Ali

For other uses, see Ali (disambiguation).

Ali
Commander of the Faithful (Arabic: Amir al-Mu'minin)
This mosque near Al Najaf, Iraq, is believed by Shias to house the tombstone of Ali
Reign	656 – 661
Predecessor	Uthman
Successor	Muawiyah I
Burial	Imam Ali Mosque, Najaf, Iraq
Wife	Fatimah
Issue	Hassan Husayn (See:Descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib )
Names ‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib
House	Ahl al-Bayt Banu Hashim
Father	Abu Talib
Mother	Fatima bint Asad

Ali ibn Abi Talib (Ali ibn Abu Talib) (Template:Lang-ar) (Thirteenth of Rajab, 24 BH – Twenty-first of Ramadan, 40 AH) (approximately: March 17 599 - February 28 661) was cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, and fourth and final Rashidun (Rightly Guided) Sunni caliph, reigning from 656 to 661 and the first Shi'a Imam. All Shi'a Muslims believe that he was the rightful successor to Muhammad, and his descendants, the Shia imams, to be the religious and political leaders of the Muslim community.

Although he had limited political influence during his lifetime, he had vast influence on the developments of events during the time of the early Muslims as a military leader, close companion, cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad. Later, his stature as a foremost authority on the Qur'an, Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and religious thought continues to influence Islamic history. He is among the most influential people in the history of Islam after Muhammad himself, being considered second only to Muhammad in divine guidance by Shi'a Muslims. He is revered by the Sunni Muslims as one of the four Rightly Guided Caliphs and as a foremost authority in Tafsir (Quranic exegesis) and Islamic jurisprudence. The compilation of his sermons and lectures are in the form of a book "Nahj al-Balagha". This book is considered by historians and scholars as an important literary work in Islam.

Biography

Birth

File:92110.jpg

Muhammad and Ali, written in a single word - in its 180 degree inverted form, shows both the words. This is called an ambigram.

Main article: Birthplace of Ali ibn Abi Talib

He was born in Mecca, inside the Kaaba, where he stayed with his mother for three days. His father was Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib and his mother was Fatima binte Asad. Muhammad was the first person whom Ali saw. Muhammad took the newborn in his hands and named him Ali, which means exalted one.

Early life

Ali's father, Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib, was a Sheikh of Banu Hashim, an important branch of the powerful tribe of the Quraysh, and an uncle to the young Muhammad. When Muhammad was orphaned and then lost his grandfather Shaiba ibn Hashim (Abdul Muttalib), Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib took Muhammad into his house. Later Muhammad set out and married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid. Ali was born three years later. When Ali was six years old, as a result of famine in and around Mecca, Muhammad requested to become his guardian.

The second period of 'Ali's life, lasting slightly more than a decade, begins in 610, when Muhammad received the first of his revelations, and ends with the Hijra (withdrawal) of the Prophet to Medina in 622. When Muhammad reported that he had received a divine revelation, Ali, then only about nine years old, believed him and professed Islam. Ali was the first male to enter Islam. Ali stood firmly in support of Muhammad during the years of persecution of Muslims in Mecca. In 622 CE, the year of Muhammad's migration to Yathrib (now Medina), Ali risked his life by sleeping in Muhammad's bed to impersonate him and thwart an assassination plot, so that Muhammad could escape in safety.

Ali survived the plot, but risked his life again by staying in Mecca to carry out Muhammad's instructions: to restore to their owners all the goods and properties that had been entrusted to Muhammad for safekeeping. Then he went to Medina with Fatima binte Asad (his mother), Fatimah (the daughter of the Prophet), and two other women.

The Shi'a believe that in keeping with Ali's divine mission, he converted to Islam before he had ever taken part in any of the rites of the pre-Islamic Meccan traditional religion, which Muslims regard as polytheism (see shirk) or paganism. Hence the Shi'a say of Ali that his face is honored - that is, it was never sullied by prostrations before idols. No Sunni historians make such claims for Ali. The matter is passed over in complete silence. None of the earliest sources (Muslim chroniclers such as Ibn Ishaq and Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari) mention such a claim.

Ali in Medina

Ali was 22 or 23 years old when he migrated to Medina. Shortly after his arrival, the Prophet told Ali that he (the Prophet) had been ordered by God to give his daughter Fatimah to Ali in marriage. When the Prophet was creating bonds of brotherhood among his Sahaba (companions) he selected Ali as his brother.

For the ten years that Muhammad led the community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his service, serving in his armies, leading parties of warriors on raids, and carrying messages and orders. With the exception of the Battle of Tabouk, Ali took part in all the battles and expeditions fought for Islam. As one of Muhammad’s lieutenants, and later his son-in-law, Ali was a person of authority and standing in the Muslim community.

Ali first distinguished himself as a warrior in 624 CE, at the Battle of Badr. He defeated the Umayyad champion Walid ibn Utba as well as many other Meccan soldiers. Al Seerah of Ibn Hisham narrates how he killed 20 of the pagans and Al Maghazi put the number at 22.

Zulfiqar, a fictional representation of the sword of Ali.

Ali was also prominent at the Battle of Uhud, as well as many other battles where he wielded a bifurcated sword known as Zulfiqar. He was the standard-bearer in every battle that he partook in. He also led parties of warriors on raids into enemy lands, and was an ambassador. At the beginning Ali killed Talhah Ibn Abu Talhah and then his brother Abu Saad ibn Abu Talhah, the bearers of the banner of the pagans. Ali ibn al-Athir, Abu Rafi, and Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari reported that Ali, alone, destroyed all the standard bearers., The death of the bearers of the banner heightened the morale of the Muslims and shook the hearts of the pagans and when the army of Islam was defeated and most of the Muslims had fled Ali was one of the few Muslims who defended Muhammad. According to Ibn Atheer, "The Prophet became the object of the attack of various units of the army of Quraish from all sides. Ali attacked, in compliance with the Prophet's orders, every unit that made an attack upon him (the Prophet) and dispersed them or killed some of them, and this thing took place a number of times in Uhud" and it was said "La fata illa Ali, La saifa illa Zulfiqar" (There is no brave man except Ali and there is no sword which renders service except Zulfiqar)."

Ghadir Khumm

Main articles: Hadith of the pond of Khumm and Hadith of the two weighty things

There is another quote from Muhammad about the rightness of Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him which is:

"O people, I am a human being. I am about to receive a message from my Lord and I, in response to Allah's call, (would bid good-bye to you), but I am leaving among you two weighty things: the one being the Book of Allah in which there is right guidance and light, so hold fast to the Book of Allah and adhere to it. He exhorted (us) (to hold fast) to the Book of Allah and then said: The second are the members of my household I remind you (of your duties) to the members of my family.."

This quote is confirmed by both Shi’a and Sunni everywhere, but Sunni and Shi’ah take different meanings of the quote.

Also some of Sunni and all of Shi'a resources report that Muhammad then proclaimed:

"For whoever I am a Mawla of, then 'Ali is his Mawla."

This statement is seen by Sunnis as a recommendation of Ali's good qualities and a refutation to prevailing rumours about him, although Shia see it as a confirmation of Ali's succession to Muhammad and Imamah

Succession to Muhammad

See also: Succession to Muhammad, saqifah, and Rashidun

Muhammad united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity at the last years of his life. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. While Ali, his cousin and son-in-law, and the rest of Muhammad's close family were washing his body for burial, at a gathering attended by a small group of Muslims at Saqifah, Umar (Umar ibn al-Khattab), a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's father in-law and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali had been designated his successor.

Ali himself was firmly convinced of his legitimacy for caliphate based on his close kinship with Muhammad, his intimate association and his knowledge of Islam and his merits in serving its cause. He told Abu Bakr that his delay in pledging allegiance as caliph is based on his belief of his own prior title. He had not changed his mind when he finally gave his pledge to Abu Bakr and then to Umar and to Uthman but had done so for the sake of the unity of Islam, at at time when it was clear that the Muslims had turned away from him.

According to Nahj al-Balagha Ali believed that the caliphate was his right and told:

"By Allah the son of Abu Quhafah (Abu Bakr) dressed himself with it (the caliphate) and he certainly knew that my position in relation to it was the same as the position of the axis in relation to the hand-mill...I put a curtain against the caliphate and kept myself detached from it... I watched the plundering of my inheritance till the first one went his way but handed over the Caliphate to Ibn al-Khattab after himself.

According to Sunni accounts, Muhammad died without having appointed a successor, and with a need for leadership, they gathered and voted for the position of caliph. Shi'a accounts differ by asserting that Muhammad had designated Ali as his successor on a number of occasions, including on his death bed. Ali had many friends, followers and supporters who believed that he should have succeeded Muhammad. This did not create an immediate division, however, because Ali did not fight against the elected caliphs.

The succession to Muhammad is an extremely contentious issue. Muslims ultimately divided into two branches based on their political attitude towards this issue, which forms the primary theological barrier between the two major divisions of Muslims: Sunni and Shi'a, with the latter following Ali as the successor to Muhammad. The two groups also disagree on Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him: Umar (or `Umar ibn al-Khattāb) and Uthman Ibn Affan or (‘Uthmān ibn ‘Affān). Sunnis tend to stress Ali's acceptance and support of their rule, while the Shi'a claims that he distanced himself from them, and that he was being kept from fulfilling the religious duty that Muhammad had appointed to him. The Sunni Muslims say that if Ali was the rightful successor as ordained by God Himself, then it would have been his duty as the leader of the Muslim nation to make war with these people (Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman) until Ali established the decree. The Shia claim, however, that Ali did not fight Abu Bakr, Umar or Uthman, because firstly he did not have the military strength and if he decided to, it would have caused a civil war amongst the Muslims, which was still a nascent community throughout the Arab world.

Inheritance

Main article: Fadak

After Muhammad had died his daughter, Fatimah, asked Abu Bakr to deliver her lands in Fadak and Khaybar but he refused and told her that prophets didn't have any legacy and Fadak belonged to the Muslim community. The new caliph argued that Muhammad's considerable landed property had been held by Muhammad in trust for the community, and was rightfully the property of the state, despite Ali's rejoinder that Muhammad's revelations included accounts of prophetic inheritance (Qur'an 27:16, 21:89). Fatimah became angry and stopped speaking to Abu Bakr, and continued assuming that attitude till she died. After Fatima's death Ali again claimed her inheritance, but was denied with the same argument.

However, Umar, the caliph who succeeded Abu Bakr, did restore the estates in Medina to `Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib and Ali, as representatives of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim. The properties in Khaybar and Fadak were retained as state property (Madelung 1997 p. 62). Shi'a sources regard this as another instance of the persecution of Muhammad's lineage, the Ahl al-Bayt, at the hands of the caliphs they regard as usurpers.

Ali wrote about it to Uthman ibn Hunaif:

Verily, under the sky we had only Fadak as our personal property but we were deprived of it, it tempted them, they took it by force and we had to bear the wrench patiently and cheerfully, the best judge is the Lord Almighty.

Ali and the caliphs

Ali didn't take the oath of allegiance to Abu Bakr until some time after the death of Fatimah and he also abandoned political activities. Ali participated in the funeral of Abu Bakr but didn't participate in the Ridda wars (Wars of Apostasy).

He pledged allegiance to Umar and Uthman Ibn Affan and helped them as a trusted advisor. Caliph Umar particularly relied upon Ali as the Chief Judge of Medina and as his deputy when he travelled outside of Medina.

Umar used his suggestions in political issues as well as religious ones. When he asked Ali if he should personally participate in the battlefields of Persia and the Byzantine lands, Ali advised him not to do so.

Ali was one of the electoral council to choose the third caliph and one of the two major candidates but most of the electors supported Uthman and Ali was reluctantly urged to accept him. According to Nahj al-Balagha Ali told them:

You have certainly known that I am the most rightful of all others for the Caliphate. By Allah, so long as the affairs of Muslims remain intact and there is no oppression in it save on myself I shall keep quiet seeking reward for it (from Allah) and keeping aloof from its attractions and allurements for which you aspire.

Caliphate

After the assassination of the third Caliph, Uthman Ibn Affan, the Companions of Muhammad in Medina selected Ali to be the new Caliph. Soon thereafter, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides such as Malik al-Ashtar . Ali then transferred his capital from Medina to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in what is now Iraq. The capital of the province of Syria, Damascus, was held by Mu‘āwīyah ibn Abī Sufyān, the governor of Syria and a kinsman of Uthman, Ali's slain predecessor.

First Fitna

See also: First Fitna

The First Fitna, 656–661 CE, followed the assassination of the caliph Uthman Ibn Affan, continued during the caliphate of Ali, and was ended, on the whole, by Muawiyah I's assumption of the caliphate. This civil war is often called the Fitna, and regretted as the end of the early unity of the Islamic ummah (nation). First Ali was opposed by a faction led by Talhah, Al-Zubayr and the prophet's wife, Aisha (Aisha bint Abu Bakr). Ali defeated them in the Battle of Bassorah (Battle of the Camel) in 656. Then he was challenged by Mu‘āwīyah ibn Abī Sufyān's the ruler of Levant and cousin of Uthman who refused Ali's demands for allegiance and called for revenge for Uthman. The clashes between them led to the Battle of Siffin in 657. Finally they intended to use arbitration to choose the caliph. On the other hand some of Ali's supporters, later were known as Kharijites opposed this decision and rebelled. Ali had to fight with them in Battle of Nahrawan.Ali declared he has removed Fitna "So now, praise and eulogy be to Allah, O' people, I have put out the eye of fitna. No one except me advanced towards it when its gloom was swelling and its madness was intense." But foresaw the worst fitna which would be the fitna of Umayyad and forewarned people that it "would come to you like evil eyed fear and pre-Islamic fragments, wherein there would be no minaret of guidance nor any sign (of salvation) to be seen."

After Ali was assassinated by a Khariji in 661 declared himself caliph and force Hasan ibn Ali to peace with him and relinquish the caliphate. This civil war created permanent divisions within the Muslim community and Muslims were divided over who had the legitimate right to occupy the caliphate.

Death

On the nineteenth of Ramadan, while Ali was praying in the mosque of Kufa, the vigilante 'Abd ar-Rahman ibn Muljim assassinated Ali with a strike of his poison-coated sword. Ali, injured with the wound from the poisonous sword, lived for two days and died on the 21st of Ramadan in the city of Kufa in 661 CE.

In these two days he dictated his will and last testament to his son, Hasan ibn Ali. He advised his eldest son to "love Allah and obey Him and to live for the service of the people in the way of Allah. And then do not forget to set apart the best of your time for communion with Allah, although every moment of yours is for Him, provided it is spent sincerely in the service of your people."

Burial

Rawze-e-Sharif, the Blue Mosque, in Mazari Sharif, Afghanistan - Where a minority of Shi’ahs believe Ali ibn Abi Talib is buried

Many Shi'a believe that Ali didn’t want his grave to be desecrated by his enemies and because of that he asked his friends and family members to bury him secretly. This secret gravesite is supposed to have been revealed later during the Abbasid caliphate by Ja'far al-Sadiq, the sixth Shia Imam. Most Shi'as accept that Ali was buried at the Tomb of Imam Ali in the Imam Ali Mosque at what is now the city of Najaf, which grew around the mosque and shrine called Masjid Ali.

• One story recounts that the caliph Harun al-Rashid (ruled from 786 to 809) went hunting and came upon a bit of raised ground which his dogs refused to approach. Local inhabitants told him that this was the grave of Ali ibn Abi Talib. The caliph ordered the building of a mausoleum, which was the nucleus of the city and the shrine.
• Another story claims that the location of the gravesite was passed from father to son along the line of Shi'a Imams, and that Ja'far al-Sadiq, the sixth Shi'a Imam, told the caliph where to find the grave.
• Yet another story, usually maintained by Afghans, notes that his body was taken and buried in the Afghan city of Mazari Sharif at the famous Blue Mosque or Rawze-e-Sharif.

Descendants

Main article: Descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib

Ali had several wives and Fatimah, daughter of prophet, was the most beloved one. He had four children born to Fatimah comprising Hasan ibn Ali, Husayn ibn Ali, Zaynab bint Ali and Umm Kulthum bint Ali. His other famous sons were Al-Abbas ibn Ali born to Fatima binte Hizam (Um Al-Banin) and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah.

Hasan ibn Ali, born in 625, was the second Shia Imam and he also occupied the outward function of caliph for about six months. During that time Mu'awiayh marched his army into Iraq, the seat of Imam Hasan's caliphate. War ensued during which Mu'awiyah gradually subverted the generals and commanders of Hasan's army with large sums of money and deceiving promises until the army rebelled against Hasan. Finally, he was forced to make peace and to yield the caliphate to Mu'awiyah, provided it would again return to Imam Hasan after Mu'awiyah's death. In the year 50 A.H. he was poisoned and martyred by one of his own household who, as has been accounted by historians, had been motivated by Mu'awiyah.

Husayn ibn Ali, born in 626, was the third Shia Imam. Husayn lived under the most difficult outward conditions of suppression and persecution by Mu'awiyah. After the death of Mu'awiyah, his son, Yazid I, captured the caliphate and wanted the Bay'ah (allegiance) of Husayn ibn Ali. Yazid was openly going against the teachings of Islam in public and changing the sunnah of Muhammad. Husayn was determined not to give his allegiance to Yazid and knew full well that he would be killed as death was inevitable in the face of the military power of the Umayyads. On the tenth day of Muharram of the year 680 the he lined up before the army of caliph with his small band of follower and finally almost all of them were killed in Battle of Karbala. The anniversary of his death is called the Day of Ashura and it is a day of mourning and religious observance for Shi'a Muslims. In this battle some of Ali's other sons were killed, including the four sons born to Fatima binte Hizam among whom was Al-Abbas ibn Ali, famous due to his pure love of Husayn ibn Ali, the holder of Husayn's standard.

His daughter Zaynab bint Ali who was in Karbala was captured by Yazid's army and later played a great role in revealing what had happened to Husayn ibn Ali and his followers. Her sermons in Kufa provoked the people into avenging Hussein's martyrdom. She also delivered a furious sermon in the court of the caliph that made his authority and despotic rule feel undermined.

Ali's descendants by Fatimah are known as sharifs, syeds or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed/sayid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'as place much more emphasis and value on the distinction.

The Idrisid and Fatimid dynasties are descended from Ali and many Muslim notables claim to be descendents of Muhammad via his daughter Fatimah and Imam Ali. The late Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, Muammar al-Gaddafi president of Libya, Zine El Abidine Ben Ali president of Tunis, The Hashemite royal families of Jordan and Iraq, the Alaouite royal family of Morocco, the Husseini family of Lebanon, and the Aga Khans of the Ismaili community claim direct descent from Muhammad through Ali and Fatimah.

Descendents of Ali with documented family trees (about 42 generations of an unbroken chain of descent) are often identified by their family trees leading to one of the 12 Shi'a Imams, most notably Imam Musa al-Kazim, Imam Ali al-Rida, and Imam Ali al-Hadi. Most syeds tend to cross-reference their own particular family trees with those of others in order to maintain accuracy and to weed out impostors.

Legacy

See also: Nahj al-Balagha

Ali is respected not only as a warrior and leader, but as a writer and religious authority. The most famous collection of speeches and letters attributed to Ali is the Peak of Eloquence (Arabic: Nahj al-Balagha).

In later Islamic philosophy, especially in the teachings of Mulla Sadra and his followers like Allameh Tabatabaei Ali's sayings and sermons were increasingly regarded as central sources of metaphysical knowledge, or divine philosophy. Members of Sadra's school regard Ali as the supreme metaphysician of Islam.

There are other collections of his quotations.

• Ghorarolhakam: The collection which is valid among Shia

A few famous quotations from it include:

• Inability is a disaster; patience is bravery; abstinence is a treasure, self-restraint is a shield; and the best companion is submission to Divine Will.
• Socialize with people in such a manner that when you die, they should weep for you, and as long as you live, they should long for your company.
• Greed is a permanent slavery.
• Submission to God's will is the cure of the misery of the heart.
• There is no wealth like education and no poverty like ignorance.
• Beware of the sins committed while alone, as the witness is the judge in that case.

Ali is also reputed to have said:

• He who has a thousand friends has not a friend to spare, while he who has one enemy will meet him everywhere. (quoted in Ralph Waldo Emerson' s "Considerations By the Way")

Muslim view

Ali is revered and honored by all Muslims. Having been one of the first Muslims and foremost Ulema (Islamic scholars), he was extremely knowledgeable in matters of religious belief and Islamic jurisprudence, as well as in the history of the Muslim community. He was known for his bravery and courage. Muslims honor Muhammad, Ali, and other pious Muslims and add pious interjections after their names.

Moreover, Sunni and Shi'a alike agree that Ali deserves these titles:

• Commander of the Faithful (Arabic: Amir al-Mu'minin)
• Father of Dust/Soil (Arabic: Abu Turab)
• Lion of God (Arabic: Asad-ullah)
• The Charging Lion (Arabic: Haydar-al-Karrar)
• Piercing lines, fighter (Arabic: Safdar)

(Please note that translation from Arabic to English may change the way the words are interpreted)

Shia view of Ali

Main article: Shi'a view of Ali

The Shias regards Ali as the most important figure after the Prophet Muhammad. According to them the Prophet in his life time suggested on various occasions, that Ali would be the leader of Muslims after his demise like Hadith of the pond of Khumm, Hadith of the two weighty things, Hadith of the pen and paper, Hadith of the Twelve Successors and so on.

According to this view, Ali as the successor of the Prophet of Islam not only rules over the community in justice but also interprets the Divine Law and its esoteric meaning. Hence he was free from error and sin (infallible) and he was appointed by God by divine decree (nass) through the Prophet.

Sunni view of Ali

Main article: Sunni view of Ali

The Sunni Muslims regard Ali as one of the Ahl al-Bayt and the last of the Rashidun and one of the most influential and respected figures in Islam. Ali is held with the utmost respect along with the Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman Ibn Affan.

Sufi view of Ali

Almost all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali, an exception being Naqshbandi, who go through Abu Bakr. Even in this order, there is Ja'far al-Sadiq, the great great grandson of Ali. Ali is said to have followed the mystic ways after the death of Muhammad and before he became the fourth Caliph. Imam Ali represents the essence of the teachings of the School of Islamic Sufism.

Sufis recite Manqabat Ali in the praise of Ali (Maula Ali), after Hamd and Naat in their Qawwali.

Ali and Muslim's folklore

Ali has high position in the mind of Muslims and they made a lot of pictures, poems and myths about him. For example "Ali Guyam, Ali Juyam" (I call Ali, I seek Ali) is a famous rhyme in Iran.

His birthday is celebrated on 13th of Rajab by Muslims all over the world and is a special occasion for Shia Muslims to remember their first Imam who was born in the House of Allah/Kaaba. His death is remembered and mourned from the 19 to 21st of Ramadan which is the anniversary of his assassination and martyrdom.

At the Ali Masjid in Pakistan is a huge boulder which carries the marks of a hand believed to be that of Hadrat (Hazrat) Ali.

Ali as deity

Main article: Ghulat

Several groups of people has recognized Ali as deity. They're described as Ghulat (exaggerators) by Muslims. These groups have gone too far in ascribing divinity to a person, to the (forbidden) point of associating them with God. Almost all of the Muslims don't consider them as Muslim.

See also

• Historiography of early Islam
• List of Muslim reports
• Succession to Muhammad
• Rashidun
• Imamah (Shia doctrine)
• Family tree of Ali
• Imam Ali Mosque
• Shia Islam
• Ismaili
• Fatimid
• Hashemite
• Alawism
• Alevi
• Wali
• Ahl al-Bayt
• Nahj al-Balagha
• Zulfiqar
• Non-Muslim view of Ali

References

• Ali, ibn Abi Talib, Nahj al-Balagha, compiled by ash-Sharif ar-Radi
• Ashraf, Shahid (2005). Encyclopedia of Holy Prophet and Companions. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. ISBN 8126119403.
• George Gordagh, Ali, The Voice of Human Justice, first Arabic edition 1956 ISBN 0-941724-24-7
• Karen Armstrong -- Muhammad, Gollancz, 1991 (a popular biography)
• Alfred Guillaume -- The Life of Muhammad, Oxford University Press, 1955 (a reconstruction and translation of Ibn Ishaq).
• Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi -- The Book of the Major Classes -- scattered volumes of English translation as issued by Kitab Bhavan, New Delhi (no date), and Ta-Ha Publishers, London, 1997 and 2000.
• Holt, P. M. (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291364. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521779333.
• Madelung, Wilferd (1996). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521646960.
• Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari -- History of the Prophets and Kings, translation and commentary issued in multiple volumes by SUNY Press from 1987 to 1996; volumes 6-17 are relevant.
• William Montgomery Watt -- Muhammad at Mecca, 1953 and Muhammad at Medina, Oxford University Press, 1956
• Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Suny press. ISBN 0-87395-272-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

Encyclopedias

• Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

External links

• Ali, article at Enyclopaedia Britannica Online

Sunni biography

• Biography from USC's MSA website

Shi'a biography

• The Commander of the Faithful: ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib
• Website devoted to the Life of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
• Sayings of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
• Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
• Imam Ali foundation
• Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib Nahjul Balagha
• Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib's status
• Imam Ali
• The Last Will of Ali ibn Abi Talib