Standard-gauge railway

This article is about railway track gauge. For loading gauges, see Standard loading gauge. For gauge in toy trains, see Standard Gauge (toy trains).

Track gauge

By transport mode
Tram Rapid transit Miniature Scale model
By size (list)
Minimum   Minimum   Fifteen inch 381 mm (15 in) Narrow   600 mm Two foot Two foot three inch 600 mm 610 mm 686 mm (1 ft 11+5⁄8 in) (2 ft) (2 ft 3 in)   750 mm Bosnian gauge Two foot six inch 750 mm 760 mm 762 mm (2 ft 5+1⁄2 in) (2 ft 5+15⁄16 in) (2 ft 6 in)   Swedish three foot 900 mm Three foot Italian metre 891 mm 900 mm 914 mm 950 mm (2 ft 11+3⁄32 in) (2 ft 11+7⁄16 in) (3 ft) (3 ft1+13⁄32 in)   Metre 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in)   Three foot six inch 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in)   Four foot 1,219 mm (4 ft)   Four foot six inch 1,372 mm (4 ft 6 in)   1432 mm 1,432 mm (4 ft 8+3⁄8 in)   Standard 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) Broad   Italian broad gauge Dresden gauge 1,445 mm 1,450 mm (4 ft 8+7⁄8 in) (4 ft 9+3⁄32 in)   Leipzig gauge 1,458 mm (4 ft 9+13⁄32 in)   Toronto gauge 1,495 mm (4 ft 10+7⁄8 in)   1520 mm Five foot 1,520 mm 1,524 mm (4 ft 11+27⁄32 in) (5 ft)   Pennsylvania gauge Pennsylvania gauge Five foot three inch 1,581 mm 1,588 mm 1,600 mm (5 ft 2+1⁄4 in) (5 ft 2+1⁄2 in) (5 ft 3 in)   Baltimore gauge 1,638 mm (5 ft 4+1⁄2 in)   Iberian gauge Five foot six inch 1,668 mm 1,676 mm (5 ft 5+21⁄32 in) (5 ft 6 in)   Six foot 1,829 mm (6 ft)   Brunel 2,140 mm (7 ft 1⁄4 in)
Change of gauge
Break-of-gauge Dual gauge Conversion list Bogie exchange Variable gauge
By location
North America South America Europe Australia

The standard gauge (also Stephenson gauge named after George Stephenson, International gauge, or normal gauge) is a widely used railway track gauge. Approximately 55% of the lines in the world use this gauge. All high-speed rail lines, except those in Russia, Uzbekistan, and Finland, utilize standard gauge. The distance between the inside edges of the rails is defined to be 1435 mm except in the United States, where it is still defined in Imperial and US customary units as approximately 4 ft 8½ in. It is also called the UIC gauge or UIC track gauge, the European gauge in the EU and Russia, or uniform gauge in Queensland, Australia.

History

As railways developed and expanded, one of the key issues was the track gauge (the distance, or width, between the inner sides of the rails) to be used. The result was the adoption throughout a large part of the world of a "standard gauge" of 1435 mm (4 ft 8½ in), allowing inter-connectivity and inter-operability.

In North East England, some early lines in colliery (coal mining) areas were 4 ft 8 in (1,422 mm), while in Scotland some early lines were 4 ft 6 in (1,372 mm). All these lines had been widened to standard gauge by 1846. Parts of the United States, mainly in the Northeast, adopted the same gauge, because some early trains were purchased from Britain. However, until well into the second half of the 19th century, Britain and the USA used several different track gauges. The American gauges converged as the advantages of equipment interchange became increasingly apparent. Notably, all the 5 ft (1,524 mm) broad gauge track in the South was converted to standard gauge over the course of two days beginning on 31 May 1886. See Track gauge in the United States.

Origins

A popular legend that has been around since at least 1937 traces the origin of the 1435 mm (4 ft 8½ in) gauge even further back than the coalfields of northern England, pointing to the evidence of rutted roads marked by chariot wheels dating from the Roman Empire. Snopes categorized this legend as "false", but commented that "...it is perhaps more fairly labelled as 'True, but for trivial and unremarkable reasons.'" The historical tendency to place the wheels of horse-drawn vehicles approximately 5 feet (1,500 mm) apart probably derives from the width needed to fit a carthorse in between the shafts. In addition, while road-traveling vehicles are typically measured from the outermost portions of the wheel rims (and there is some evidence that the first railroads were measured in this way as well), it became apparent that for vehicles travelling on rails it was better to have the wheel flanges located inside the rails, and thus the distance measured on the inside of the wheels (and, by extension, the inside faces of the rail heads), was the important one.

There was no standard gauge for horse railways, but there were rough groupings: in the north of England none was less than 4 ft (1,219 mm). Wylam colliery's system, built before 1763, was 5 ft (1,524 mm), as was John Blenkinsop's Middleton Railway; the old 4 ft (1,219 mm) plateway was relaid to 5 ft (1,524 mm) so that Blenkinsop's engine could be used. Others were 4 ft 4 in (1,321 mm) (in Beamish) or 4 ft 7½ in (Bigges Main and Kenton and Coxlodge).

The English railway pioneer George Stephenson spent much of his early engineering career working for the coal mines of County Durham. He favoured 4 ft 8 in (1,422 mm) for wagonways in Northumberland and Durham, and used it on his Killingworth line. The Hetton and Springwell wagonways also used this gauge.

Stephenson's Stockton and Darlington railway (S&DR) was built primarily to transport coal from mines near Shildon to the port at Stockton-on-Tees. The initial gauge of 4 ft 8 in (1,422 mm) was set to accommodate the existing gauge of hundreds of horse-drawn chaldron wagons that were already in use on the wagonways in the mines. The railway used this gauge for 15 years before a change was made to the 4 ft 8½ in gauge. The historic Mount Washington Cog Railway, the world's first mountain-climbing rack railway, is still in operation in the 21st century, and has used the earlier 4 ft 8 in gauge since its inauguration in 1868.

George Stephenson used the 4 ft 8½ in gauge (including a belated extra ½ in (12.7 mm) of free movement to reduce binding on curves for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, authorised in 1826 and opened 30 September 1830. The success of this project led to Stephenson and his son Robert being employed to engineer several other larger railway projects. Robert was reported to have said that if he had had a second chance to choose a standard gauge, he would have chosen one wider than 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in). "I would take a few inches more, but a very few".

During the "gauge war" with the Great Western Railway, standard gauge was called "narrow gauge". The modern use of narrow gauge for gauges less than standard did not arise for 20 years, until the first such locomotive-hauled passenger railway, the Ffestiniog Railway.

The Royal Commission

In 1845, in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, a Royal Commission on Railway Gauges reported in favour of a standard gauge. In Great Britain, Stephenson's gauge was chosen on the grounds that lines of this gauge were eight times longer than those of the rival 7 ft (2,134 mm) (later 7 ft 1⁄4 in (2,140 mm)) gauge adopted principally by the Great Western Railway. The subsequent Gauge Act ruled that new passenger-carrying railways in Great Britain should be built to a standard gauge of 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in), and those in Ireland to a new standard gauge of 5 ft 3 in (1,600 mm). It allowed the broad-gauge companies in Great Britain to continue with their tracks and expanding their networks within the "Limits of Deviation" and the exceptions defined in the Act. After an intervening period of mixed-gauge operation (tracks were laid with three rails), the Great Western Railway finally converted its entire network to standard gauge in 1892.

The Royal Commission made no comment about small to-be-called "narrow"-gauge lines, such as the Ffestiniog Railway, which allowed a future multiplicity of small gauges in the UK; it also made no comments about future gauges in British colonies.

Railways by gauge

Non-standard gauge

• Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway, authorised 1824 and opened 1825, used 4 ft 6 in (1,372 mm).
• Dundee and Newtyle Railway, authorised 1829 and opened 1831, used 4 ft 6½ (1,384 mm).
• the Eastern Counties Railway, authorised on 4 July 1836, used 5 ft (1,524 mm)
• the London and Blackwall Railway, authorised on 28 July 1836, used 5 ft ½ in (1,537 mm).
• the Dundee and Arbroath Railway, incorporated on 19 May 1836 and opened October 1838, used 5 ft 6 in (1,676 mm) until standardised in 1847.
• the Arbroath and Forfar Railway, incorporated on 19 May 1836 and opened November 1838, used 5 ft 6 in.
• the Northern and Eastern Railway, authorised on 4 July 1836, used 5 ft (1,524 mm) gauge.
• Aberdeen Railway, opened 1848, used 5 ft 6 in (1,676 mm) until standardised.

Almost standard gauge

• the Killingworth Colliery tramway, used 4 ft 8 in (1,422 mm).
• the Hetton colliery railway, opened 1822, engineered by George Stephenson, used 4 ft 8 in (1,422 mm).
• the Stockton and Darlington Railway, opened 1825, original gauge 4 ft 8 in (1,422 mm).
• the Chester and Birkenhead Railway, authorised on 12 July 1837, used 4 ft 9 in (1,448 mm).
• the London and Brighton Railway, authorised on 15 July 1837, used 4 ft 9 in (1,448 mm).
• the Manchester and Birmingham Railway, authorised on 30 June 1837, used 4 ft 9 in (1,448 mm).
• the Manchester and Leeds Railway, authorised on 4 July 1836, used 4 ft 9 in (1,448 mm).
  • The 4 ft 9 in (1,448 mm) railways were intended to take 4 ft 8½ in (1,435 mm) gauge vehicles and allow a (second) running tolerance.
• the trams in Dresden, authorised in 1872 as horsecars, used 1,440 mm (4 ft 8+11⁄16 in) gauge vehicles. Converted to 600 V DC electric trams in 1893, they now use 1,450 mm (4 ft 9+3⁄32 in); both gauges are within the tolerance for standard gauge.
• the trams in Nuremberg nominally used 1,432 mm (4 ft 8⅜ in) during much of their existence, but have since been converted to standard gauge in name as well as fact
• the Grand Junction Railway, authorised 1833, opened 1837, connected to LMR.
• the Newcastle & Carlisle Railway

Standard gauge

• the Bolton and Leigh Railway, authorised 1825, opened 1828, connected to LMR.
• the Saint-Étienne–Lyon railway, commenced 1826, opened 1833.
• the Grand Junction Railway, authorised 1833, opened 1837, connected to LMR.
• the Newcastle & Carlisle Railway, authorised 1829, opened 1834, isolated from LMR, engineered by Robert Stephenson.
• the Manchester and Birmingham Railway, authorised 1837, opened 1840, connected to LMR.
• the London and Birmingham Railway, authorised 1833, opened 1838, connected to LMR.
• the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway, authorised 1836, opened 1840, connected to LMR.
• the London and Southampton Railway, authorised 1834, opened 1840.
• the London and Brighton Railway, authorised 1837, opened 1841.
• the South Eastern Railway, authorised 1836, opened 1844.

Dual gauge

• Cheltenham and Great Western Union Railway, authorised 1836, opened 1840, dual gauge 1843 1,435 mm (4ft 8½ in) and 7 ft ¼ in (2,140 mm).

Modern almost-standard gauge railways

• The Mount Washington Cog Railway, the world's oldest mountain-climbing rack-and-pinion railway, uses a slightly-narrower 4 ft 8 in (1,422 mm) gauge .
• The MTR in Hong Kong uses 1,432 mm (4 ft 8⅜ in) gauge on lines owned by the MTR Corporation. However, lines formerly operated (but which continue to be owned) by the Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation, including the Light Rail network, use 1,435 mm (4ft 8½ in) gauge.
• The Washington Metro uses 4 ft 8¼ (1,429 mm), ¼ inch (6.4 mm) narrower than standard gauge.
• 1,445 mm (4 ft 8⅞ in) gauge is in use on several urban rail transit systems in Europe:
  • Trams in Italy
  • Part of the Madrid Metro
  • Trams in Dresden, Germany

Legislation

• United Kingdom: Regulating the Gauge of Railways Act 1846

Installations

Country/territory	Railway	Notes
Albania	National rail network	339 km (211 mi)
Algeria	National rail network Algiers Metro, Algiers tramway, Constantine tramway, Oran tramway, Oran Metro	3,973 km (2,469 mi)
Argentina	General Urquiza Railway (except for Ferrocarril Económico Correntino, which uses 600 mm or 1 ft 11+5⁄8 in) Buenos Aires Underground Metrotranvía Mendoza Tren de la Costa	Other major lines are mostly 1,676 mm (5 ft 6 in) broad gauge, with the exception of the 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) metre gauge General Belgrano Railway. Further information: Rail transport in Argentina
Australia	Pacific National, Pilbara Railways, Sydney Metro Further information: List of Australian railway companies	Victoria (Australia) built the first railways to the Irish broad gauge. New South Wales then built to the standard gauge, so trains had to stop on the border and passengers transferred, which was only rectified in the 1960s. Queensland still runs on a narrow gauge but there is a standard gauge line from NSW to Brisbane. Further information: Rail gauge in Australia
Austria	Österreichische Bundesbahnen	The Semmering railway has UNESCO World Heritage Site status.
Bangladesh	Only used for rapid transit systems: Dhaka Metro
Belgium	NMBS/SNCB, Brussels Metro and tramway
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Željeznice Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine and Željeznice Republike Srpske, Sarajevo tramways	Further information: Rail transport in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Brazil	Estrada de Ferro do Amapá; from Uruguaiana to the border with Argentina and from Santana do Livramento to the border with Uruguay (both mixed gauge 1,435 mm and 1,000 mm or 3 ft 3+3⁄8 in metre gauge); remaining tracks at Jaguarão, Rio Grande do Sul (currently inoperable); Rio de Janeiro Light Rail; São Paulo Metro lines 4 and 5; Salvador Metro	194 km (121 mi)
Bulgaria	National Railway Infrastructure Company (NRIC), Bulgarian State Railways (BDZ), Sofia Underground, part of Sofia Tramway system
Canada	National rail network (including commuter rail operators like GO Transit, West Coast Express, AMT), Line 5 Eglinton, Union Pearson Express	49,422 km (30,709 mi)
China	National rail network	103,144 km (64,091 mi)
Croatia	Hrvatske Željeznice	Further information: Transport in Croatia
Colombia	Metro de Medellín, Tren del Cerrejón, Metro de Bogotá
Cuba	Ferrocarriles de Cuba
Czech Republic	České dráhy, Prague metro, all tram systems in the country (Liberec has dual gauge 1,000/1,435 mm, with one meter-gauge interurban line to Jablonec nad Nisou), funicular in Prague
Denmark	Banedanmark and Copenhagen Metro
Djibouti	Addis Ababa-Djibouti Railway
Egypt	Egyptian National Railways
Ethiopia	Addis Ababa-Djibouti Railway; Addis Ababa Light Rail	Other standard gauge lines under construction.
France	SNCF, RATP (on RER lines)
Germany	Deutsche Bahn, numerous local public transport providers	43,468 km
Greece	Hellenic Railways Organisation (operated by TrainOSE)	All modern Greek network, except in the Peloponnese
Hong Kong	MTR (former KCR network – East Rail Line, West Rail Line, Ma On Shan Line, Light Rail)	Other MTR lines use 1,432 mm (4 ft 8+3⁄8 in) instead of 4 ft 8+1⁄2 in
Hungary	MÁV, GySEV, Budapest metro, HÉV (Suburban railway), Tram systems in Budapest, Debrecen, Miskolc, Szeged, Budapest Cog-wheel Railway
India	Only used for rapid transit systems: Bangalore Metro, Chennai Metro, Delhi Metro (Phase 2 onwards), Gurgaon Metro, Hyderabad Metro Rail, Jaipur Metro, Kochi Metro, Kolkata Metro (Line 2 onwards), Trams in Kolkata, Lucknow Metro, Mumbai Metro, Navi Mumbai Metro. All of the under-construction and future rapid transit systems would be in standard gauge.	Indian country-wide rail system (Indian Railways) uses 1,676 mm (5 ft 6 in) broad gauge. Any future additions to this system would also be in broad gauge.
Indonesia	Railways in Aceh Province and Sulawesi	Rest of the country uses 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in).
Iran	Islamic Republic of Iran Railways
Iraq	Iraqi Republic Railways
Ireland	Railway Procurement Agency	Luas in Dublin
Israel	Israel Railways, CTS, operating the Jerusalem Light Rail
Italy	Ferrovie dello Stato
Japan	Shinkansen, JR Hokkaido Naebo Works (see Train on Train), Keisei Line, Keikyu Line, Tokyo Metro (Ginza and Marunouchi lines), Toei Subway (Asakusa and Oedo lines), Kintetsu Railway (Osaka, Nara, Nagoya, Yamada, Kyoto, and Keihanna lines and their associated branches), Keihan Railway, Hankyu Railway, Hanshin Railway, Kyoto Municipal Subway, Kobe Municipal Subway, Osaka Municipal Subway (including the Kita-Osaka Kyuko Railway), Fukuoka City Subway (Nanakuma Line), Sendai Subway (Tozai Line), Nagoya Municipal Subway (Higashiyama, Meijō, and Meikō lines), Nose Electric Railway, Yokohama Municipal Subway (Blue and Green lines)	4,251 km (2,641 mi), all electrified
Kenya	Mombasa-Nairobi Standard Gauge Railway	Inaugurated May 31, 2017
Lebanon		All lines out of service and essentially dismantled
Libya	Network under construction
Lithuania	Rail Baltica	First phase, from Kaunas to the Polish border, completed in 2015. Second phase, from Kaunas north to Talinn, Estonia, is in planning stage.
Luxembourg	Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Luxembourgeois
Macedonia	Macedonian Railways
Malaysia	RapidKL (Kelana Jaya Line, Ampang Line, MRT Sungai Buloh-Kajang Line, MRT Sungai Buloh-Serdang-Putrajaya Line), KLIA Ekspres, MRL East Coast Rail Link (under construction), Kuala Lumpur–Singapore High Speed Rail (planned)
Mexico	Further information: List of Mexican railroads
Monaco
Montenegro	Željeznice Crne Gore	3
Morocco	Rail transport in Morocco
Netherlands	Nederlandse Spoorwegen and regional railways.
Nigeria	Lagos-Kano Standard Gauge Railway; Lagos Rail Mass Transit	Under construction; Abuja to Kaduna section operational.
North Korea	Railways of the DPRK.
Norway	Norwegian National Rail Administration, Rail transport in Norway
Panama	Panama Railway; Panama Metro	Regauged from 5 ft (1,524 mm) in 2001
Paraguay	Ferrocarril Presidente Don Carlos Antonio López, now Ferrocarril de Paraguay S.A. (FEPASA)	36 km out of Asunción (used as a tourist steam line), plus 5 km from Encarnación to the border with Argentina, carrying mainly exported soy; the rest of the 441-km line awaits its fate, while redevelopment plans come and go with regularity. The section from west of Encarnación to north of San Salvador, plus the entire San Salvador–Abaí branch, have been dismantled by the railway itself and sold for scrap to raise funds.
Peru	Railroad Development Corporation, Ferrocarril Central Andino (Callao–Lima–La Oroya–Huancayo and La Oroya–Cerro del Pasco lines), Ferrocarril del sur de Peru (operated by Peru Rail) Matarani–Arequipa–Puno and Puno–Cuzco, Ilo–Moquegua mining railroad, Tacna–Arica (Chile) international line, (operated by Tacna province), Lima electric suburban railway
Philippines	Manila LRT Lines 1 and 2, and Manila MRT Line 3.
Poland	Polskie Koleje Państwowe, Warsaw Metro, most tramway systems throughout the country
Portugal	Planned high-speed lines, Braga and Oporto (Guindais) funiculars, Lisbon Metro, Oporto Metro (partly adapted from former 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) metre gauge; tracks), Metro Transportes do Sul light rail in Almada.	All other railways use 1,668 mm (5 ft 5+21⁄32 in) (broad gauge); some use 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) metre gauge; Decauville uses 500 mm (19+3⁄4 in) gauge.
Romania	Căile Ferate Române, Bucharest Metro, Tram systems in Botoşani, Brăila, Bucharest, Cluj-Napoca, Craiova, Galaţi, Oradea, Ploieşti and Timișoara
Russia	Rostov-on-Don tramway, lines connecting Kaliningrad with Poland
Saudi Arabia	Rail transport in Saudi Arabia
Serbia	Serbian Railways
Singapore	MRT, Kuala Lumpur–Singapore High Speed Rail (planned)
Slovakia	Železnice Slovenskej republiky, Košice tramway system
Slovenia	Slovenske železnice
South Africa	Gautrain in Gauteng Province	Rest of country uses 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in)
South Korea	KRNA
Spain	AVE high-speed rail lines from Madrid to Seville, Málaga, Saragossa, Barcelona (-Perthus), Toledo, Huesca, and Valladolid, Barcelona Metro (L2, L3, L4, and L5 lines), Barcelona FGC (lines L6 and L7), and Metro Vallès (lines S1, S2, S5, and S55).	All other railways use 1,668 mm (5 ft 5+21⁄32 in) (broad gauge) and/or 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) metre gauge).
Sweden	Swedish Transport Administration, Storstockholms Lokaltrafik (Stockholm metro, commuter and light rail lines), tram networks in Gothenburg and Norrköping
Switzerland	Swiss Federal Railways, BLS, Rigi Railways (rack railway)
Syria	Chemins de Fer Syriens
Taiwan	Taipei Rapid Transit System, Taiwan High Speed Rail, and Kaohsiung Mass Rapid Transit
Thailand	BTS Skytrain, MRT, and Suvarnabhumi Airport Link
Tunisia	Northern part of the network
Turkey	Turkish State Railways (also operates Marmaray), metro networks, and tram networks	Some tram networks use 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) metre gauge. Further information: Rail transport in Turkey
United Arab Emirates	Rail transport in the United Arab Emirates
United Kingdom (Great Britain)	Entire rail network in Great Britain (but not Ireland) since standardisation by the Regulating the Gauge of Railways Act 1846
United States	Modern national railroad network; see Track gauge in the United States	The Washington Metro uses 4 ft 8+1⁄4 in (1,429 mm) gauge, which is 6 mm (0.24 in) narrower than standard gauge. The Bay Area Rapid Transit system uses 5 ft 6 in Indian Gauge.
Uruguay	National rail network
Vietnam	North of Hanoi	Includes dual gauge (standard/metre) to the Chinese border.

Road vehicles

Several states in the United States had laws requiring road vehicles to have a consistent gauge to allow them to follow ruts in the road. These gauges were similar to railway standard gauge.

See also

• Standard Gauge (toy trains)

Bibliography

• Allen, Geoffrey Freeman (1987). Jane's World Railways, 1987–88. Jane's Information. ISBN 978-0-71060848-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Baxter, Bertran (1966). Stone Blocks and Iron Rails (Tramroads). Industrial Archaeology of the British Isles. Newton Abbot: David & Charles. ISBN 0-715340-04-2. OCLC 643482298. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Jones, Robin (2013). The Rocket Men. Mortons Media. ISBN 978-1-90912827-9.
• Jones, Stephen K (2009). Brunel in South Wales. Vol. II: Communications and Coal. Stroud: The History Press. pp. 64–65. ISBN 978-0-75244912-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Pomeranz, Kenneth; Topik, Steven (1999). The World that Trade Created: Society, Culture, and World Economy, 1400 to the Present. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0-7656-0250-4.
• Puffert, Douglas J (2009). Tracks across Continents, Paths through History: The Economic Dynamics of Standardization in Railway Gauge. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-68509-0.
• Setti, João Bosco (2008). Brazilian Railroads. Rio de Janeiro: Memória do Trem. ISBN 978-85-8609409-5 – via Google Books. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Vaughan, A. (1997). Railwaymen, Politics and Money. London: John Murray. ISBN 0-7195-5150-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Whishaw, Francis (1969) [1842, John Weale]. The Railways of Great Britain and Ireland: Practically Described and Illustrated. London: David & Charles; reprints: Newton Abbot. ISBN 0-7153-4786-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

External links

• "The Sydney Morning Herald". The Sydney Morning Herald. 23 May 1892. p. 4. Retrieved 14 August 2011 – via National Library of Australia., a discussion of gauge in Australia circa 1892
• A learned text of standardisation of gauge
• "Standard Railway Gauge". Townsville Bulletin. 5 October 1937. p. 12. Retrieved 19 March 2014 – via National Library of Australia., a discussion of the Roman gauge origin theory.