (UFO)|Black triangle]] incidents).
'''Australian Flying Saucer Bureau''' (AFSB) and the '''Australian Flying Saucer Research Society''' (AFSRS) were the earliest UFO groups established in Australia, with both being founded in the early 1950s.<ref name="vufors">{{cite web|last=|first= |publisher=VUFORS|url=http://members.ozemail.com.au/~vufors/history.htm |title=The History of VUFORS|quote=|date=accessdate= May 6, 2010}}</ref>
*[[Disclosure Project]]

*[[Visión Ovni]]
The '''Australian Centre for UFO Studies''' (ACUFOS) was established as in 1974 with links to the American CUFOS.<ref>{{cite web|last=|first= |publisher=ACUFOS|url=http://www.acufos.asn.au/index.html|title=Australian Centre for UFO Studies|quote=|date=accessdate= May 6, 2010}}</ref> Other currently active Australian UFO groups include the '''Victorian UFO Research Society''' (VUFORS)<ref name="vufors"/>, the
'''Australian UFO Research Network''' (AUFORN)<ref>{{cite web|last=|first= |publisher=AUFORN|url=http://www.auforn.com/ |title=Australian UFO Research Network|quote=|date=accessdate= May 6, 2010}}</ref> and '''UFO Research Queensland''' (UFORQ).<ref>{{cite web|last=|first= |publisher=FORQ|url=http://www.uforq.asn.au/ |title=UFO Research Queenslandk|quote=|date=|accessdate= May 6, 2010}}</ref>

===Skeptic organizations===
{{See|List of skeptics and skeptical organizations}}
The '''[[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]]''' (CSI), although not an UFO organization, has investigated various UFO cases and given a skeptical review of the phenomena in its publications, often in the magazine ''[[Skeptical Inquirer]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sheaffer|first=Robert |publisher=Skeptical Inquirer|url=http://www.csicop.org/si/show/ufology_2009_a_six-decade_perspective |title=UFOlogy 2009: A Six-Decade Perspective|quote=|date=February 2009|accessdate= May 6, 2010}}</ref> Founded as the '''Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal''' (CSICOP) in 1976 by professor of philosophy [[Paul Kurtz]], the Committee counts as its founding members scientists and skeptics such as Carl Sagan, [[Isaac Asimov]], Philip J. Klass, [[Ray Hyman]], [[James Randi]] and [[Martin Gardner]].<ref>{{cite web|last=|first= |publisher=CSI|url=http://www.csicop.org/about/about_csi |title=About CSI|quote=|date= |accessdate= May 6, 2010}}</ref>

The '''[[Skeptics Society]]''', founded by science historian [[Michael Shermer]] in 1992, has also addressed the UFO issue skeptically in its magazine ''[[Skeptic (U.S. magazine)|Skeptic]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last=|first= |publisher=Skeptics Society|url=http://www.skeptic.com/ |title=|quote=|date= |accessdate= May 6, 2010}}</ref>


==Panel discussion on November 12, 2007==
==Panel discussion on November 12, 2007==

Revision as of 11:45, 6 May 2010

Artistic representation of UFOs—specifically, flying saucers.

Ufology (from UFO, acronym for Unidentified Flying Object, and Greek -λογία, -logiā, "-logy") (Template:Pron-en) is a neologism coined to describe the collective efforts of those who study unidentified flying object (UFO) reports and associated evidence. While ufology does not represent an academic field of research, UFOs have been subject to various investigations over the years by governments and independent academics.

Ufology is not to be confused with UFO religion, a fringe religious belief.

Etymology

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, one of the first documented uses of the word ufology can be found in the Times Literary Supplement from January 23, 1959 in which it says, "The articles, reports, and bureaucratic studies which have been written about this perplexing visitant constitute 'ufology.'" This article was printed eight years after Edward J. Ruppelt of the United States Air Force (USAF) created the word UFO in 1951.

Historical background

The modern UFO mythology has three traceable roots: the late 19th century "mystery airships" reported in the newspapers of western United States, "foo fighters" reported by Allied airmen during World War II and the Kenneth Arnold "flying saucer" sighting near Mt. Rainier, Washington state on June 24, 1947.[1]. UFO reports between the 'The Great Airship Wave' and the Arnold sighting were limited in number compared to the post-war period: notable cases include reports of "ghost fliers" in Europe and North America during the 1930s and the numerous reports of "ghost rockets" in Scandinavia (mostly Sweden) from May to December 1946.[2]. Media hype of the late 1940s and early 1950s following the Arnold sighting brought the concept of flying saucers to the wider audience.[3]

As the public's preoccupation in UFOs grew, along with the number of reported sightings, the United States military began to take notice of phenomenon. The UFO explosion of the early post-war era coincides with the escalation of the Cold War and the conflict in Korea.[1] The U.S. military feared that secret aircraft of the Soviet Union, possibly developed from captured German technology, were behind the sightings.[4] If real, the craft causing the sightings were thus of importance to national security.[5] and of need for systematic investigation. By 1952, however, the official US government interest in UFOs started to fade as the USAF projects "Sign" and "Grudge" concluded, along with the CIA's Robertson Panel that UFO reports indicated no direct threat to national security.[6] Official US government research into UFOs ended with the publication of the Condon Committee report in 1969.[6] The report concluded that the study of UFOs in the past 21 years had achieved little if anything and that further extensive study of UFO sightings was unwarranted.[6] It also recommended the termination of the USAF special unit Project Blue Book.[6]

As the US government ceased officially studying UFO sightings, the same is true today for most governments of the world. The notable exception is France, which still maintains the GEIPAN [7], formerly known as GEPAN (1977–1988) and SEPRA (1988–2004), unit under the French Space Agency CNES. During the Cold War, the several governments, including those of Britain[8], Canada[9], Denmark [10] Italy[11] and Sweden [12] collected UFO sightings. Britain's Ministry of Defence ceased accepting any new reports in 2010.[13]

Current notable ufological research is done by various private groups and individuals.

Status as a field

Further information: List of Ufologists

Ufology has not been embraced by academia as a scientific field of study[14][15] even though UFOs were during the late 1940s and early 1950s the subject of large-scale scientific studies. It has been characterized as being partly [16] or totally [17] a pseudoscience, a characterization rejected by ufologists [18]

The lack of acceptance of ufology by academia as a field of study means that people can claim to be "UFO researchers", without the sorts of scientific consensus building and, in many cases peer review, that otherwise shape and influence scientific paradigms. Even among scientifically inclined UFO research efforts, data collecting was often done by amateur investigators.[14]

Famous mainstream scientists who have shown interest to the UFO phenomena include Stanford physicist Peter A. Sturrock[19], astronomer J. Allen Hynek [20], computer scientist and astronomer Jacques Fabrice Vallee[21] and University of Arizona meteorologist James E. McDonald.[22]

Scientific UFO research suffers from the fact that the phenomena under observation do not usually make predictable appearances at a time and place convenient for the researcher.[23] Ufologist Diana Palmer Hoyt argues that[24]

The UFO problem seems to bear a closer resemblance to problems in meteorology than in physics. The phenomena are observed, occur episodically, are not reproducible, and in large part, are identified by statistical gathering of data for possible organization into patterns. They are not experiments that can be replicated at will at the laboratory bench under controlled conditions.

Skeptics, on the other hand, have argued that UFOs are not a scientific problem at all, as there is no tangle physical evidence to study.[23][15] Skeptic Barry Markovsky argues that under scrutiny by qualified investigators, the vast majority of UFO sightings turn out to have mundane explanations.[25]. Astronomer Carl Sagan stated on UFO sightings that "The reliable cases are uninteresting and the interesting cases are unreliable. Unfortunately there are no cases that are both reliable and interesting." [26]

Peter A. Sturrock suggests that UFO studies should be compartmentalized into at least "the following distinct activities:"[27]

  1. Field investigations leading to case documentation and the measurement or retrieval of physical evidence;
  2. Laboratory analysis of physical evidence;
  3. The systematic compilation of data (descriptive and physical) to look for patterns and so extract significant facts;
  4. The analysis of compilations of data (descriptive and physical) to look for patterns and so extract significant facts;
  5. The development of theories and the evaluation of those theories on the basis of facts.

Denzler[28] states that ufology as a field of study has branched into two different mindsets: the first group of investigators wants to convince the unbelievers and earn intellectual legitimacy through systematic study using the scientific method. The second group sees the follow-up questions concerning the origin and "mission" of the UFOs as more important than a potential academic standing.

Alleged academic ridicule

Stanton Friedman[29] considers the general attitude of mainstream academics as arrogant and dismissive, or bound to a rigid world view that disallows any evidence contrary to previously held notions. Denzler [30] states that the fear of ridicule and a loss of status has prevented scientists of pursuing a public interest in UFOs. J. Allen Hynek's famous comment regarding this subject is, "Ridicule is not part of the scientific method and people should not be taught that it is."[31] Hynek said of the frequent dismissal of UFO reports by astronomers that the critics knew little about the sightings and should thus not be taken seriously.[32]

Ufology and fringe theories

In addition to UFO sightings, certain supposedly related phenomena are of interest to some in the field of ufology, including crop circles (Colin Andrews[33]), cattle mutilations (Linda Moulton Howe [34]) and alien abductions and implants (well-known abduction researchers include John E. Mack, David M. Jacobs, Budd Hopkins, Richard Boylan and Raymond Fowler[35]). Some ufologists have also promoted UFO conspiracy theories, including the alleged Roswell UFO Incident of 1947 (Stanton Friedman[36], Kevin D. Randle [37]), the Majestic 12 documents (Stanton Friedman [38]) and UFO disclosure advocation (Michael Salla[39], Steven M. Greer [40]).

Skeptic Robert Sheaffer has accused ufology of having a "credulity explosion."[41] He claims a trend of increasingly sensational ideas steadily gaining popularity within ufology.[41] Sheaffer remarked "the kind of stories generating excitement and attention in any given year would have been rejected by mainstream ufologists a few years earlier for being too outlandish."[41]

Likewise, James McDonald has expressed the view that extreme groups undermined serious scientific investigation, stating that a "bizarre "literature" of pseudo-scientific discussion" on "spaceships bringing messengers of terrestrial salvation and occult truth" had been "one of the prime factors in discouraging serious scientists from looking into the UFO matter to the extent that might have led them to recognize quickly enough that cultism and wishful thinking have nothing to do with the core of the UFO problem."[42] In the same statement, McDonald said that: "Again, one must here criticize a good deal of armchair-researching (done chiefly via the daily newspapers that enjoy feature-writing the antics of the more extreme of such subgroups). A disturbing number of prominent scientists have jumped all too easily to the conclusion that only the nuts see UFOs".[42]

Surveys of scientists and amateur astronomers concerning UFOs

In 1973, Peter A. Sturrock conducted a surveys among members of the San Francisco chapter of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (1175 questionnaires mailed, 423 returned) and found no consensus concerning the nature and scientific importance of the UFO phenomenon, with views equally ranging from "impossible" to "certain" in reply to the question, "Do UFOs represent a scientifically significant phenomenon?" [43] In a later larger survey conducted among the members of the American Astronomical Society (2611 questionnaires mailed, 1356 replies), Sturrock found out that opinions were equally diverse, with 23% replying "certainly", 30% "probably", 27% "possibly", 17% "probably not", and 3% "certainly not" to the question if the UFO problem deserves scientific study.[44] Sturrock also asked in the same survey if the surveyee had witnessed any event which they could not have identified and which could have been related to the UFO phenomenon, with around 5% replying affirmatively.[44]

In 1980, a survey of 1800 members of various amateur astronomer associations by Gert Herb and J. Allen Hynek of the Center for UFO Studies (CUFOS) found that 24% responded "yes" to the question "Have you ever observed an object which resisted your most exhaustive efforts at identification?"[45]

Notable studies, panels and conferences in ufology

Further information: Identification studies of UFOs
Further information: List of government responses to UFOs

Project Sign, Project Grudge (USA, 1947-1949)

Nathan F. Twining
Main article: Project Sign

The first official USAF investigations of UFOs were Project Sign (1947–1949) an its successor Project Grudge (1949). Several hundred sightings were examined, a majority them of having a mundane explanation.[46] Some sightings were classified as credible but inexplicable, and in these cases the possibility of an advanced unknown aircraft could not be ruled out.[47]

The initial memos of the project took the UFO question seriously. After surveying 16 early reports, Lt. Col. George D. Garrett estimated that the sightings were not imaginary or exaggerations of natural phenomena.[48] Lt. General Nathan F. Twining expressed the same estimate in a letter to Brig. General Schulgen.[49]

'Flying Saucer' Working Party (UK, 1950–1951)

Main article: Flying Saucer Working Party

The United Kingdom's Ministry of Defence, alarmed of reports of seemingly advanced unidentified aircraft, followed the example of the US military by conducting its own study on UFOs in 1950.[50]. A research group was formed based on the recommendation of the eminent chemist Henry Tizard, and was involved in similar work as Project Sign.[50] After less than a year the directorate, named the 'Flying Saucer' Working Party (FSWP) concluded that most observations were either cases of mistaken identity, optical illusions, psychological delusions or hoaxes, and recommended that no further investigation on the phenomena should be undertaken.[51] In 1952, the directorate informed Prime Minister Winston Churchill, after his inquiry about UFOs, that they had found no evidence of extraterrestrial spacecraft.[50] The FSWP files were classified for fifty years and were released to the British public in 2001.[50]

Project Blue Book (USA, 1951-1969)

Main article: Project Blue Book

As a continuation of Project Sign and Project Grudge in 1951, the USAF launched Project Blue Book, led by Captain Edward J. Ruppelt. Under Ruppelt, the collection and investigation of UFO sightings became more systematic.[52] The project issued a series of status reports, which were initially classified, but declassified in September 1960 and made available in 1968.[53]

Project Blue Book was terminated in December 1969, following the report of the Condon Committee (see below). Until then, 12 618 incidents had been investigated, the great majority of which could be explained by conventional means. 701 cases (around 6 %) remained "unidentified".[54] Officially, the USAF concluded from the project that the phenomena investigated are of no concern to national security, and that there is no evidence the sightings categorized as "unidentified" are caused by extraterrestrial aircraft.[54]

Project Blue Book Special Report No. 14 (USA, 1952-1954)

The main entrance to Battelle Memorial Institute in Columbus, Ohio
Main article: Project Blue Book § Project Blue Book Special Report No. 14

Ruppelt contracted a team of scientists from the Battelle Memorial Institute to evaluate the early sightings gathered by the project. They conducted analysis, primarily statistical, on the subject for almost two years. The study concluded that more complete the data and better the report, the more likely it was that the report was classified as unidentified.[55][56] However, the report emphasized the subjectivity of the data, and stated that the conclusions drawn from the study were not based on facts, but on the subjective observations and estimations of the individual.[57] Furthermore, the report summary and conclusion stated that "unknowns" were not likely something beyond the era's technology, and almost certainly not "flying saucers".[52]

Robertson Panel (USA, 1953)

Main article: Robertson Panel

Before the final Battelle report was published, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) had developed an interest in UFOs as a national security (not scientific) issue, and set up a committee to examine existing UFO data.[52] The panel, headed by mathematician and physicist Howard Percy Robertson met from 14 to 17 January 1953.[6] It concluded unanimously that the UFO sightings posed no direct threat to national security, but did find that a continued emphasis on UFO reporting might threaten government functions by causing the channels of communication to clog with irrelevant reports and by inducing mass hysteria.[6] Also, the panel worried that nations hostile to the US might use the UFO phenomena to disrupt air defenses.[6] To meet these problems, the panel stated that a policy of public education on the lack of evidence behind UFOs was needed, to be done through the mass media, schools etc.[6] It also recommended monitoring private UFO groups for subversive activities.[6]

The recommendations of the Roberson Panel were partly implemented through a series of special military regulations.[58] The December 1953 Joint-Army-Navy-Air Force Publication 146 (JANAP 146) made publication of UFO sightings a crime under the Espionage Act.[58] The Air Force Regulation 200-2 (AFR 200-2) revision of 1954 made all UFO sightings reported to the USAF classified.[58] AFR 200-2 revision of February 1958 allowed the military to deliver to the FBI names of those who were "illegally or deceptively" bringing UFOs to public attention.[58]

Condon Committee (USA, 1966-1968)

Edward U. Condon
Main article: Condon Committee

After the recommendations of the Robertson Panel, the USAF wanted to ends its involvement in UFOs and pass Project Blue Book to an another agency.[59] In October 1966 the USAF contracted the University of Colorado, under the leadership of renowned physicist Edward U. Condon for $325,000 to conduct more scientific investigations of selected UFO sightings and to make recommendations about the project's future.[59][6] The committee looked at ninety-one UFO sightings, of which it was unable to identify 30%.[55] The report concluded that there was no "direct evidence" that UFOs were extraterrestrial spacecraft,[55] that UFO research of the past 21 years had added nothing to scientific knowledge, and that further study was not justified.[60] As a direct result of the Condon report, Project Blue Book was closed in December 1969.[55]

Many ufologists, however, were not satisfied with the Condon report, and considered it a cover-up.[6]

Project Identification (USA, 1973-1980)

In 1973, a wave of UFO sightings in south-east Missouri prompted Harley D. Rutledge, physics professor at the University of Missouri to conduct an extensive field investigation of the phenomenon.[61] The findings were published in the book (not in any traditional scientific venue or format) Project Identification: the first scientific field study of UFO phenomena.[62] Although taking a specific interest in describing unidentified aerial phenomena and not identifying them, the book goes in later chapters to reference the presumed intelligence of the sighted objects.[63]

Studies by GEPAN, SERPA & GEIPAN (France, 1977–present)

File:Cussac (1).gif
Drawing from the GEPAN report on the Cussac case
Main article: Groupe d'études et d'informations sur les phénomènes aérospatiaux non identifiés

In 1977, the French Space Agency CNES Director General set up a unit to record UFO sighting reports.[64] The unit was initially known as Groupe d’Etudes des Phénomènes Aérospatiaux Non identifiés (GEPAN), changed in 1988 to Service d'expertise de rentrée atmosphérique Phenom (SERPA) and in 2005 to Groupe d'études et d'informations sur les phénomènes aérospatiaux non identifiés (GEIPAN).[64]

GEIPAN has found a mundane explanation for the vast majority of recorded cases, but in 2007, after 30 years of investigation, 1600 cases (circa 28 % of total cases) remain unexplained "despite precise witness accounts and good-quality evidence recovered from the scene." and are categorized as "Type D" [64] In April 2010, GEIPAN statistics state that 23% of all cases are of Type D.[65] Jean-Jacques Velasco, the head of SEPRA from 1983 to 2004, wrote a book in 2004 saying that 13.5% of the 5800 cases studied by SEPRA were without any rational explanation and stated that UFOs are extraterrestrial in origin.[66]

United Nations (1977-1979)

Because of the lobbying of Eric Gairy, the Prime Minister of Grenada, the United Nations General Assembly addressed the UFO issue in the late 1970s.[67] On July 14, 1978 a panel, with Gordon Cooper, J. Allen Hynek and Jacques Vallee among its members, held a hearing to inform the UN Secretary General Kurt Waldheim about the matter.[68] As a consequence of this meeting, the UN adopted decisions A/DEC/32/424 and A/DEC/33/426, which called for "establishment of an agency or a department of the United Nations for undertaking, co-ordinating and disseminating the results of research into unidentified flying objects and related phenomena".[69][70][71]

Project Hessdalen / Project EMBLA (Norway, 1983–present / Italy 1999-2004)

Main article: Hessdalen light

Since 1981, in an area near the mountain valley Hessdalen in Norway unidentified flying, glowing objects have been commonly observed. This so-called Hessdalen phenomenon has been two times the subject of scientific field studies: the "Project Hessdalen" (1983–1985 and 1995 to date) secured technical assistance from the Norwegian Defense Research Establishment, the University of Oslo and the University of Bergen, while the "Project EMBLA" (1999–2004) was an Italian team of scientists led by Massimo Teodorani (Istituto di Radioastronomia di Bologna).

Both studies confirmed the presence of the phenomenon and were able to record it with cameras and various technical equipment such as radar, laser and infrared.[72][73] The origin and nature of the lights remains unclear.[74][75]

The researchers of Project EMBLA speculated about the possibility of atmospheric plasma as the origin of the phenomenon, and also evaluated the change of extraterrestrial intelligence being the cause of the lights.[76]

Project Condign (UK, 1996-2000)

Main article: Project Condign

The British Ministry of Defence (MoD) published in 2006 the "Scientific & Technical Memorandum 55/2/00a" of a four-volume, 460-page report titled "Unidentified Aerial Phenomena in the UK Air Defence Region ", based on a study on behalf of the Defence Intelligence Staff, section DI55, codenamed Project Condign.[77] The report is dated December 2000 and was previously classified as top secret. It discusses the British UFO reports (the MoD used the term Unidentified Aerial Phenomena, UAP) received between 1959 and 1997.

The report affirms that UFOs are a real phenomenon,[78] but points out that they present no threat to national defencẹ.[79] The report further states that there is no evidence that UFO sightins are caused by incursions of intelligent origin, or that any UFOs are solid objects which might cause a collision hazard.[80] Allthough the study admits of being unable to explain all analyzed UFO sightings with certainty, it recommends that section DI55 ceases monitoring UFO reports, as they do not provide information useful for Defence Intelligence.[81]

Sturrock Panel Report (USA, 1997)

From Sept. 29 to Oct. 4, 1997 a workshop examining selected UFO incidents took place in Tarrytown, New York. The meeting was initiated by Peter A. Sturrock, who had reviewed the Condon report and found it dissatisfying.[82] The international review panel consisted of nine physical scientists, who responded to eight investigators of UFO reports, who were asked to present their strongest data. [83]

The final report of the workshop was published under the title "Physical Evidence Related to UFO Reports" in the Journal of Scientific Exploration in 1998. [84] The study concluded that the studied cases presented no unequivocal evidence for the presence of unknown physical phenomena or for extraterrestrial intelligence, [85] but argued that a continued study of UFO cases might be scientifically valuable. [86]

COMETA Report (France, 1999)

Main article: COMETA

COMETA (COMité d'ÉTudes Approfondies, "Committee for in-depth studies") is a private French group, which is mainly composed of high-ranking individuals of the French Ministry of Defence. In 1999 the group published a 90-page report titled "Les Ovni Et La Defense: A quoi doit-on se Préparer?" ("UFOs and Defense: What Should We Prepare For?").[87] The report analyzed various UFO cases and concluded that UFOs are real, complex flying objects, and that the extraterrestrial hypothesis (see below) has a high probability of being the correct explanation for the UFO phenomenon.[88] The study recommended that the French government should adjust to the reality of the phenomenon and conduct further research. [89]

Skeptic Claude Maugé criticized COMETA for research incompetency, and claimed that the report tried to present itself as an official French document, when in fact it was published by a private group.[90]

"Disclosure Project" Press Conference (USA, 2001)

Steven M. Greer
Main article: Disclosure Project

On May 9, 2001 twenty government workers from military and civilian organizations spoke about their experiences regarding UFOs and UFO confidentiality at the National Press Club in Washington DC. [91] The press conference was initiated by Steven M. Greer, founder of the Disclosure Project, which has the goal of disclosing alleged government UFO secrecy.[92]

The purpose of the press conference was to build public pressure through the media to obtain a hearing before the United States Congress on the issue.[93] Although major American media outlets reported on the conference,[94] the interest quickly died down again, and no hearing came forth.

Fife Symington Press Conference (USA, 2007)

On November 12, 2007 a press conference, moderated by former Governor of Arizona Fife Symington, was held at the National Press Club in Washington DC.[95] Nineteen former pilots and military and civilian officials spoked about their experiences with UFOs and demanded that the U.S. government engages in a new investigation of the phenomenon.[96]

Notable cases in ufology

Further information: List of UFO sightings

Below are short summaries of selected famous cases in UFO research. All of the incidents remain subject of controversy.

Kenneth Arnold UFO sighting (USA, 1947)

Main article: Kenneth Arnold UFO sighting

On June 24, 1947 pilot Kenneth Arnold reported seeing nine metallic objects flying near Mt. Rainier, Washington. [97] The term 'flying saucer' was invented by Associated Press reporter Bill Bequette, who based it on Arnold's description of the objects.[97]

Roswell UFO Incident (USA, 1947)

Main article: Roswell UFO Incident

The Roswell Incident of 1947 ranks as one of the most publicized and controversial UFO incidents.[98] The US army allegedly recovered extra-terrestrial debris, including alien corpses, from an object which crashed near Roswell, New Mexico, in July 1947 [99] Many books on the incident have been written since the 1970s, and numerous alleged witnesses have spoken on the event.[100] The USAF maintains that the crashed object was a top-secret military spy balloon (Project Mogul).[101]

July 1952 Washington D.C. UFO incident (USA, 1952)

Main article: 1952 Washington D.C. UFO incident

From 13th to 29th of July 1952 there was a major wave of UFO sightings over Washington DC. Simultaneous radar and visual sightings were reported of what appeared to be a group of UFOs flying over the city, and the Capitol Building.[102][103] Fighter jets were scrambled to intercept the objects, which allegedly disappear when the planes got close enough to engage, and reappeared again when the jets disengaged.[102] The USAF held a major press conference to respond to the media and public inquiry, and brought in Harvard astronomer Donald Menzel to explain away the sightings as being caused by temperature inversion.[102]

Tehran UFO Incident (Iran, 1976)

Main article: 1976 Tehran UFO incident

On the morning of September 19, 1976 an unknown, bright object was sighted and also recorded by radar over Tehran, Imperial State of Iran. Two Imperial Iranian Air Force F-4 Phantom jet fighters tried to intercept the object, but had to turn back reportedly after a instrumentation and communications failure on both planes.[104] The second plane's weapons system reportedly also went dead when it tried to fire a missile at a smaller object which emerged from the object pursued.[104] The case is confirmed both by the statements of a senior Iranian military official[105] and by a report of the U.S. Defense Department on the case.[106]

Skeptic Philip J. Klass, after examining the case, claimed the witnesses initially saw an astronomical body, probably Jupiter, and equipment malfunction and pilot incompetence accounted for the rest.[107] Klass also pointed out that although being supposedly such a spectacular UFO case, it remained unclassified, and that there was no evidence of a follow-up investigation.[108]

Rendlesham Forest Incident (UK, 1980)

Main article: Rendlesham Forest incident

From 26th to 28th December 1980, several bright UFOs were reportedly observed by military personnel in Rendlesham Forest, Suffolk, England.[109] In one case, a witness reported seeing a landed object, which he then touched and felt characters etched on its surface, before the object flew off again.[110] Later, military personnel found impressions and increased radioactivity measurements on the supposed landing site.[111] The witnesses were all military personnel, including the deputy commander of the nearby Bentwaters Royal Air Force base, Lt. Col. Charles I. Halt. An official USAF memo dated January 13, 1981 documents the incident.[112] An audio recording of the military investigation that took place on the 27th December is available.[112]

Skeptic Brian Dunning of the Skeptoid podcast suggests the UFO and strange light sightings were misidentifications of the nearby Orfordness lighthouse, the re-entry of the Russian Cosmos 749 rocket and meteors.[113]

Belgian UFO wave (Belgium, 1989-1991)

Main article: Belgian UFO wave

From the end of 1989 to the middle of 1991, about 3500 UFO sightings were recorded in Belgium.[114] On the night of March 30, 1990 hundreds of people reported seeing UFOs in the airspace over Belgium, and unknown targets were also confirmed by radar.[115] Two Belgian Air Force (BAF) F-16 fighters tried to intercept the objects without success.[115] The radar tapes were later analyzed by the BAF, and it was concluded that the anomalies could have been caused by processing errors on the on-board computers.[115]

Ufologist Renaud Leclet et al. state that some of the sightings can be explained by helicopters of unusual models not familiar to the public.[116]

Phoenix Lights (USA, 1997)

Main article: Phoenix Lights

On March 13, 1997 from circa 8:15 p.m. to 10 p.m. hundreds of citizens of the city of Phoenix, Arizona reported seeing a formation of lights move over city and surrounding mountains, giving an impression of a gigantic V-shaped object.[117][118] Along with eyewitness testimony, video material and pictures of the lights exist.[115]

Visiting 104th Fighter Squadron of the Maryland Air National Guard dropped illumination flares as a part of an exercise near Phoenix around 8:15 to 8:30 p.m.[119][120]

UFO categorization

Different systems for the classification of UFO cases have been coined by ufologists.

Hynek system

Developed in the 1970s, J. Allen Hynek original system of description divides sightings into six categories.[121] It first separates sightings into distant- and close-encounter categories, arbitrarily setting 500 feet as the cutoff point. It then subdivides these close and distant categories based on appearance or special features. The three distant-encounter categories are:

  • Nocturnal Lights (NL): Anomalous lights seen in the night sky.
  • Daylight Discs (DD): Any anomalous object, generally but not necessarily “discoidal”, seen in the distant daytime sky.
  • Radar/Visual cases (RV). Objects seen simultaneously by eye and on radar.

Hynek also defined three “close encounter” (CE) subcategories:

Later Hynek introduced a fourth category, CE4, which is used to describe cases where the witness feels he was abducted by a UFO.[122] Some ufologists have adopted a fifth category, CE5, which involved conscious human-initiated contact with extraterrestrial intelligence.[122]

Vallée system

Jacques Vallée has devised a UFO classification system, where the UFO sightings of four different categories are divided into five subcategories. [123]

  • Close Encounter (CE): As per Hynek.
  • Manouver (MA): Trajectory discontinuity in flight.
  • Fly-by (FB): No observed discontinuity in flight.
  • Anomaly (AN): Unusual lights or unexplained entities.

The five subcategories can apply to all of four previous categories of sightings.

  • 1 Sighting
  • 2 Physical effects: for example, radar sighting
  • 3 Life form or living entity
  • 4 Reality transformation: witnesses experienced a transformation of their sense of reality (often corresponding to the popular characterization of the incident as an a abduction)
  • 5 Physiological impact: Such as death or serious injury

Thus, the Vallée categorization speaks of cases as MA-2, AN-1, CE-4 etc.

Funding issues

Astrophysicist Peter A. Sturrock suggests that a lack of funding is a major factor in the institutional disinterest in UFO’s: "If the Air Force were to make available, say, $50 million per year for ten years for UFO research, it is quite likely that the subject would look somewhat less disreputable ... however, an agency is unlikely to initiate such a program at any level until scientists are supportive of such an initiative. We see that there is a chicken-and-egg program. It would be more sensible, and more acceptable to the scientific community, if research began at a low level." [124]

Explanations

Hypotheses involving the objective existence of UFOs

These hypotheses speculate that the phenomena derives wholly or in part from a phenomenon, rather than the mind of the observer.

The extraterrestrial hypothesis

The extraterrestrial hypothesis (ETH) theorizes that some UFO sightings are alien spacecraft.

A sub-set of the ETH, the Staging Hypothesis, prevalent up until the 1980s, speculated that extraterrestrials have "stage-managed" encounters as a deliberate policy to "educate" humanity. [citation needed]

Wilhelm Reich and ufologist Jerome Eden have the hypothesis that UFOs - or at least some of them - or the beings traveling in the UFOs - are hostile. [citation needed] They claim that the waste product of the UFO engines is what they call "Deadly Orgone" (DOR) which ruins the atmosphere, dries it out, and is one cause, if not the most important cause, of the development of deserts.[citation needed] They found this during their operations with the "Cloudbuster".[125] [citation needed]

Eden, just like several other researchers, attributes the Cattle mutilations, cases such as "Snippy the horse",[126] to aliens, and claims that these beings abduct persons, manipulate their feelings and thoughts, cause military aircraft to crash or disappear, but they do not make open contact to government or military.[citation needed] That they even try to "educate" mankind in the way that the human beings develop a spiritual attitude towards aliens and UFOs, hoping that the aliens arrive as the saviors for the big problems of mankind and earth, when, in fact, their agenda involves exploiting Earth's natural resources and destroying its water and atmosphere.[citation needed]

The advanced human aircraft hypothesis

Further information: military flying saucers

This is a theory that all or some UFO sightings are advanced, secret or experimental aircraft of earthly origin.

There is a theory that the secret groups developing these aircraft in the USA, have been encouraging ufology to follow the extraterrestrial hypothesis line of thought, to cover up for sightings.

The Cosmic Trickster and Ultraterrestrial hypothesis

See also: interdimensional hypothesis and cryptoterrestrial hypothesis

Endorsed by ufologist John Keel (who coined the term "ultraterrestrial"), Jacques Vallée in his Passport to Magonia, Robert Anton Wilson, Mac Tonnies and Terence McKenna, this theory claims that UFOs have an objective reality, though of a kind humans cannot comprehend or understand. [citation needed]

A frequent sub-set of this theory conjectures that in the past the ultimate reality behind UFO is manifested as angels, demons, fairies and other "supernatural" beings.[citation needed] This over-laps both with the Staging Hypothesis and the Psychosocial Hypothesis.[citation needed]

Time travel or parallel worlds

Alternately, UFOs are craft that come from a parallel dimension or similar, or are human-manufactured craft from the future capable of time travel.[citation needed]

The "critter" or "sky beast" hypothesis

The theory of Trevor James Constable speculated that UFO sightings involve the sighting of exotic unknown life otherwise known as "Critters" or "Heat Critters"[127]. This theory seems to have[original research?] some connections to Constable's interpretations on Wilhelm Reich's Orgone energy[128].

UFOs as supernatural beings
Main article: paranormal and occult hypotheses about UFOs

UFOs as perception or illusion

The mistaken observer hypothesis

This is a theory that most UFO sightings are misunderstood phenomena such as ball lightning or visual illusions. See Identified Flying Objects (IFOs).

Psychology

Carl G. Jung, the Swiss psychoanalyst, in his 1957 work, Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Skies, explained UFOs as objects of the collective unconscious and modern archetypes. In a brief final chapter of his book, Jung also expressed his opinion that some UFOs could be real "nuts-and-bolts" of unknown nature.

In psychology, the study of UFO sightings has revealed information on misinterpretation, perceptual illusions, hallucination[citation needed]. Many[who?] have questioned the reliability of hypnosis in UFO abduction cases.[citation needed].

UFO-related claims that are based solely on eyewitness accounts are subject to a range of issues that may be involved with eyewitness memory.[citation needed] Under some circumstances, eyewitness memory is unreliable.[129] In addition, there is some evidence that memory of an event can be unconsciously altered to suit a desired interpretation of what was remembered.[130] For example, it is possible a person who has reported a UFO sighting may be reinterpreting an older memory to fit a desired explanation.[citation needed] One study has reported that participants who reported recovered memories of abduction by aliens were more prone than a control group to exhibit false recall. [1] However, the authors note as a limitation, that a small sample size was used in the study. In addition, the study did not address the alternative hypothesis that only a subgroup of those who reported abductions could account for the observed differences; i.e. it is possible some of the group claiming abduction were more prone to false recall while others were not.[original research?]

Psychosocial Hypothesis

The Psychosocial Hypothesis, advocated in the early work of ufologist Hilary Evans[citation needed], posits that some UFO sightings are hallucinations or fantasies and are caused by the same mechanism as various occult, paranormal, supernatural or religious experiences (compare alleged sightings of the Blessed Virgin Mary).

The Tectonic Strain and electro-staging theories

A few theorists [who?] have argued that UFO reports could be the results of possible natural phenomena such as earthquake lights (a somewhat disputed phenomenon within the mainstream scientific community) and the effect of natural (and in some cases artificial electromagnetic radiation) that allegedly causes altered states of consciousness. [citation needed]

(See also Tectonic Strain Theory)

Notable UFO organizations

Main article: List of UFO organizations

United States

In the US, groups and affiliates interested in UFO investigation number in the hundreds, of which only a limited number have achieved prominence based on their longevity, size and the involvement of researchers with scientific credentials.[131] The first significant UFO interest group in the US was the Aerial Phenomena Research Organization (APRO), formed in 1952 by Coral and James Lorenzen.[131] The organization closed down in 1988.[131] The National Investigations Committee on Aerial Phenomena (NICAP) was formed in 1957 and closed down in the 1970ṣ.[131] At a time it was the largest UFO organization in the country, with numerous chapters.[131] In 1957, Brothers W. H. and J. A. Spaulding founded the Ground Saucer Watch, which later became famous when in 1977 the group filed a suit under the Freedom of Information Act against the CIA.[131]

The two major UFO groups active today are the Mutual UFO Network (MUFON), founded in 1969, and the Center for UFO Studies (CUFOS), founded in 1973 by J. Allen Hynek.[131] MUFON grew as the key members of NICAP joined the organization in the 1970s.[131] CUFOS has tried to limit its membership to established researchers, but has found little academic acceptance.[131]

United Kingdom

The British UFO Research Association (BUFORA) is the largest and oldest of the active British UFO organizations.[132] It traces its roots to the London UFO Research Association (founded in 1959) which merged with the British UFO Association (BUFOA) to form BUFORA in 1964.[132]

Australia

Further information: Australian ufology

Australian Flying Saucer Bureau (AFSB) and the Australian Flying Saucer Research Society (AFSRS) were the earliest UFO groups established in Australia, with both being founded in the early 1950s.[133]

The Australian Centre for UFO Studies (ACUFOS) was established as in 1974 with links to the American CUFOS.[134] Other currently active Australian UFO groups include the Victorian UFO Research Society (VUFORS)[133], the Australian UFO Research Network (AUFORN)[135] and UFO Research Queensland (UFORQ).[136]

Skeptic organizations

Further information: List of skeptics and skeptical organizations

The Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI), although not an UFO organization, has investigated various UFO cases and given a skeptical review of the phenomena in its publications, often in the magazine Skeptical Inquirer.[137] Founded as the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP) in 1976 by professor of philosophy Paul Kurtz, the Committee counts as its founding members scientists and skeptics such as Carl Sagan, Isaac Asimov, Philip J. Klass, Ray Hyman, James Randi and Martin Gardner.[138]

The Skeptics Society, founded by science historian Michael Shermer in 1992, has also addressed the UFO issue skeptically in its magazine Skeptic.[139]

Panel discussion on November 12, 2007

On November 12, 2007, Former Arizona Governor Fife Symington moderated a panel of former high-ranking government, aviation and military officials from seven countries at the National Press Club.[140][141][142][143][144][145]

Sources

  • Sergey Litsak, Explanatory UFO Dictionary with Equivalents in Russian, English and German. ETS Publishing House and Polyglossum, Inc; ISBN 5-86455-063-9. Dictionary contains 853 articles.
  • Roth, Christopher F., "Ufology as Anthropology: Race, Extraterrestrials, and the Occult." In E.T. Culture: Anthropology in Outerspaces, ed. by Debbora Battaglia. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005.
  • Peter A. Sturrock; The UFO Enigma: A New Review of the Physical Evidence; Warner Books, 1999; ISBN 0-446-52565-0

See also

References

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  3. ^ Denzler (2003), pp. 9
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  35. ^ Denzler (2003), pp. 239
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  96. ^ "I touched a UFO: ex-air force pilot". The Sydney Morning Herald. November 13, 2007. Retrieved May 5, 2010.
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  101. ^ “The Roswell Report: Case Closed,” James McAndrews, Headquarters United States Air Force, 1997 http://www.gl.iit.edu/wadc/history/Roswell/roswell.pdf
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  105. ^ Rowland, Michael (November 13, 2007). "Ex-pilots, military officers call for new UFO probe". ABC News (Australia). Retired Iranian Air Force general, Parviz Jafari, says he attempted to shoot down a strange object hovering over Tehran in 1976.
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  107. ^ Klass, Philip J. (1983). UFOs: the public deceived. Prometheus Books. ISBN 0879753226.
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  124. ^ Sturrock, 155
  125. ^ See also Wilhelm Reich#Orgone accumulators and cloudbusters
  126. ^ Snippy the Horse -the Most Famous Horse in the World! official website
  127. ^ "The cosmic pulse of life", by Trevor Constable
  128. ^ burlingtonnews.net: UFOs OVER BURLINGTON WISCONSIN
  129. ^ Eyewitness memory in context: toward a systematic understanding
  130. ^ Today@UCI: Press Releases:
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  145. ^ "Full video taken during the press conference". Retrieved 2008-01-14.
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