Islamic Golden Age: Difference between revisions
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A major innovation of this period was [[paper]] - originally a secret tightly guarded by the [[Han Chinese|Chinese]].<ref name="Pacey">Arnold Pacey, "Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History", MIT Press, 1990, ISBN 0262660725 pg 41-42</ref> The art of [[papermaking]] was obtained from prisoners taken at the [[Battle of Talas]] (751), resulting in [[paper mill]]s being built in [[Samarkand]] and [[Baghdad]].<ref name="Pacey"/> The Arabs improved upon the Chinese techniques of using [[mulberry]] bark by using [[starch]] to account for the Muslim preference for pens vs. the Chinese for brushes.<ref name="Pacey"/> By AD 900 there were hundreds of shops employing scribes and binders for books in Baghdad and even [[public library|public libraries]] began to become established,<ref name="Pacey"/> including the first lending libraries. From here paper-making spread west to [[Fez]] and then to [[al-Andalus]] and from there to Europe in the 13th century.<ref name="Pacey"/> |
A major innovation of this period was [[paper]] - originally a secret tightly guarded by the [[Han Chinese|Chinese]].<ref name="Pacey">Arnold Pacey, "Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History", MIT Press, 1990, ISBN 0262660725 pg 41-42</ref> The art of [[papermaking]] was obtained from prisoners taken at the [[Battle of Talas]] (751), resulting in [[paper mill]]s being built in [[Samarkand]] and [[Baghdad]].<ref name="Pacey"/> The Arabs improved upon the Chinese techniques of using [[mulberry]] bark by using [[starch]] to account for the Muslim preference for pens vs. the Chinese for brushes.<ref name="Pacey"/> By AD 900 there were hundreds of shops employing scribes and binders for books in Baghdad and even [[public library|public libraries]] began to become established,<ref name="Pacey"/> including the first lending libraries. From here paper-making spread west to [[Fez]] and then to [[al-Andalus]] and from there to Europe in the 13th century.<ref name="Pacey"/> |
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By the 10th century, [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]] had 700 [[mosque]]s, 60,000 [[palace]]s, and 70 [[library|libraries]], the largest of which had 600,000 books, while as many as 60,000 [[treatise]]s, [[Arabic poetry|poems]], [[polemic]]s and [[compilation]]s were published each year in [[al-Andalus]].<ref>Dato' Dzulkifli Abd Razak, [http://www.prn2.usm.my/mainsite/bulletin/article/29dar05.html Quest for knowledge], ''[[New Straits Times|New Sunday Times]]'', [[3 July]] [[2005]].</ref> The library of [[Cairo]] had more than 100,000 books, while the library of [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] is said to have had as many as three million books. The number of important and original Arabic works on science that have survived is much larger than the combined total of [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] works on science.<ref>N. M. Swerdlow (1993). "Montucla's Legacy: The History of the Exact Sciences", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''54''' (2), p. 299-328 [320].</ref> |
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Much of this learning and development can be linked to geography. Even prior to Islam's presence, the city of [[Mecca]] served as a center of trade in [[Arabia]] and the [[Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]] was a merchant. The tradition of the [[pilgrimage to Mecca]] became a center for exchanging ideas and goods. The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to their Christian, Indian and Chinese peers who built societies from an agricultural landholding nobility. Merchants brought goods and their faith to China, India (the [[Indian subcontinent]] now has over 450 million followers), [[Southeast Asia]] (which now has over 230 million followers), and the kingdoms of [[Western Africa]] and returned with new inventions. Merchants used their wealth to invest in textiles and plantations. |
Much of this learning and development can be linked to geography. Even prior to Islam's presence, the city of [[Mecca]] served as a center of trade in [[Arabia]] and the [[Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]] was a merchant. The tradition of the [[pilgrimage to Mecca]] became a center for exchanging ideas and goods. The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to their Christian, Indian and Chinese peers who built societies from an agricultural landholding nobility. Merchants brought goods and their faith to China, India (the [[Indian subcontinent]] now has over 450 million followers), [[Southeast Asia]] (which now has over 230 million followers), and the kingdoms of [[Western Africa]] and returned with new inventions. Merchants used their wealth to invest in textiles and plantations. |
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==Muslim Agricultural Revolution== |
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===Age of discovery=== |
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{{main|Muslim Agricultural Revolution}} |
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:''See also: [[Inventions in the Muslim world#Navigational technology|Muslim navigational technology]], [[Ibn Battuta]], and [[Pre-Columbian Islamic contact theories]] |
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The Islamic Golden Age witnessed a fundamental transformation in [[agriculture]] known as the "Muslim [[Agricultural Revolution]]", "Arab Agricultural Revolution", or "[[Green Revolution]]".<ref>Thomas F. Glick (1977), "Noria Pots in Spain", ''Technology and Culture'' '''18''' (4), p. 644-650.</ref> Due to the [[global economy]] established by Muslim traders across the [[Old World]], this enabled the [[diffusion]] of many [[plant]]s and [[farming]] techniques between different parts of the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world. [[Crop (agriculture)|Crops]] from [[Africa]] such as [[sorghum]], crops from [[China]] such as [[citrus fruit]]s, and numerous crops from [[India]] such as [[mango]]s, [[rice]], and especially [[cotton]] and [[sugar cane]], were distributed throughout Islamic lands which normally would not be able to grow these crops.<ref name=Watson/> Some have referred to the diffusion of numerous crops during this period as the "[[Globalisation]] of Crops",<ref>[http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=229 The Globalisation of Crops], FSTC</ref> which, along with an increased [[mechanization]] of agriculture (see [[#Industrial growth|Industrial growth]] below), led to major changes in [[economy]], [[population distribution]], [[vegetation]] cover,<ref>Andrew M. Watson (1983), ''Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World'', [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 052124711X.</ref> agricultural production and [[income]], [[population]] levels, [[Urbanization|urban growth]], the distribution of the [[labour]] force, linked [[industries]], [[cooking]] and [[Diet (nutrition)|diet]], [[clothing]], and numerous other aspects of [[life]] in the Islamic world.<ref name=Watson>Andrew M. Watson (1974), "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700-1100", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''34''' (1), p. 8-35.</ref> |
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The earliest forms of [[globalization]] began emerging during the [[Arab Empire]] and the Islamic Golden Age, when the [[knowledge]], [[trade]] and [[economy|economies]] from many previously [[Isolationism|isolated]] regions and [[civilization]]s began integrating due to contacts with [[Muslim]] [[explorer]]s, [[sailor]]s, scholars, traders, and [[travel]]ers. Some have called this period the "Pax Islamica" or "Afro-Asiatic [[age of discovery]]", in reference to the Muslim [[Southwest Asia]]n and [[North Africa]]n traders and explorers who travelled most of the [[Old World]], and established an early [[global economy]]<ref name=Hobson-29-30/> across most of [[Asia]] and [[Africa]] and much of [[Europe]], with their trade [[network]]s extending from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and [[Mediterranean Sea]] in the west to the [[Indian Ocean]] and [[China Sea]] in the east.<ref name=Labib>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96.</ref> This helped establish the [[Arab Empire]] (including the [[Rashidun Empire|Rashidun]], [[Umayyad]], [[Abbasid]] and [[Fatimid]] [[caliphate]]s) as the world's leading extensive economic power throughout the 7th-13th centuries.<ref name=Hobson-29-30>John M. Hobson (2004), ''The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation'', p. 29-30, [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521547245.</ref> |
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[[Image:al-jazari pump.png|thumb|The [[valve]]-operated [[reciprocating engine|reciprocating]] [[suction]] [[piston]] [[pump]] with [[crankshaft]]-[[connecting rod]] mechanism invented by [[al-Jazari]], the father of modern day [[engineering]].]] |
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Apart from the [[Nile]], [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]], navigable rivers were uncommon, so transport by sea was very important. Navigational sciences were highly developed making use of a magnetic [[compass]] and a rudimentary [[sextant]] known as a [[kamal]], used for [[celestial navigation]] and for measuring the [[altitude]]s and [[latitude]]s of the [[star]]s. When combined with detailed maps of the period, sailors were able to sail across [[ocean]]s rather than skirt along the coast. Muslim sailors were also responsible for introducing the [[lateen]] [[sail]]s and large three-[[Mast (sailing)|masted]] [[merchant vessel]]s to the [[Mediterranean]]. The origins of the [[caravel]] [[ship]], used for long distance travel by the Spanish and Portuguese since the 15th century, also date back to the ''qarib'' used by [[al-Andalus|Andalusian]] explorers by the 13th century.<ref name=Hobson>John M. Hobson (2004), ''The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation'', p. 141, [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521547245.</ref> |
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During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, [[sugar]] production was refined and transformed into a large-scale [[industry]] by the [[Arab]]s, who built the first [[Sugar refinery|sugar refineries]] and sugar [[plantation]]s. The Arabs and [[Berbers]] diffused sugar throughout the [[Arab Empire]] from the 8th century.<ref name=Hassan>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering]</ref> |
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[[Ibn Battuta]] (1304-1368) was a traveler and [[explorer]], whose account documents his travels and excursions over a period of almost thirty years, covering some 73,000 miles (117,000 km). These journeys covered most of the known [[Old World]], extending from [[North Africa]], [[West Africa]], [[Southern Europe]] and [[Eastern Europe]] in the west, to the [[Middle East]], [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Central Asia]], [[Southeast Asia]] and [[China]] in the east, a distance readily surpassing that of his predecessors and his near-contemporary [[Marco Polo]]. |
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Muslims introduced [[cash crop]]ping<ref name=Banaji/> and the modern [[crop rotation]] system where land was cropped four or more times in a two-year period. Winter crops were followed by summer ones, and in some cases there was in between. In areas where plants of shorter growing season were used, such as [[spinach]] and [[eggplant]]s, the land could be cropped three or more times a year. In parts of [[Yemen]], [[wheat]] [[yield]]ed two [[harvest]]s a year on the same land, as did [[rice]] in Iraq.<ref name=Watson/> Muslims developed a [[Science|scientific]] approach based on three major elements; sophisticated systems of crop rotation, highly developed [[irrigation]] techniques, and the introduction of a large variety of [[crops]] which were studied and catalogued according to the [[season]], type of [[land]] and amount of [[water]] they require. Numerous [[encyclopaedia]]s on [[farming]] and [[botany]] were produced, with highly accurate [[precision]] and details.<ref>Al-Hassani, Woodcock and Saoud (2007), ''Muslim heritage in Our World'', FSTC publishing, 2nd Edition, p. 102-123.</ref> |
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Several contemporary medieval Arabic reports suggest that Muslim explorers from [[al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]] and [[Maghreb|Northwest Africa]] may have travelled in expeditions across the [[Atlantic Ocean]], possibly even to the [[Americas]], between the 9th and 14th centuries. [[Ali al-Masudi]] (896-956) reported that the navigator Khashkhash Ibn Saeed Ibn Aswad, from [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]], [[al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]], sailed from Delba ([[Palos]]) in 889, crossed the Atlantic, reached an unknown land, and returned with fabulous treasures.<ref>Tabish Khair (2006). ''Other Routes: 1500 Years of African and Asian Travel Writing'', p. 12. Signal Books. ISBN 1904955118.</ref><ref name=Mroueh>Dr. Youssef Mroueh (2003). [http://www.mediamonitors.net/youssefmroueh1.html Pre-Columbian Muslims in the Americas]. Media Monitors Network.</ref><ref>[[Ali al-Masudi]] (940). ''Muruj Adh-Dhahab'' (''The Book of Golden Meadows''), Vol. 1, p. 138.</ref> Another Muslim navigator, Ibn Farrukh, from [[Granada]], sailed into the Atlantic on February 999, landed in Gando ([[Canary islands]]) visiting King Guanariga, and continued westward where he eventually saw and named two islands, Capraria and Pluitana. He arrived back in Spain in May 999.<ref name=Mroueh/><ref>Abu Bakr Ibn Umar Al-Gutiyya.</ref> Other theories suggest that explorers from the Muslim [[West Africa]]n [[Mali Empire]] may have reached the Americas, or possibly the [[Hui people|Hui Chinese]] Muslim explorer [[Zheng He]] according to the [[1421 hypothesis]]. When [[Christopher Columbus]] made his first voyage to the Americas in 1492, he was accompanied by a number of Muslim sailors ([[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] [[Moors]]), who travelled with him to the [[New World]].<ref>S. A. H. Ahsani (July 1984). "Muslims in Latin America: a survey", ''Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs'' '''5''' (2), p. 454-463.</ref> |
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===Age of discovery=== |
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==Agricultural Revolution== |
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:''Further information: [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution#Age of discovery|Muslim age of discovery]] and [[Inventions in the Muslim world#Navigational technology|Muslim navigational technology]] |
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The Islamic Golden Age witnessed a fundamental transformation in [[agriculture]] known as the "Muslim [[Agricultural Revolution]]", "Arab Agricultural Revolution", or "[[Green Revolution]]".<ref name=Glick/> Due to the [[global economy]] established by Muslim traders across the [[Old World]], this enabled the [[diffusion]] of many [[plant]]s and [[farming]] techniques between different parts of the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world. [[Crop (agriculture)|Crops]] from [[Africa]] such as [[sorghum]], crops from [[China]] such as [[citrus fruit]]s, and numerous crops from [[India]] such as [[mango]]s, [[rice]], and especially [[cotton]] and [[sugar cane]], were distributed throughout Islamic lands which normally would not be able to grow these crops.<ref name=Watson/> Some have referred to the diffusion of numerous crops during this period as the "[[Globalisation]] of Crops",<ref>[http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=229 The Globalisation of Crops], FSTC</ref> which, along with an increased [[mechanization]] of agriculture (see [[#Industrial growth|Industrial growth]] below), led to major changes in [[economy]], [[population distribution]], [[vegetation]] cover,<ref>Andrew M. Watson (1983), ''Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World'', [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 052124711X.</ref> agricultural production and [[income]], [[population]] levels, [[Urbanization|urban growth]], the distribution of the [[labour]] force, linked [[industries]], [[cooking]] and [[Diet (nutrition)|diet]], [[clothing]], and numerous other aspects of [[life]] in the Islamic world.<ref name=Watson>Andrew M. Watson (1974), "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700-1100", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''34''' (1), p. 8-35.</ref> |
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:''See also: [[Ibn Battuta]] and [[Pre-Columbian Islamic contact theories]] |
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The earliest forms of [[globalization]] began emerging during the [[Arab Empire]] and the Islamic Golden Age, when the [[knowledge]], [[trade]] and [[economy|economies]] from many previously [[Isolationism|isolated]] regions and [[civilization]]s began integrating due to contacts with [[Muslim]] [[explorer]]s, [[sailor]]s, scholars, traders, and [[travel]]ers. Some have called this period the "Pax Islamica" or "Afro-Asiatic [[age of discovery]]", in reference to the Muslim [[Southwest Asia]]n and [[North Africa]]n traders and explorers who travelled most of the [[Old World]], and established an early [[global economy]]<ref name=Hobson-29-30/> across most of [[Asia]] and [[Africa]] and much of [[Europe]], with their trade [[network]]s extending from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and [[Mediterranean Sea]] in the west to the [[Indian Ocean]] and [[China Sea]] in the east.<ref name=Labib>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96.</ref> This helped establish the [[Arab Empire]] (including the [[Rashidun Empire|Rashidun]], [[Umayyad]], [[Abbasid]] and [[Fatimid]] [[caliphate]]s) as the world's leading extensive economic power throughout the 7th-13th centuries.<ref name=Hobson-29-30>John M. Hobson (2004), ''The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation'', p. 29-30, [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521547245.</ref> Several contemporary medieval Arabic reports also suggest that Muslim explorers from [[al-Andalus]] and the [[Maghreb]] may have travelled in expeditions across the [[Atlantic Ocean]], possibly even to the [[Americas]], between the 9th and 14th centuries.<ref>S. A. H. Ahsani (July 1984). "Muslims in Latin America: a survey", ''Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs'' '''5''' (2), p. 454-463.</ref> |
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During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, [[sugar]] production was refined and transformed into a large-scale [[industry]] by the [[Arab]]s, who built the first [[Sugar refinery|sugar refineries]] and sugar [[plantation]]s. The Arabs and [[Berbers]] diffused sugar throughout the [[Arab Empire]] from the 8th century.<ref name=Hassan/> |
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===Capitalist market economy=== |
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Muslims introduced [[cash crop]]ping<ref name=Banaji/> and the modern [[crop rotation]] system where land was cropped four or more times in a two-year period. Winter crops were followed by summer ones, and in some cases there was in between. In areas where plants of shorter growing season were used, such as [[spinach]] and [[eggplant]]s, the land could be cropped three or more times a year. In parts of [[Yemen]], [[wheat]] [[yield]]ed two [[harvest]]s a year on the same land, as did [[rice]] in Iraq.<ref name=Watson/> Muslims developed a [[Science|scientific]] approach based on three major elements; sophisticated systems of crop rotation, highly developed [[irrigation]] techniques, and the introduction of a large variety of [[crops]] which were studied and catalogued according to the [[season]], type of [[land]] and amount of [[water]] they require. Numerous [[encyclopaedia]]s on [[farming]] and [[botany]] were produced, with highly accurate [[precision]] and details.<ref>Al-Hassani, Woodcock and Saoud (2007), ''Muslim heritage in Our World'', FSTC publishing, 2nd Edition, p. 102-123.</ref> The earliest [[cookbook]]s on [[Arab cuisine]] were also written, such as the ''[[Kitab al-Tabikh]]'' (''The Book of Dishes'') of Ibn Sayyiir al-Warraq (10th century) and the ''Kitab al-Tabikh'' of [[Muhammad bin Hasan al-Baghdadi]] (1226).<ref>David Waines (1987), "Cereals, Bread and Society: An Essay on the Staff of Life in Medieval Iraq", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' '''30''' (3), p. 255-285 [276, 278, 282].</ref> |
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:''Further information: [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution#Capitalist market economy|Muslim Agricultural Revolution - Capitalist market economy]] |
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[[Image:al-jazari pump.png|thumb|The [[valve]]-operated [[reciprocating engine|reciprocating]] [[suction]] [[piston]] [[pump]] of [[al-Jazari]], the father of modern day [[engineering]].]] |
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Many other agricultural innovations were introduced by Muslim farmers and engineers, such as new forms of [[land tenure]], improvements in [[irrigation]], a variety of sophisticated irrigation methods,<ref>Elias H. Tuma (1987), "''Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World: The Diffusion of Crops and Farming Techniques, 700-1100'' by Andrew M. Watson", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''47''' (2), p. 543-544.</ref> the introduction of [[fertilizer]]s and widespread artificial irrigation systems, the development of [[gravity]]-flow irrigation systems from [[river]]s and [[Spring (hydrosphere)|springs]],<ref name=Glick/> the first uses of [[noria]] and [[chain pump]]s for irrigation purposes,<ref name=Idrisi>Zohor Idrisi (2005), [http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/AgricultureRevolution2.pdf The Muslim Agricultural Revolution and its influence on Europe], FSTC.</ref> the establishment of the [[sugarcane]] industry in the [[Mediterranean]] and [[experiment]]ation in [[sugar]] cultivation,<ref>J. H. Galloway (1977), "The Mediterranean Sugar Industry", ''Geographical Review'' '''67''' (2), p. 177-194.</ref> numerous advances in industrial [[mill]]ing and water-raising machines (see [[#Industrial growth|Industrial growth]] below), and many other improvements and innovations. |
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The [[Caliphate]] understood that real [[incentive]]s were needed to increase [[productivity]] and [[wealth]], thus enhancing [[tax revenue]]s, hence they introduced a social transformation through the changed [[ownership]] of land,<ref name=Idrisi/> where any individual of any [[gender]]<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 263.</ref> or any [[ethnic]] or [[religious]] background had the right to [[buy]], [[sell]], [[mortgage]] and [[inherit]] land for [[farming]] or any other purposes. They also introduced the [[Signature|signing]] of a [[contract]] for every major [[financial transaction]] concerning [[agriculture]], [[industry]], [[commerce]], and [[employment]]. Copies of the contract was usually kept by both parties involved.<ref name=Idrisi/> |
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The two types of [[economic system]]s that prompted agricultural development in the Islamic world were either [[politic]]ally-driven, by the conscious decisions of the central authority to develop under-exploited lands; or [[market]]-driven, involving the spread of [[advice]], [[education]], and free [[seed]]s, and the introduction of high value [[crops]] or [[animal]]s to areas where they were previously unknown. These led to increased [[subsistence]], a high level of [[economic security]] that ensured [[wealth]] for all citizens, and a higher [[quality of life]] due to the introduction of [[artichoke]]s, [[spinach]], [[aubergine]]s, [[carrot]]s, [[sugar cane]], and various exotic [[plant]]s; [[vegetable]]s being available all year round without the need to dry them for winter; [[citrus]] and [[olive]] plantations becoming a common sight, [[market garden]]s and [[orchard]]s springing up in every Muslim [[city]]; intense [[cropping]] and the technique of intensive [[irrigation]] agriculture with land [[fertility]] replacement; a major increase in [[animal husbandry]]; higher quality of [[wool]] and other [[clothing]] materials; and the introduction of [[selective breeding]] of animals from different parts of the [[Old World]] resulting in improved [[horse]] stocks and the best load-carrying [[camel]]s.<ref name=Idrisi/> |
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Many [[dam]]s, [[acequia]] and [[qanat]] [[water supply]] systems and "Tribunal of Waters" [[irrigation]] systems were built during the Islamic Golden Age and are still in use today in the Islamic world and in formerly Islamic regions of Europe such as [[Sicily]] and the [[Iberian Peninsula]], particularly in the [[Andalusia]], [[Aragon]] and [[Valencia (province)|Valencia]] provinces of [[Spain]]. The Arabic systems of irrigation and water distribution were later adopted in the [[Canary Islands]] and [[Americas]] due to the [[Spanish]] and are still used in places like [[Texas]], [[Mexico]], [[Peru]], and [[Chile]].<ref name=Hassan>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering]</ref> |
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===Botany=== |
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:''Main article: [[Islamic science#Botany|Islamic science - Botany]]'' |
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===Capitalist market economy=== |
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The origins of [[capitalism]] and [[free market]]s can be traced back to the Caliphate,<ref>''The Cambridge economic history of Europe'', p. 437. [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521087090.</ref> where the first [[market economy]] and earliest forms of [[merchant capitalism]] took root between the 8th-12th centuries, which some refer to as "Islamic capitalism".<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96 [81, 83, 85, 90, 93, 96].</ref> A vigorous [[monetary economy]] was created on the basis of the expanding levels of [[List of circulating currencies|circulation]] of a stable high-value [[currency]] (the [[dinar]]) and the integration of [[monetary]] areas that were previously independent. Innovative new [[business]] techniques and forms of [[business organisation]] were introduced by [[economist]]s, [[merchant]]s and traders during this time. Such innovations included the earliest [[Trading company|trading companies]], [[big business]]es, [[contract]]s, [[bills of exchange]], long-distance [[international trade]], the first forms of [[partnership]] (''mufawada'') such as [[limited partnership]]s (''mudaraba''), and the earliest forms of [[Credit (finance)|credit]], [[debt]], [[profit]], [[loss]], [[Capital (economics)|capital]] (''al-mal''), [[capital accumulation]] (''nama al-mal''),<ref name=Banaji/> [[circulating capital]], [[capital expenditure]], [[revenue]], [[cheque]]s, [[promissory note]]s,<ref>Robert Sabatino Lopez, Irving Woodworth Raymond, Olivia Remie Constable (2001), ''Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World: Illustrative Documents'', [[Columbia University Press]], ISBN 0231123574.</ref> [[trusts]] (''waqf''), [[startup companies]],<ref>Timur Kuran (2005), "The Absence of the Corporation in Islamic Law: Origins and Persistence", ''American Journal of Comparative Law'' '''53''', p. 785-834 [798-799].</ref> [[savings account]]s, [[transactional account]]s, [[pawn]]ing, [[loan]]ing, [[exchange rate]]s, [[bank]]ers, [[money changer]]s, [[ledger]]s, [[deposit]]s, [[Assignment (law)|assignments]], and the [[double-entry bookkeeping system]].<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96 [92-93].</ref> [[Organization]]al [[enterprise]]s similar to [[corporation]]s independant from the [[state]] also existed in the medieval Islamic world.<ref>Said Amir Arjomand (1999), "The Law, Agency, and Policy in Medieval Islamic Society: Development of the Institutions of Learning from the Tenth to the Fifteenth Century", ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' '''41''', p. 263-293. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref><ref>Samir Amin (1978), "The Arab Nation: Some Conclusions and Problems", ''MERIP Reports'' '''68''', p. 3-14 [8, 13].</ref> Many of these early capitalist concepts were adopted and further advanced in [[medieval Europe]] from the 13th century onwards.<ref name=Banaji>Jairus Banaji (2007), "Islam, the Mediterranean and the rise of capitalism", ''Journal Historical Materialism'' '''15''' (1), p. 47-74, [[Brill Publishers]].</ref> |
The origins of [[capitalism]] and [[free market]]s can be traced back to the Caliphate,<ref>''The Cambridge economic history of Europe'', p. 437. [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521087090.</ref> where the first [[market economy]] and earliest forms of [[merchant capitalism]] took root between the 8th-12th centuries, which some refer to as "Islamic capitalism".<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96 [81, 83, 85, 90, 93, 96].</ref> A vigorous [[monetary economy]] was created on the basis of the expanding levels of [[List of circulating currencies|circulation]] of a stable high-value [[currency]] (the [[dinar]]) and the integration of [[monetary]] areas that were previously independent. Innovative new [[business]] techniques and forms of [[business organisation]] were introduced by [[economist]]s, [[merchant]]s and traders during this time. Such innovations included the earliest [[Trading company|trading companies]], [[big business]]es, [[contract]]s, [[bills of exchange]], long-distance [[international trade]], the first forms of [[partnership]] (''mufawada'') such as [[limited partnership]]s (''mudaraba''), and the earliest forms of [[Credit (finance)|credit]], [[debt]], [[profit]], [[loss]], [[Capital (economics)|capital]] (''al-mal''), [[capital accumulation]] (''nama al-mal''),<ref name=Banaji/> [[circulating capital]], [[capital expenditure]], [[revenue]], [[cheque]]s, [[promissory note]]s,<ref>Robert Sabatino Lopez, Irving Woodworth Raymond, Olivia Remie Constable (2001), ''Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World: Illustrative Documents'', [[Columbia University Press]], ISBN 0231123574.</ref> [[trusts]] (''waqf''), [[startup companies]],<ref>Timur Kuran (2005), "The Absence of the Corporation in Islamic Law: Origins and Persistence", ''American Journal of Comparative Law'' '''53''', p. 785-834 [798-799].</ref> [[savings account]]s, [[transactional account]]s, [[pawn]]ing, [[loan]]ing, [[exchange rate]]s, [[bank]]ers, [[money changer]]s, [[ledger]]s, [[deposit]]s, [[Assignment (law)|assignments]], and the [[double-entry bookkeeping system]].<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96 [92-93].</ref> [[Organization]]al [[enterprise]]s similar to [[corporation]]s independant from the [[state]] also existed in the medieval Islamic world.<ref>Said Amir Arjomand (1999), "The Law, Agency, and Policy in Medieval Islamic Society: Development of the Institutions of Learning from the Tenth to the Fifteenth Century", ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' '''41''', p. 263-293. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref><ref>Samir Amin (1978), "The Arab Nation: Some Conclusions and Problems", ''MERIP Reports'' '''68''', p. 3-14 [8, 13].</ref> Many of these early capitalist concepts were adopted and further advanced in [[medieval Europe]] from the 13th century onwards.<ref name=Banaji>Jairus Banaji (2007), "Islam, the Mediterranean and the rise of capitalism", ''Journal Historical Materialism'' '''15''' (1), p. 47-74, [[Brill Publishers]].</ref> |
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===Commerce=== |
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A [[market economy]] was established in the Islamic world on the basis of merchant capitalism. [[Capital formation]] was promoted by [[labour]] in medieval Islamic society, and [[financial capital]] was developed by a considerable number of owners of [[monetary]] [[funds]] and [[precious metal]]s. [[Riba]] ([[usury]]) was prohibited by the [[Qur'an]], but this did not hamper the development of capital in any way. The capitalists (''sahib al-mal'') were at the height of their power between the 9th-12th centuries, but their influence declined after the arrival of the ''ikta'' ([[landowner]]s) and after [[production]] was [[monopolized]] by the state, both of which hampered the development of [[Capitalism#Industrial capitalism and laissez-faire|industrial capitalism]] in the Islamic world.<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 402-403.</ref> |
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:''Further information: [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution#Commerce|Muslim Agricultural Revolution - Commerce]] |
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During the 11th-13th centuries, the "Karimis", the earliest [[multinational corporation]], enterprise and [[business group]] controlled by capitalistic [[entrepreneur]]s, came to dominate much of the Islamic world's economy.<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96 [81-82].</ref> The group was controlled by about fifty Muslim [[merchant]]s labelled as "Karimis" who were of [[Yemen]]i, [[Egypt]]ian and sometimes [[India (disambiguation)|Indian]] origins.<ref>''The Cambridge economic history of Europe'', p. 438-440. [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521087090.</ref> Each Karimi merchant had considerable wealth, ranging from at least 100,000 [[dinar]]s to as much as 10 million dinars. The group had considerable influence in most important eastern [[market]]s and sometimes in [[politics]] through its financing activities and through a variety of [[customer]]s, including [[Emir]]s, [[Sultan]]s, [[Vizier]]s, foreign merchants, and common [[consumer]]s. The Karimis dominated many of the [[trade routes]] across the [[Mediterranean Sea]], [[Red Sea]], and [[Indian Ocean]], and as far as [[Francia]] in the north, [[China]] in the east, and [[sub-Saharan Africa]] in the south, where they obtained [[gold]] from [[gold mine]]s. Innovations introduced by the Karimis include the use of [[Agent (economics)|agents]], the financing of [[project]]s as a method of acquiring capital, and a [[banking institution]] for [[loan]]s and [[deposit]]s. Another important difference between the Karimis and other entrepreneurs before and during their time was that they were not [[tax collector]]s or [[landlord]]s, but their capitalism was due entirely to trade and financial [[transaction]]s.<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96 [81-84].</ref> |
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===Commerce=== |
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[[Guilds]] were officially unrecognized by the medieval Islamic city, but trades were supervised by an official recognized by the city. Each trade developed its own identity, whose members would attend the same mosque, and serve together in the militia. Slaves were often employed on sugar plantations and salt mines, but more likely as domestic house servants or professional soldiers. |
[[Guilds]] were officially unrecognized by the medieval Islamic city, but trades were supervised by an official recognized by the city. Each trade developed its own identity, whose members would attend the same mosque, and serve together in the militia. Slaves were often employed on sugar plantations and salt mines, but more likely as domestic house servants or professional soldiers. |
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Technology and Industry of Islamic civilization was highly developed. [[Distillation]] techniques supported a flourishing [[perfume]] industry, while [[chemical]] [[ceramic glaze]]s were developed constantly to compete with ceramics imported from [[China]]. A scientific approach to [[metallurgy]] made it easier to adopt and improve [[steel]] technologies from India and China. Primary [[export]]s included manufactured [[luxuries]], such as [[wood]] carving, [[metal]] and [[glass]], [[textile]]s, and [[ceramic]]s. |
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The systems of [[contract]] relied upon by [[merchant]]s was very effective. Merchants would buy and sell on [[Commission (remuneration)|commission]], with money [[loan]]ed to them by wealthy [[investor]]s, or a joint [[investment]] of several merchants, who were often Muslim, Christian and Jewish. Recently, a collection of documents was found in an [[Egypt]]ian [[synagogue]] shedding a very detailed and human light on the life of medieval Middle Eastern merchants. Business [[partnership]]s would be made for many [[Joint venture|commercial ventures]], and bonds of [[kinship]] enabled trade [[network]]s to form over huge distances. Networks developed during this time enabled a world in which [[money]] could be promised by a [[bank]] in [[Baghdad]] and cashed in [[Spain]], creating the [[cheque]] system of today. Each time items passed through the cities along this extraordinary network, the city imposed a [[tax]], resulting in high prices once reaching the final destination. These innovations made by Muslims and Jews laid the foundations for the modern [[economic system]]. |
The systems of [[contract]] relied upon by [[merchant]]s was very effective. Merchants would buy and sell on [[Commission (remuneration)|commission]], with money [[loan]]ed to them by wealthy [[investor]]s, or a joint [[investment]] of several merchants, who were often Muslim, Christian and Jewish. Recently, a collection of documents was found in an [[Egypt]]ian [[synagogue]] shedding a very detailed and human light on the life of medieval Middle Eastern merchants. Business [[partnership]]s would be made for many [[Joint venture|commercial ventures]], and bonds of [[kinship]] enabled trade [[network]]s to form over huge distances. Networks developed during this time enabled a world in which [[money]] could be promised by a [[bank]] in [[Baghdad]] and cashed in [[Spain]], creating the [[cheque]] system of today. Each time items passed through the cities along this extraordinary network, the city imposed a [[tax]], resulting in high prices once reaching the final destination. These innovations made by Muslims and Jews laid the foundations for the modern [[economic system]]. |
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[[Transport]] was simple yet highly effective. Each city had an area outside its gates where pack animals were assembled, found in the cities markets were large secure warehouses, while accommodations were provided for merchants in cities and along trade routes by a sort of medieval motel. |
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===Economic thought=== |
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:''Main article: [[Early Muslim sociology#Economic thought|Early Muslim sociology - Economic thought]]'' |
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===Industrial growth=== |
===Industrial growth=== |
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:''Further information: [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution#Industrial growth|Muslim Agricultural Revolution - Industrial growth]] and [[Inventions in the Muslim world]]'' |
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{{see|Inventions in the Muslim world}} |
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[[Image:Jabir ibn Hayyan.jpg|thumb|right|[[Geber|Jabir ibn Hayyan]] (Geber) is considered the father of [[chemistry]], particularly for introducing the [[Scientific method|experimental method]] in chemistry. He also established the [[chemical industry]] and [[perfume]]ry industry.]] |
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Muslim engineers in the Islamic world were responsible for numerous innovative [[Industry|industrial]] uses of [[hydropower]], the first industrial uses of [[tidal power]], [[wind power]], [[steam power]], and [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[petroleum]], and the earliest large [[factory]] complexes (''tiraz'' in Arabic).<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 36.</ref> The industrial uses of [[watermill]]s in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-[[Water wheel|wheeled]] and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial [[mill]]s were first invented in the Islamic world, including [[fulling]] mills, [[gristmill]]s, [[huller]]s, [[paper mill]]s, [[sawmill]]s, shipmills, [[stamp mill]]s, [[steel mill]]s, [[Sugar refinery|sugar mills]], [[tide mill]]s, and [[windmill]]s. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from [[al-Andalus]] and [[North Africa]] to the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]].<ref>Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", ''Technology and Culture'' '''46''' (1), p. 1-30 [10].</ref> Muslim engineers also invented [[crankshaft]]s and [[water turbine]]s, first employed [[gear]]s in mills and water-raising [[machine]]s, and pioneered the use of [[dam]]s as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.<ref name=Hassan/> Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by [[manual labour]] in [[ancient times]] to be [[Mechanization|mechanized]] and driven by [[machine]]ry instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe later laid the foundations for the [[Industrial Revolution]] in 18th century Europe.<ref>Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", ''Technology and Culture'' '''46''' (1), p. 1-30.</ref> |
Muslim engineers in the Islamic world were responsible for numerous innovative [[Industry|industrial]] uses of [[hydropower]], the first industrial uses of [[tidal power]], [[wind power]], [[steam power]],<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]] (1976). ''Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering'', p. 34-35. Instiute for the History of Arabic Science, [[University of Aleppo]].</ref> and [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[petroleum]], and the earliest large [[factory]] complexes (''tiraz'' in Arabic).<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 36.</ref> The industrial uses of [[watermill]]s in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-[[Water wheel|wheeled]] and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial [[mill]]s were first invented in the Islamic world, including [[fulling]] mills, [[gristmill]]s, [[huller]]s, [[paper mill]]s, [[sawmill]]s, shipmills, [[stamp mill]]s, [[steel mill]]s, [[Sugar refinery|sugar mills]], [[tide mill]]s, and [[windmill]]s. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from [[al-Andalus]] and [[North Africa]] to the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]].<ref>Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", ''Technology and Culture'' '''46''' (1), p. 1-30 [10].</ref> Muslim engineers also invented [[crankshaft]]s and [[water turbine]]s, first employed [[gear]]s in mills and water-raising [[machine]]s, and pioneered the use of [[dam]]s as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.<ref name=Hassan/> Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by [[manual labour]] in [[ancient times]] to be [[Mechanization|mechanized]] and driven by [[machine]]ry instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe later laid the foundations for the [[Industrial Revolution]] in 18th century Europe.<ref>Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", ''Technology and Culture'' '''46''' (1), p. 1-30.</ref> |
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Many industries were generated due to the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, including the earliest industries for [[agribusiness]], [[Islamic astronomy#Instruments|astronomical instruments]], [[ceramics]], [[Chemical industry|chemicals]], [[distillation]] technologies, [[clock]]s, [[glass]], mechanical [[hydropower]]ed and [[wind power]]ed [[machine]]ry, [[mat]]ting, [[mosaic]]s, [[Pulp and paper industry|pulp and paper]], [[perfume]]ry, [[Petroleum industry|petroleum]], [[Pharmaceutical company|pharmaceuticals]], [[rope]]-making, [[shipping]], [[shipbuilding]], [[silk]], [[sugar]], [[Textile industry|textiles]], [[Water industry|water]], [[weapon]]s, and the [[mining]] of [[mineral]]s such as [[sulfur]], [[ammonia]], [[lead]] and [[iron]]. The first large [[factory]] complexes (''tiraz'') were built for many of these industries. Knowledge of these industries were later transmitted to [[medieval Europe]], especially during the [[Latin translations of the 12th century]], as well as before and after. For example, the first glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11th century by [[Egypt]]ian craftsmen in [[Greece]].<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%207.htm Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part 1: Avenues Of Technology Transfer]</ref> The [[agricultural]] and [[handicraft]] industries also experienced high levels of growth during this period.<ref name=Labib/> |
Many industries were generated due to the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, including the earliest industries for [[agribusiness]], [[Islamic astronomy#Instruments|astronomical instruments]], [[ceramics]], [[Chemical industry|chemicals]], [[distillation]] technologies, [[clock]]s, [[glass]], mechanical [[hydropower]]ed and [[wind power]]ed [[machine]]ry, [[mat]]ting, [[mosaic]]s, [[Pulp and paper industry|pulp and paper]], [[perfume]]ry, [[Petroleum industry|petroleum]], [[Pharmaceutical company|pharmaceuticals]], [[rope]]-making, [[shipping]], [[shipbuilding]], [[silk]], [[sugar]], [[Textile industry|textiles]], [[Water industry|water]], [[weapon]]s, and the [[mining]] of [[mineral]]s such as [[sulfur]], [[ammonia]], [[lead]] and [[iron]]. The first large [[factory]] complexes (''tiraz'') were built for many of these industries. Knowledge of these industries were later transmitted to [[medieval Europe]], especially during the [[Latin translations of the 12th century]], as well as before and after. For example, the first glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11th century by [[Egypt]]ian craftsmen in [[Greece]].<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%207.htm Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part 1: Avenues Of Technology Transfer]</ref> The [[agricultural]] and [[handicraft]] industries also experienced high levels of growth during this period.<ref name=Labib/> |
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Muslim engineers pioneered two solutions to achieve the maximum output from a [[water mill]]. The first solution was to mount them to [[pier]]s of [[bridge]]s to take advantage of the increased flow. The second solution was the shipmill, a unique type of [[water mill]] powered by [[water wheel]]s mounted on the sides of [[ship]]s [[Mooring (watercraft)|moored]] in [[midstream]]. This was first employed along the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] rivers in 10th century [[Iraq]], where large shipmills made of [[teak]] and [[iron]] could produce 10 [[ton]]s of [[Gristmill|flour from corn]] every day for the [[granary]] in [[Baghdad]].<ref name=Hill2>[[Donald Routledge Hill]], "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", ''Scientific American'', May 1991, p. 64-69. ([[cf.]] [[Donald Routledge Hill]], [http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm Mechanical Engineering])</ref> Industrial water mills were also employed in the first large [[factory]] complexes built in [[al-Andalus]] between the 11th and 13th centuries. Fulling mills, paper mills, steel mills, and other mills, spread from Islamic Spain to Christian Spain by the 12th century.<ref>Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", ''Technology and Culture'' '''46''' (1), p. 1-30 [11].</ref> |
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[[Windmill]]s were first built in [[Sistan]], [[Afghanistan]], from the [[7th century]]. These were verticle [[axle]] windmills, which had long vertical [[shaft]]s with rectangle shaped [[blade]]s.<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1986). ''Islamic Technology: An illustrated history'', p. 54. [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 0-521-42239-6.</ref> The first windmill was built by the [[Rashidun]] [[caliph]] [[Umar]] (634-644).<ref>Dietrich Lohrmann (1995). "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", ''Archiv für Kulturgeschichte'' '''77''' (1), p. 1-30 (8).</ref> Made of six to twelve [[sail]]s covered in [[reed mat]]ting or [[cloth]] material, these windmills were used to grind [[corn]] and draw up [[water]], and were used in the [[gristmill]]ing and [[Sugar refinery|sugarcane industries]].<ref name=Hill2>[[Donald Routledge Hill]], "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", ''Scientific American'', May 1991, p. 64-69. ([[cf.]] [[Donald Routledge Hill]], [http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm Mechanical Engineering])</ref> |
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After [[paper]] was introduced into the Islamic world by Chinese prisoners following the [[Battle of Talas]], Muslims made significant improvements to [[papermaking]] and built the first [[paper mill]]s in [[Baghdad]], [[Iraq]], as early as [[794]]. Papermaking was transformed from an art into a major industry as a result.<ref>[http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=329 The Beginning of the Paper Industry], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.</ref> This allowed the [[manufacturing]] of paper in the Islamic world to be performed using water power rather than manual labour. The first [[fulling]] mills were later invented in the 10th century, followed by the first [[stamp mill]]s and [[steel mill]]s in the 11th century.<ref>Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", ''Technology and Culture'' '''46''' (1), p. 1-30 [10-11].</ref> |
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The first [[gristmill]]s were invented by Muslim engineers in the Islamic world, and were used for [[Mill (grinding)|grinding]] [[corn]] and other [[seed]]s to produce [[meal]]s, and many other [[Industry|industrial]] uses such as [[fulling]] cloth, [[Huller|husking rice]], [[papermaking]], [[Sugar refinery|pulping sugarcane]], and [[Stamp mill|crushing metalic ores]] before extraction. Gristmills in the Islamic world were often made from both [[watermill]]s and [[windmill]]s. In order to adapt [[water wheel]]s for gristmilling purposes, [[cam]]s were used for raising and releasing [[trip hammer]]s to fall on a material.<ref name=Hill2/> The first [[water turbine]], which had [[water wheel]]s with curved blades onto which [[water]] flow was directed [[Rotation|axially]], was also first invented in the Islamic world, and was described in a 9th century Arabic text for use in a [[watermill]].<ref name=Hill2/> |
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[[Noria]] and [[chain pump]] (saqiya) machines became more widespread during the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, when Muslim engineers made a number of improvements to the device.<ref name=Glick>Thomas F. Glick (1977), "Noria Pots in Spain", ''Technology and Culture'' '''18''' (4), p. 644-650.</ref> These include the first uses of noria and chain pumps for [[irrigation]] purposes,<ref name=Idrisi/> and the invention of the [[flywheel]] mechanism, used to smooth out the delivery of power from a driving device to a driven machine, which was first invented by Ibn Bassal (fl. 1038-1075) of [[al-Andalus]], who pioneered the use of the flywheel in the saqiya and noria.<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%204.htm Flywheel Effect for a ''Saqiya''].</ref> |
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[[Image:Jabir ibn Hayyan.jpg|thumb|right|[[Geber|Jabir ibn Hayyan]] (Geber) is considered the father of [[chemistry]], particularly for introducing the [[Scientific method|experimental method]] in chemistry. He also established the [[chemical industry]] and [[perfume]]ry industry.]] |
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The [[chemical industry]] and [[petroleum industry]] were established in the 8th century, when the [[mineral acid]]s (such as [[sulfuric acid]]) were first produced through [[dry distillation]], and when the [[street]]s of [[Baghdad]] were paved with [[tar]], derived from [[petroleum]] through [[destructive distillation]]. In the 9th century, [[oil field]]s were exploited in the area around modern [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]], to produce [[naphtha]]. These fields were described by [[Masudi]] in the 10th century, and by [[Marco Polo]] in the 13th century, who described the output of those [[oil well]]s as hundreds of shiploads.<ref name=Ajram/> Petroleum was [[Distillation|distilled]] by [[al-Razi]] in the 9th century, producing chemicals such as [[kerosene]] in the [[alembic]], which he used to invent [[kerosene lamp]]s for use in the [[oil lamp]] industry.<ref>Zayn Bilkadi ([[University of California, Berkeley]]), "The Oil Weapons", ''[[Saudi Aramco World]]'', January-February 1995, p. 20-27.</ref> |
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The first industrial use of [[steam power]] dates back to the [[perfume]]ry industry established by [[Alchemy (Islam)|Muslim chemists]] such as [[Geber]], [[al-Razi]], and [[Avicenna]], who pioneered and perfected the extraction of [[fragrance]]s and [[essential oil]]s through [[steam distillation]], introduced new raw [[ingredient]]s, and developed cheap methods for the [[mass production]] of perfumery and [[incense]]s. Both the raw ingredients and [[distillation]] technology significantly influenced Western perfumery. Muslim traders had wide access to a variety of different [[spice]]s, [[herb]]s, and other fragrance materials. In addition to trading them, many of these exotic materials were cultivated by the Muslims such that they could be successfully grown outside of their native climates. Two examples of this include [[jasmine]], which is native to [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]], and various [[citrus fruit]]s native to [[East Asia]]. Both of these ingredients are still highly important in modern perfumery. |
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In 1206, [[al-Jazari]] invented a variety of machines for raising water, which were the most efficient in his time, as well as [[water wheel]]s with [[cam]]s on their [[axle]] used to operate [[automata]]. He invented the [[crankshaft]] and [[connecting rod]], and employed them in a crank-connecting rod system for two of these water-raising machines. His invention of the crankshaft is considered the most important single mechanical invention after the [[wheel]], as it transforms continuous [[rotary engine|rotary motion]] into a linear [[reciprocating engine|reciprocating motion]], and is central to modern machinery such as the [[steam engine]] and the [[internal combustion engine]].<ref name=Vallely/><ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]]. [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%203.htm The Crank-Connecting Rod System in a Continuously Rotating Machine].</ref> Al-Jazari's most sophisticated water-raising machine featured the first [[suction]] pipes and suction [[pump]], the first use of the [[Steam engine#Double-acting engine|double-action]] principle, the first [[Reciprocating engine|reciprocating piston engine]], the earliest [[valve]] operations, and the use of a water wheel and a system of [[gear]]s. This invention is important to the development of modern machinery, including the steam engine, modern reciprocating pumps,<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]]. [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%202.htm The Origin of the Suction Pump - Al-Jazari 1206 A.D.]</ref> internal combustion engine,<ref>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1998). ''Studies in Medieval Islamic Technology'' II, p. 231-232.</ref> [[artificial heart]],<ref>[http://store.aetv.com/html/product/index.jhtml?id=101300 Ancient Discoveries: Machines of the East DVD], [[The History Channel]].</ref> [[bicycle]], [[bicycle pump]], etc.<ref>''[[What the Ancients Did for Us]]'', Episode 1, "The Islamic World", [[BBC]] & [[Open University]].</ref> |
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In 1551, after the decline of the golden age, the [[Egypt]]ian engineer [[Taqi al-Din]] invented the first practical [[steam turbine]] as a [[prime mover]] for rotating a [[Spit (cooking aide)|spit]]. This was the first time [[steam power]] was used to operate a practical [[machine]] or [[appliance]]. A similar steam turbine later appeared in Europe a century later, which eventually led to the [[steam engine]] and [[Industrial Revolution]] in 18th century Europe.<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]] (1976). ''Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering'', p. 34-35. Instiute for the History of Arabic Science, [[University of Aleppo]].</ref> |
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===Labour=== |
===Labour=== |
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:''Further information: [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution#Labour|Muslim Agricultural Revolution - Labour]] |
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The [[labour]] force in the [[Caliphate]] were [[employed]] from diverse [[ethnic]] and [[religious]] backgrounds, while both men and women were involved in diverse [[List of occupations|occupations]] and [[economic]] activities.<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 6-7.</ref> Women were employed in a wide range of commercial activities and diverse [[occupation]]s<ref name=Maya-400-401/> in the primary sector (as [[farmer]]s for example), secondary sector (as [[construction worker]]s, [[dye]]rs, [[Spinning (textiles)|spinners]], etc.) and tertiary sector (as [[investor]]s, [[doctor]]s, [[nurse]]s, [[president]]s of [[guild]]s, [[broker]]s, [[peddler]]s, [[lender]]s, [[scholar]]s, etc.).<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 350-362.</ref> Muslim women also had a [[monopoly]] over certain branches of the [[textile]] industry.<ref name=Maya-400-401/> |
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The [[labour]] force in the [[Caliphate]] were [[employed]] from diverse [[ethnic]] and [[religious]] backgrounds, while both men and women were involved in diverse [[List of occupations|occupations]] and [[economic]] activities.<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 6-7.</ref> Women were employed in a wide range of commercial activities and diverse [[occupation]]s<ref name=Maya-400-401>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 400-401.</ref> in the primary sector (as [[farmer]]s for example), secondary sector (as [[construction worker]]s, [[dye]]rs, [[Spinning (textiles)|spinners]], etc.) and tertiary sector (as [[investor]]s, [[doctor]]s, [[nurse]]s, [[president]]s of [[guild]]s, [[broker]]s, [[peddler]]s, [[lender]]s, [[scholar]]s, etc.).<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 350-362.</ref> Muslim women also had a [[monopoly]] over certain branches of the [[textile]] industry.<ref name=Maya-400-401/> |
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The [[division of labour]] was diverse and had been evolving over the centuries. During the 8th-11th centuries, there were 63 unique occupations in the [[primary sector of economic activity]] ([[extract]]ive), 697 unique occupations in the [[secondary sector]] ([[manufacturing]]), and 736 unique occupations in the [[tertiary sector]] ([[service]]). By the 12th century, the number of unique occupations in the primary sector and secondary sector decreased to 35 and 679 respectively, while the number of unique occupations in the tertiary sector increased to 1,175. These changes in the division of labour reflect the increased [[mechanization]] and use of [[machine]]ry to replace [[manual labour]] and the increased [[standard of living]] and [[quality of life]] of most citizens in the Caliphate.<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 169-170.</ref> |
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An economic transition occurred during this period, due to the diversity of the service sector being far greater than any other previous or contemporary society, and the high degree of [[economic integration]] between the labour force and the [[economy]]. Islamic society also experienced a change in attitude towards [[manual labour]]. In previous civilizations such as [[ancient Greece]] and in contemporary civilizations such as [[early medieval]] Europe, intellectuals saw manual labour in a negative light and looked down on them with contempt. This resulted in technological stagnation as they did not see the need for [[machine]]ry to replace manual labour. In the Islamic world, however, manual labour was seen in a far more positive light, as intellectuals such as the [[Brethren of Purity]] likened them to a participant in the act of [[creation]], while [[Ibn Khaldun]] alluded to the benefits of manual labour to the progress of society.<ref name=Maya-400-401>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 400-401.</ref> |
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===Technology=== |
===Technology=== |
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:''Further information: [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution#Technology|Muslim Agricultural Revolution: Technology]], [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution#Industrial growth|Muslim Agricultural Revolution: Industrial growth]], and [[Inventions in the Muslim world]] |
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{{main|Inventions in the Muslim world}} |
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{{see also|Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world}} |
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A significant number of inventions and technological advances were made in the Muslim world, as well as adopting and improving technologies centuries before they were used in the West. For example, [[papermaking]] was adopted from China many centuries before it was known in the West.<ref>Huff (2003), p.74</ref> Iron was a vital industry in Muslim lands and was given importance in the Qur'an.<ref>{{cite quran|57|25|style=ref}}</ref><ref>Hobson (2004), p. 130</ref> The knowledge of [[gunpowder]] was also transmitted from China to [[Islamic countries]], where [[Alchemy (Islam)|Muslim chemists]] were the first to purify [[saltpeter]] to the [[weapons-grade]] purity for use in [[gunpowder]], as [[potassium nitrate]] must be purified to be used effectively. This purification process was first described by Ibn Bakhtawayh in his ''Al-Muqaddimat'' in the early 11th century.<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%202.htm Potassium Nitrate in Arabic and Latin Sources]</ref><ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%203.htm Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries]</ref> [[Gunpowder warfare|Gunpowder weapons]] were employed by [[Muslim conquests|Muslim armies]] against [[Christian]] armies during the [[Crusades]] and [[Byzantine-Ottoman wars]].<ref>Phillips (1992), p. 76</ref> Knowledge of chemical processes ([[alchemy]] and [[chemistry]]) and [[distillation]] ([[alcohol]], [[kerosene]] and other [[chemical substance]]s) also spread to Europe from the Muslim world. Numerous contributions were made in laboratory practices such as "refined techniques of [[distillation]], the preparation of [[medicine]]s, and the production of [[salt]]s."<ref>Levere (2001), p.6</ref> Advances were made in [[irrigation]] and farming, using technology such as the [[windmill]]. Crops such as [[almond]]s and [[citrus]] fruit were brought to Europe through [[al-Andalus]], and [[sugar]] cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans.<ref>Mintz (1986), p. 23-29</ref> |
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[[Fielding H. Garrison]] wrote in the ''History of Medicine'': |
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{{quote|"The [[Saracen]]s themselves were the originators not only of [[algebra]], [[chemistry]], and [[geology]], but of many of the so-called improvements or refinements of civilization, such as [[Street light|street lamp]]s, window-[[Paned window|panes]], [[firework]], [[string instrument|stringed instruments]], [[cultivation|cultivated]] [[fruit]]s, [[perfume]]s, [[spice]]s, etc..."}} |
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[[Image:Al-jazari robots.jpg|thumb|The [[Computer programming|programmable]] [[automata]] of [[al-Jazari]], the father of [[robotics]].]] |
[[Image:Al-jazari robots.jpg|thumb|The [[Computer programming|programmable]] [[automata]] of [[al-Jazari]], the father of [[robotics]].]] |
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A significant number of |
A significant number of inventions were produced by medieval Muslim scientists and engineers, including inventors such as [[Abbas Ibn Firnas]], [[Taqi al-Din]], and especially [[al-Jazari]], who is considered the "father of [[robotics]]"<ref name=Vallely/> and "father of modern day [[engineering]]".<ref>[http://www.mtestudios.com/news_100_years.htm 1000 Years of Knowledge Rediscovered at Ibn Battuta Mall], MTE Studios.</ref> |
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Some of the other inventions and discoveries from the Islamic Golden Age include the [[camera obscura]], [[coffee]], [[hang glider]], [[Soap bar|hard soap]], [[shampoo]], pure [[distillation]], [[liquefaction]], [[crystallisation]], [[purification]], [[oxidisation]], [[evaporation]], [[filtration]], [[Distilled beverage|distilled]] [[alcohol]], [[uric acid]], [[nitric acid]], [[alembic]], [[crankshaft]], [[valve]], [[Reciprocating engine|reciprocating]] [[suction]] [[piston]] [[pump]], [[mechanical clock]]s driven by [[Water clock|water]] and [[weight]]s, [[Computer programming|programmable]] [[humanoid robot]], [[combination lock]], [[quilting]], pointed [[arch]], [[scalpel]], bone [[saw]], [[forceps]], surgical [[catgut]], [[windmill]], [[inoculation]], [[smallpox vaccine]], [[fountain pen]], [[cryptanalysis]], [[Frequency analysis (cryptanalysis)|frequency analysis]], three-course [[meal]], [[stained glass]] and [[Fused quartz|quartz glass]], [[Persian carpet]], modern [[cheque]], [[celestial globe]], [[explosive]] [[rocket]]s and [[incendiary device]]s, [[torpedo]], and royal [[pleasure gardens]].<ref name=Vallely>Paul Vallely, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20060311/ai_n16147544 How Islamic Inventors Changed the World], ''[[The Independent]]'', [[11 March]] [[2006]].</ref> |
Some of the other inventions and discoveries from the Islamic Golden Age include the [[camera obscura]], [[coffee]], [[hang glider]], [[Soap bar|hard soap]], [[shampoo]], pure [[distillation]], [[liquefaction]], [[crystallisation]], [[purification]], [[oxidisation]], [[evaporation]], [[filtration]], [[Distilled beverage|distilled]] [[alcohol]], [[uric acid]], [[nitric acid]], [[alembic]], [[crankshaft]], [[valve]], [[Reciprocating engine|reciprocating]] [[suction]] [[piston]] [[pump]], [[mechanical clock]]s driven by [[Water clock|water]] and [[weight]]s, [[Computer programming|programmable]] [[humanoid robot]], [[combination lock]], [[quilting]], pointed [[arch]], [[scalpel]], bone [[saw]], [[forceps]], surgical [[catgut]], [[windmill]], [[inoculation]], [[smallpox vaccine]], [[fountain pen]], [[cryptanalysis]], [[Frequency analysis (cryptanalysis)|frequency analysis]], three-course [[meal]], [[stained glass]] and [[Fused quartz|quartz glass]], [[Persian carpet]], modern [[cheque]], [[celestial globe]], [[explosive]] [[rocket]]s and [[incendiary device]]s, [[torpedo]], and royal [[pleasure gardens]].<ref name=Vallely>Paul Vallely, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20060311/ai_n16147544 How Islamic Inventors Changed the World], ''[[The Independent]]'', [[11 March]] [[2006]].</ref> |
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===Urbanization=== |
===Urbanization=== |
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:''Further information: [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution#Urbanization|Muslim Agricultural Revolution: Urbanization]] |
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As [[urbanization]] increased, Muslim [[City|cities]] grew unregulated, resulting in narrow winding city [[street]]s and [[neighborhood]]s separated by different ethnic backgrounds and religious affiliations. These qualities proved efficient for transporting goods to and from major [[commerce|commercial]] centers while preserving the privacy valued by Islamic family life. Suburbs lay just outside the walled city, from wealthy residential communities, to working class semi-slums. City garbage dumps were located far from the city, as were clearly defined cemeteries which were often homes for criminals. A place of prayer was found just near one of the main gates, for religious festivals and public executions. Similarly, Military Training grounds were found near a main gate. |
As [[urbanization]] increased, Muslim [[City|cities]] grew unregulated, resulting in narrow winding city [[street]]s and [[neighborhood]]s separated by different ethnic backgrounds and religious affiliations. These qualities proved efficient for transporting goods to and from major [[commerce|commercial]] centers while preserving the privacy valued by Islamic family life. Suburbs lay just outside the walled city, from wealthy residential communities, to working class semi-slums. City garbage dumps were located far from the city, as were clearly defined cemeteries which were often homes for criminals. A place of prayer was found just near one of the main gates, for religious festivals and public executions. Similarly, Military Training grounds were found near a main gate. |
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Muslim cities also had advanced [[domestic water system]]s with [[sewer]]s, [[public bath]]s, drinking [[fountain]]s, [[Water pipe|piped]] [[drinking water]] supplies,<ref>Fiona MacDonald (2006), ''The Plague and Medicine in the Middle Ages'', p. 42-43, Gareth Stevens, ISBN 0836859073.</ref> and widespread private and [[public toilet]] and [[bathing]] facilities.<ref>Tor Eigeland, "The Tiles of Iberia", ''[[Saudi Aramco World]]'', March-April 1992, p. 24-31.</ref> By the 10th century, [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]] had 700 [[mosque]]s, 60,000 [[palace]]s, and 70 [[library|libraries]], the largest of which had 600,000 books, while as many as 60,000 [[treatise]]s, [[Arabic poetry|poems]], [[polemic]]s and [[compilation]]s were published each year in [[al-Andalus]].<ref>Dato' Dzulkifli Abd Razak, [http://www.prn2.usm.my/mainsite/bulletin/article/29dar05.html Quest for knowledge], ''[[New Straits Times|New Sunday Times]]'', [[3 July]] [[2005]].</ref> The library of [[Cairo]] had more than 100,000 books, while the library of [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] is said to have had as many as three million books. The number of important and original Arabic works on science that have survived is much larger than the combined total of [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] works on science.<ref>N. M. Swerdlow (1993). "Montucla's Legacy: The History of the Exact Sciences", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''54''' (2), p. 299-328 [320].</ref> |
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While varying in appearance due to climate and prior local traditions, Islamic cities were almost always dominated by a merchant middle class. Some peoples' loyalty towards their neighborhood was very strong, reflecting ethnicity and religion, while a sense of citizenship was at times uncommon (but not in every case). The extended family provided the foundation for social programs, business deals, and negotiations with authorities. Part of this economic and social unit were often the tenants of a wealthy landlord. |
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==Muslim Scientific Revolution== |
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State power normally focused on Dar al Imara, the governor's office in the [[citadel]]. These fortresses towered high above the city built on thousands of years of human settlement. The primary function of the city governor was to provide for defence and to maintain legal order. This system would be responsible for a mixture of autocracy and autonomy within the city. Each neighborhood, and many of the large tenement blocks, elected a representative to deal with urban authorities. These neighborhoods were also expected to organize their young men into a militia providing for protection of their own neighborhoods, and as aid to the professional armies defending the city as a whole. |
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The head of the family was given the position of authority in his household, although a [[qadi]], or judge was able to negotiate and resolve differences in issues of disagreements within families and between them. The two senior representatives of municipal authority were the qadi and the [[muhtasib]], who held the responsibilities of many issues, including quality of water, maintenance of city streets, containing outbreaks of disease, supervising the markets, and a prompt burial of the dead. |
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Another aspect of Islamic urban life was [[waqf]], a religious charity directly dealing with the [[qadi]] and religious leaders. Through donations, the waqf owned many of the [[public bath]]s and [[factories]], using the revenue to fund education, and to provide [[irrigation]] for [[orchard]]s outside the city. Following expansion, this system was introduced into [[Eastern Europe]] by [[Ottoman Turks]]. |
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While religious foundations of all faiths were tax exempt in the Muslim world, civilians paid their taxes to the urban authorities, soldiers to the superior officer, and landowners to the state treasury. Taxes were also levied on an unmarried man until he was wed. Instead of [[zakat]], the mandatory charity required of Muslims, non-Muslims were required to pay the [[jizya]], a discriminatory religious tax, imposed on Christians and Jews. During the Muslim Conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries conquered populations were given the three choices of either converting to Islam, paying the jizya, or dying by the sword. |
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Animals brought to the city for slaughter were restricted to areas outside the city, as were any other industries seen as unclean. The more valuable a good was, the closer its market was to the center of town. Because of this, booksellers and goldsmiths clustered around the main mosque at the heart of the city. |
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Muslim cities also had advanced [[domestic water system]]s with [[sewer]]s, [[public bath]]s, drinking [[fountain]]s, [[Water pipe|piped]] [[drinking water]] supplies,<ref>Fiona MacDonald (2006), ''The Plague and Medicine in the Middle Ages'', p. 42-43, Gareth Stevens, ISBN 0836859073.</ref> and widespread private and [[public toilet]] and [[bathing]] facilities.<ref>Tor Eigeland, "The Tiles of Iberia", ''[[Saudi Aramco World]]'', March-April 1992, p. 24-31.</ref> |
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==Scientific Revolution== |
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[[Image:Ibn haithem portrait.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhazen) has been described as the "father of [[optics]]", the "pioneer of the modern [[scientific method]]", and the "first scientist". He also invented the [[camera obscura]] and [[pinhole camera]], was the first to discover the [[Fermat's principle|principle of least time]] and [[Newton's laws of motion|first law of motion]], and laid the foundations for [[telescope|telescopic]] astronomy.]] |
[[Image:Ibn haithem portrait.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhazen) has been described as the "father of [[optics]]", the "pioneer of the modern [[scientific method]]", and the "first scientist". He also invented the [[camera obscura]] and [[pinhole camera]], was the first to discover the [[Fermat's principle|principle of least time]] and [[Newton's laws of motion|first law of motion]], and laid the foundations for [[telescope|telescopic]] astronomy.]] |
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{{main|Islamic science}} |
{{main|Islamic science}} |
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===Scientific method=== |
===Scientific method=== |
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:''Further information: [[Islamic science#Scientific method|Islamic science |
:''Further information: [[Islamic science#Scientific method|Islamic science: Scientific method]]'' |
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The modern [[scientific method]] was first developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, especially in the works of [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhazen) in the 11th century, who was the pioneer of [[experimental physics]].<ref name=Agar>David Agar (2001). [http://users.jyu.fi/~daagar/index_files/arabs.html Arabic Studies in Physics and Astronomy During 800 - 1400 AD]. [[University of Jyväskylä]].</ref> The most important development of the scientific method was the use of [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally [[empiricism|empirical]] orientation. Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) wrote the ''[[Book of Optics]]'', and he is known as the father of [[optics]] for empirically proving that vision occurred because of [[light rays]] entering the eye, as well as for inventing the [[camera obscura]] to demonstrate the physical nature of light rays.<ref>[[David C. Lindberg]] (1968). "The Theory of Pinhole Images from Antiquity to the Thirteenth Century", ''Archive for History of the Exact Sciences'' '''5''', p. 154-176.</ref><ref>R. S. Elliott (1966). ''Electromagnetics'', Chapter 1. [[McGraw-Hill]].</ref> |
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Ibn al-Haytham has also been described as the "first scientist" for his introduction of the scientific method,<ref>Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246.</ref> and some also consider him the founder of [[psychophysics]] and [[experimental psychology]],<ref name=Khaleefa>Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", ''American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences'' '''16''' (2).</ref> for his pioneering work on the [[psychology]] of [[visual perception]].<ref>Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246.</ref><ref> Reynor Mausfeld, "From Number Mysticism to the MauBformel: Fechner's Pyschophysics in the Tradition of ''Mathesis Universalis''", Keynote Address International Symposium in Honour to G.Th. Fechner, ''International Society for Pyshophysics'' 19-23, October 2000, University of Leipzig.[http://www.psychologie.uni-kiel.de/psychophysik/mausfeld/Fechner_engl.pdf]</ref> |
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[[Image:Ghotb2.jpg|thumb|right|Photo taken from medieval manuscript by [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]] (1236–1311), a Persian astronomer. The image depicts an epicyclic planetary model.]] |
[[Image:Ghotb2.jpg|thumb|right|Photo taken from medieval manuscript by [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]] (1236–1311), a Persian astronomer. The image depicts an epicyclic planetary model.]] |
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Advances in [[astronomy]] included the construction of the first [[observatory]] in [[Baghdad]] during the reign of [[Caliph]] [[Al-Ma'mun]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Nas |first=Peter J |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Urban Symbolism |origdate= |origyear= |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |accessyear= |accessmonth= |edition= |series= |date= |year=1993 |month= |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |location= |language= |isbn=9-0040-9855-0 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages=350 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }}</ref> |
Advances in [[astronomy]] included the construction of the first [[observatory]] in [[Baghdad]] during the reign of [[Caliph]] [[Al-Ma'mun]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Nas |first=Peter J |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Urban Symbolism |origdate= |origyear= |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |accessyear= |accessmonth= |edition= |series= |date= |year=1993 |month= |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |location= |language= |isbn=9-0040-9855-0 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages=350 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }}</ref> |
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the first elaborate [[experiment]]s related to astronomical phenomena by [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]], the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the [[Geocentric model|Ptolemaic model]], perfected forms of the [[astrolabe]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Krebs |first=Robert E. |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance |origdate= |origyear= |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |accessyear= |accessmonth= |edition= |series= |date= |year=2004 |month= |publisher=Greenwood Press |location= |language= |isbn=0-3133-2433-6 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages=196 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }}</ref> |
the first elaborate [[experiment]]s related to astronomical phenomena by [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]], the first [[semantic]] distinction between astronomy and [[astrology]] by [[al-Biruni]].<ref>S. Pines (September 1964). "The Semantic Distinction between the Terms Astronomy and Astrology according to al-Biruni", ''Isis'' '''55''' (3), p. 343-349.</ref> the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the [[Geocentric model|Ptolemaic model]], perfected forms of the [[astrolabe]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Krebs |first=Robert E. |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance |origdate= |origyear= |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |accessyear= |accessmonth= |edition= |series= |date= |year=2004 |month= |publisher=Greenwood Press |location= |language= |isbn=0-3133-2433-6 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages=196 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }}</ref> |
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the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, and the beginning of [[astrophysics]] and [[celestial mechanics]] after [[Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir]] discovered that the [[Astronomical object|heavenly bodies]] and [[celestial sphere]]s were subject to the same [[ |
the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, and the beginning of [[astrophysics]] and [[celestial mechanics]] after [[Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir]] discovered that the [[Astronomical object|heavenly bodies]] and [[celestial sphere]]s were subject to the same [[physical law]]s as [[Earth]].<ref>[[George Saliba]] (1994). "Early Arabic Critique of Ptolemaic Cosmology: A Ninth-Century Text on the Motion of the Celestial Spheres", ''Journal for the History of Astronomy'' '''25''', p. 115-141 [116].</ref> |
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Several Muslim astronomers also considered the possibility of the [[Earth's rotation]] on its axis and perhaps a [[heliocentric]] solar system.<ref name=Ajram>K. Ajram (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.</ref><ref>S. H. Nasr (1964), ''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines,'' (Cambridge: Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press), pp. 135-6</ref> It is known that the [[Copernican heliocentrism|Copernican heliocentric model]] in [[Nicolaus Copernicus]]' ''[[De revolutionibus]]'' was adapted from the [[geocentric model]] of [[Ibn al-Shatir]] and the [[Maragheh observatory|Maragheh school]] in a [[Heliocentrism|heliocentric]] context.<ref>[[George Saliba]] (1999). [http://www.columbia.edu/~gas1/project/visions/case1/sci.1.html Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?] [[Columbia University]]. The relationship between Copernicus and the [[Maragheh observatory|Maragheh school]] is detailed in Toby Huff, ''The Rise of Early Modern Science'', Cambridge University Press.</ref> |
Several Muslim astronomers also considered the possibility of the [[Earth's rotation]] on its axis and perhaps a [[heliocentric]] solar system.<ref name=Ajram>K. Ajram (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.</ref><ref>S. H. Nasr (1964), ''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines,'' (Cambridge: Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press), pp. 135-6</ref> It is known that the [[Copernican heliocentrism|Copernican heliocentric model]] in [[Nicolaus Copernicus]]' ''[[De revolutionibus]]'' was adapted from the [[geocentric model]] of [[Ibn al-Shatir]] and the [[Maragheh observatory|Maragheh school]] in a [[Heliocentrism|heliocentric]] context.<ref>[[George Saliba]] (1999). [http://www.columbia.edu/~gas1/project/visions/case1/sci.1.html Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?] [[Columbia University]]. The relationship between Copernicus and the [[Maragheh observatory|Maragheh school]] is detailed in Toby Huff, ''The Rise of Early Modern Science'', Cambridge University Press.</ref> |
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{{main|Alchemy (Islam)}} |
{{main|Alchemy (Islam)}} |
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[[Geber]] is considered the father of [[chemistry]],<ref>John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", ''Third World Quarterly'', Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830.</ref><ref>Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). [http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/haiyan.html JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Geber)]. [[University of Indonesia]].</ref> for introducing an early [[experiment]]al [[scientific method]], as well as the [[alembic]], [[still]], [[retort]], and the [[chemical process]]es of pure [[distillation]], [[liquefaction]], [[crystallisation]], [[purification]], [[oxidisation]], [[evaporation]], and [[filtration]].<ref name=Vallely/> |
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[[ |
The study of [[alchemy]] and the theory of the [[Philosopher's stone|transmutation of metals]] were first debunked by [[al-Kindi]],<ref>Felix Klein-Frank (2001), "Al-Kindi", in [[Oliver Leaman]] & [[Hossein Nasr]], ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 174. London: [[Routledge]].</ref> followed by [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]]<ref>Michael E. Marmura (1965). "''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina'' by Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]]", ''Speculum'' '''40''' (4), p. 744-746.</ref> and [[Avicenna]].<ref>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 196-197.</ref> [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī]] stated an early version of the law of [[conservation of mass]], noting that a body of [[matter]] is able to change, but is not able to disappear.<ref>Farid Alakbarov (Summer 2001). [[http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/92_folder/92_articles/92_tusi.html A 13th-Century Darwin? Tusi's Views on Evolution], ''Azerbaijan International'' '''9''' (2).</ref> [[Alexander von Humboldt]] and [[Will Durant]] regarded the Muslim chemists as the founders of chemistry.<ref>Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.</ref><ref>[[Will Durant]] (1980). ''The Age of Faith ([[The Story of Civilization]], Volume 4)'', p. 162-186. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671012002.</ref> |
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===Experimental physics=== |
===Experimental physics=== |
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{{main|Islamic mathematics}} |
{{main|Islamic mathematics}} |
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Among the achievements of Muslim mathematicians during this period include the development of [[algebra]] and [[algorithm]]s (see [[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]]), the invention of [[spherical trigonometry]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Syed |first=M. H. |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Islam and Science |origdate= |origyear= |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |accessyear= |accessmonth= |edition= |series= |date= |year=2005 |month= |publisher=Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. |location= |language= |isbn=8-1261-1345-6 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages=71 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }}</ref> the addition of the [[decimal point]] notation to the [[Arabic numerals]], the introduction of [[Mathematical proof|proof]] by [[mathematical induction]], and numerous other advances in [[arithmetic]], [[ |
Among the achievements of Muslim mathematicians during this period include the development of [[algebra]] and [[algorithm]]s (see [[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]]), the invention of [[spherical trigonometry]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Syed |first=M. H. |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Islam and Science |origdate= |origyear= |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |accessyear= |accessmonth= |edition= |series= |date= |year=2005 |month= |publisher=Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. |location= |language= |isbn=8-1261-1345-6 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages=71 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }}</ref> the addition of the [[decimal point]] notation to the [[Arabic numerals]], the discovery of all the [[trigonometric function]]s besides sine, [[al-Kindi]]'s introduction of [[cryptanalysis]] and [[frequency analysis]], [[al-Karaji]]'s introduction of algebraic [[calculus]] and [[Mathematical proof|proof]] by [[mathematical induction]], the development of [[analytic geometry]] and the earliest general formula for [[infinitesimal]] and [[integral]] calculus by [[Ibn al-Haytham]], the beginning of [[algebraic geometry]] by [[Omar Khayyam]], the first refutations of [[Euclidean geometry]] and the [[parallel postulate]] by [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī]], the first attempt at a [[non-Euclidean geometry]] by Sadr al-Din, and numerous other advances in algebra, [[arithmetic]], calculus, [[cryptography]], [[geometry]], [[number theory]] and [[trigonometry]]. |
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===Medicine=== |
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[[Image:Avicenna Persian Physician.jpg|thumb|right|[[Abū Alī ibn Sīnā]] (Avicenna), considered the father of modern [[medicine]], introduced systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] into [[physiology]], discovered the contagious nature of [[infectious disease]]s, introduced the methods of [[quarantine]] and [[clinical trial]]s, and described many medical treatments, including [[anasthesia|anesthetics]] and medical and therapeutic [[drug]]s, in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''.]] |
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[[Image:Cheshm manuscript.jpg|right|thumb|An Arabic manuscript describing the eye, dating back to the 12th century]] |
[[Image:Cheshm manuscript.jpg|right|thumb|An Arabic manuscript describing the eye, dating back to the 12th century]] |
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===Medicine=== |
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{{main|Islamic medicine}} |
{{main|Islamic medicine}} |
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{{see|Ophthalmology in medieval Islam|Bimaristan}} |
{{see|Ophthalmology in medieval Islam|Bimaristan}} |
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Muslim [[physician]]s made many significant advances and contributions to [[medicine]], including [[anatomy]], [[ophthalmology]], [[pathology]], the [[pharmaceutical sciences]] (including [[pharmacy]] and [[pharmacology]]), [[physiology]], and [[surgery]], and they set up some of the earliest dedicated [[hospital]]s |
Muslim [[physician]]s made many significant advances and contributions to [[medicine]], including [[anatomy]], [[ophthalmology]], [[pathology]], the [[pharmaceutical sciences]] (including [[pharmacy]] and [[pharmacology]]), [[physiology]], and [[surgery]], and they set up some of the earliest dedicated [[hospital]]s, including the first [[psychiatric hospital]]s.<ref name=Sarton>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science''.<br>([[cf.]] Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html Quotations From Famous Historians of Science], Cyberistan.</ref> |
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The ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'' written by [[Al-Razi]] (Rhazes) in the 9th century, recorded [[clinical]] cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various [[disease]]s, and with its introduction of [[measles]] and [[smallpox]], it was very influential in Europe. The Arab doctor [[al-Kindi]] wrote the ''[[De Gradibus]]'', in which he demonstrated the application of [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]] to medicine, particularly in the field of pharmacology. This includes the development of a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of [[drug]]s, and a system that would allow a doctor to determine in advance the most critical days of a patient's illness, based on the phases of the [[Moon]].<ref> Felix Klein-Frank (2001), ''Al-Kindi'', in [[Oliver Leaman]] and [[Hossein Nasr]], ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 172. [[Routledge]], London.</ref> |
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[[Al-Razi]] (Rhazes) recorded [[clinical]] cases of his own experience, provided very useful recordings of various [[disease]]s, and discovered [[measles]] and [[smallpox]]. [[Al-Kindi]] wrote the ''[[De Gradibus]]'', in which he first demonstrated the application of mathematics to medicine and pharmacology, such as a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of [[drug]]s and the determination in advance of the most critical days of a patient's illness.<ref> Felix Klein-Frank (2001), ''Al-Kindi'', in [[Oliver Leaman]] and [[Hossein Nasr]], ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 172. [[Routledge]], London.</ref> |
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[[Abu al-Qasim]] (Abulcasis), regarded as the father of modern [[surgery]],<ref>A. Martin-Araguz, C. Bustamante-Martinez, Ajo V. Fernandez-Armayor, J. M. Moreno-Martinez (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", ''Revista de neurología'' '''34''' (9), p. 877-892.</ref> contributed greatly to the discipline of medical [[surgery]] with his ''[[Al-Tasrif|Kitab al-Tasrif]]'' ("''Book of Concessions''"), a 30-volume medical [[encyclopedia]] which was later translated to Latin and used in European [[medical school]]s for centuries. He invented numerous [[surgical instruments]], including the first instruments unique to women,<ref name=Saad>Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '''2''' (4), p. 475-479 [476]. [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> as well as the surgical uses of [[catgut]] and [[forceps]], the [[Ligature (medicine)|ligature]], [[surgical needle]], [[scalpel]], [[curette]], [[retractor]], surgical [[spoon]], [[Sound (medical instrument)|sound]], surgical [[hook]], surgical [[rod]], and [[Speculum (medical)|specula]],<ref>Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslem Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '''4''' (1), p. 1-15. ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=674 Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)</ref> and bone [[saw]].<ref name=Vallely/> [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhacen) made important advances in [[eye surgery]], and he studied and correctly explained the process of sight and [[visual perception]] for the first time in his ''[[Book of Optics]]'', published in 1021.<ref name=Saad/> |
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[[Abu al-Qasim]] (Abulcasis), the father of modern [[surgery]],<ref>A. Martin-Araguz, C. Bustamante-Martinez, Ajo V. Fernandez-Armayor, J. M. Moreno-Martinez (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", ''Revista de neurología'' '''34''' (9), p. 877-892.</ref> wrote the ''Kitab [[al-Tasrif]]'', in which he invented numerous [[surgical instruments]], including the first instruments unique to women,<ref name=Saad>Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '''2''' (4), p. 475-479 [476]. [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> as well as the surgical uses of [[catgut]] and [[forceps]], the [[Ligature (medicine)|ligature]], [[surgical needle]], [[scalpel]], [[curette]], [[retractor]], surgical [[spoon]], [[Sound (medical instrument)|sound]], surgical [[hook]], surgical [[rod]], and [[Speculum (medical)|specula]],<ref>Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslem Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '''4''' (1), p. 1-15. ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=674 Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)</ref> and bone [[saw]].<ref name=Vallely/> [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhacen) made important advances in [[eye surgery]], as he correctly explained the process of sight and [[visual perception]] for the first time in his ''[[Book of Optics]]''.<ref name=Saad/> |
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[[Abū Alī ibn Sīnā]] (Avicenna), who is considered the father of modern medicine and one of the greatest medical scholars in history,<ref name=Sarton/> wrote ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' and ''[[The Book of Healing]]'', which remained popular textbooks in the Islamic world and medieval Europe for centuries. Avicenna's contributions to medicine include his introduction of systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] into the study of [[physiology]],<ref>Katharine Park (March 1990). "''Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500'' by Nancy G. Siraisi", ''The Journal of Modern History'' '''62''' (1), p. 169-170.</ref> the discovery of the contagious nature of [[infectious disease]]s, the introduction of [[quarantine]] to limit the spread of contagious diseases, the introduction of [[clinical trial]]s,<ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref> the first descriptions on [[bacteria]] and [[virus|viral]] [[organism]]s,<ref>[http://www.unani.com/avicenna%20story%203.htm The Canon of Medicine], The American Institute of Unani Medicine, 2003.</ref> the distinction of [[mediastinitis]] from [[pleurisy]], the contagious nature of [[phthisis]] and [[tuberculosis]], the distribution of [[disease]]s by water and [[soil]], and the first careful descriptions of skin troubles, [[sexually transmitted disease]]s, [[perversion]]s, and [[Nervous system|nervous]] [[ailment]]s,<ref name=Sarton/> as well the use of ice to treat [[fever]]s, and the separation of [[medicine]] from [[pharmacology]], which was important to the development of the [[pharmaceutical sciences]].<ref name=Saad/> |
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[[Image:Avicenna Persian Physician.jpg|thumb|right|[[Avicenna]], considered the father of modern [[medicine]], introduced systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] into [[physiology]], discovered the contagious nature of [[infectious disease]]s, introduced the methods of [[quarantine]] and [[clinical trial]]s, and described many medical treatments, including [[anasthesia|anesthetics]] and medical and therapeutic [[drug]]s, in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''.]] |
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In 1242, the [[Arab]] physician [[Ibn al-Nafis]] was the first to describe [[Circulatory system|human blood circulation]] and [[pulmonary circulation]]. Ibn al-Lubudi (1210-1267) rejected the theory of four [[Humorism|humours]] supported by [[Galen]] and [[Hippocrates]], discovered that the [[body]] and its preservation depend exclusively upon [[blood]], rejected Galen's idea that women can produce [[sperm]], and discovered that the movement of [[arteries]] are not dependant upon the movement of the [[heart]], that the heart is the first organ to form in a [[fetus]]' body (rather than the [[brain]] as claimed by Hippocrates), and that the [[bone]]s forming the [[skull]] can grow into [[tumor]]s.<ref>L. Leclerc (1876), ''Histoire de la medecine Arabe'', vol. 2, p. 161, [[Paris]]. <br> ([[cf.]] Salah Zaimeche, [http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=497 The Scholars of Aleppo: Al Mahassin, Al Urdi, Al-Lubudi, Al-Halabi], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation)</ref> |
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[[Avicenna]], the father of modern medicine, wrote ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' and ''[[The Book of Healing]]''. His contributions include the introduction of systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] into the study of [[physiology]],<ref>Katharine Park (March 1990). "''Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500'' by Nancy G. Siraisi", ''The Journal of Modern History'' '''62''' (1), p. 169-170.</ref> the discovery of the contagious nature of [[infectious disease]]s, the introduction of [[quarantine]] to limit the spread of contagious diseases, the introduction of [[clinical trial]]s,<ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref> the first descriptions on [[bacteria]] and [[virus|viral]] [[organism]]s,<ref>[http://www.unani.com/avicenna%20story%203.htm The Canon of Medicine], The American Institute of Unani Medicine, 2003.</ref> the distinction of [[mediastinitis]] from [[pleurisy]], the contagious nature of [[phthisis]] and [[tuberculosis]], the distribution of [[disease]]s by water and [[soil]], and the first careful descriptions of skin troubles, [[sexually transmitted disease]]s, [[perversion]]s, and [[Nervous system|nervous]] [[ailment]]s,<ref name=Sarton/> and the use of ice to treat [[fever]]s, and the separation of [[medicine]] from [[pharmacology]], important to the development of the [[pharmaceutical sciences]].<ref name=Saad/> |
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During the [[Black Death]] [[bubonic plague]] in 14th century [[al-Andalus]], Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib discovered that infecious diseases are caused by [[microorganism]]s which enter the human body.<ref>Ibrahim B. Syed, Ph.D. (2002). "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''[[The Islamic Medical Association of North America|Journal of the Islamic Medical Association]]'' '''2''', p. 2-9.</ref> In the 15th century, the Persian work by [[Mansur ibn Ilyas]] entitled ''Tashrih al-badan'' ("''Anatomy of the body''") contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, [[Nervous system|nervous]] and [[circulatory system]]s.<ref name=Turner>H. R. Turner (1997), p. 136—138.</ref> |
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[[Ibn al-Nafis]] was the first to describe [[Circulatory system|human blood circulation]] and [[pulmonary circulation]]. Ibn al-Lubudi rejected the theory of [[humorism]], and discovered that the [[body]] and its preservation depend exclusively upon [[blood]], women cannot produce [[sperm]], the movement of [[arteries]] are not dependant upon the movement of the [[heart]], the heart is the first organ to form in a [[fetus]]' body, and the [[bone]]s forming the [[skull]] can grow into [[tumor]]s.<ref>L. Leclerc (1876), ''Histoire de la medecine Arabe'', vol. 2, p. 161, [[Paris]]. <br> ([[cf.]] Salah Zaimeche, [http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=497 The Scholars of Aleppo: Al Mahassin, Al Urdi, Al-Lubudi, Al-Halabi], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation)</ref> Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib discovered that infectious diseases are caused by [[microorganism]]s which enter the human body.<ref>Ibrahim B. Syed, Ph.D. (2002). "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''[[The Islamic Medical Association of North America|Journal of the Islamic Medical Association]]'' '''2''', p. 2-9.</ref> [[Mansur ibn Ilyas]] drew comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, [[Nervous system|nervous]] and [[circulatory system]]s.<ref name=Turner>H. R. Turner (1997), p. 136—138.</ref> |
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Other medical inventions and innovations from the Muslim world include oral [[anesthesia]], [[inhalant]] anesthesia, [[distillation|distilled]] [[alcohol]], medical [[drug]]s, [[Chemotherapy|chemotherapeutical]] drugs, [[Injection (medicine)|injection]] [[syringe]], and a number of [[antiseptic]]s and other medical treatments. (See [[Islamic medicine]] for more details.) |
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===Other sciences=== |
===Other sciences=== |
Revision as of 20:40, 22 October 2007
During the Islamic Golden Age, usually dated from the 8th century to the 13th century,[1] engineers, scholars and traders of the Islamic world contributed enormously to the arts, economics, industry, literature, navigation, philosophy, sciences, and technology, both by preserving and building upon earlier traditions and by adding many inventions and innovations of their own.[2] Muslim philosophers and poets, artists and scientists, and princes and laborers, created a unique culture that has influenced societies on every continent.[2]
Foundations
The Islamic Golden Age was inaugurated by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad.[3] The Abbassids were influenced by the Qur'anic injunctions and hadith such as "the ink of scientists is equal to the blood of martyrs" stressing the value of knowledge.[3] During this period the Muslim world became the unrivaled intellectual center for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established a "House of Wisdom" in Baghdad; where both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars sought to translate and gather all the world's knowledge into Arabic.[3] Many classic works of antiquity that would otherwise have been lost were translated into Arabic and later in turn translated into Turkish, Persian, Hebrew and Latin.[3] During this period the Muslim world was a cauldron of cultures which collected, synthesized and advanced the works collected from the Chinese, Persian, Egyptian, North African, Greek, Spanish, Sicilian and Byzantine civilizations.[3] Rival Muslim dynasties such as the Fatimids of Egypt, the Umayyads of al-Andalus were also major intellectual centers with cities such as Cairo and Córdoba rivaling Baghdad.[3] Religious freedom, though limited, helped create cross-cultural networks by attracting Muslim, Christian and Jewish intellectuals and thereby helped spawn the greatest period of philosophical creativity in the Middle Ages during the 12th and 13th centuries.[3]
A major innovation of this period was paper - originally a secret tightly guarded by the Chinese.[4] The art of papermaking was obtained from prisoners taken at the Battle of Talas (751), resulting in paper mills being built in Samarkand and Baghdad.[4] The Arabs improved upon the Chinese techniques of using mulberry bark by using starch to account for the Muslim preference for pens vs. the Chinese for brushes.[4] By AD 900 there were hundreds of shops employing scribes and binders for books in Baghdad and even public libraries began to become established,[4] including the first lending libraries. From here paper-making spread west to Fez and then to al-Andalus and from there to Europe in the 13th century.[4]
Much of this learning and development can be linked to geography. Even prior to Islam's presence, the city of Mecca served as a center of trade in Arabia and the Islamic prophet Muhammad was a merchant. The tradition of the pilgrimage to Mecca became a center for exchanging ideas and goods. The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to their Christian, Indian and Chinese peers who built societies from an agricultural landholding nobility. Merchants brought goods and their faith to China, India (the Indian subcontinent now has over 450 million followers), Southeast Asia (which now has over 230 million followers), and the kingdoms of Western Africa and returned with new inventions. Merchants used their wealth to invest in textiles and plantations.
Aside from traders, Sufi missionaries also played a large role in the spread of Islam, by bringing their message to various regions around the world. The principal locations included: Persia, Ancient Mesopotamia, Central Asia and North Africa. Although, the mystics also had a significant influence in parts of Eastern Africa, Ancient Anatolia (Turkey), South Asia, East Asia and Southeast Asia. [5][6]
Muslim Agricultural Revolution
The Islamic Golden Age witnessed a fundamental transformation in agriculture known as the "Muslim Agricultural Revolution", "Arab Agricultural Revolution", or "Green Revolution".[7] Due to the global economy established by Muslim traders across the Old World, this enabled the diffusion of many plants and farming techniques between different parts of the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world. Crops from Africa such as sorghum, crops from China such as citrus fruits, and numerous crops from India such as mangos, rice, and especially cotton and sugar cane, were distributed throughout Islamic lands which normally would not be able to grow these crops.[8] Some have referred to the diffusion of numerous crops during this period as the "Globalisation of Crops",[9] which, along with an increased mechanization of agriculture (see Industrial growth below), led to major changes in economy, population distribution, vegetation cover,[10] agricultural production and income, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour force, linked industries, cooking and diet, clothing, and numerous other aspects of life in the Islamic world.[8]
During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, sugar production was refined and transformed into a large-scale industry by the Arabs, who built the first sugar refineries and sugar plantations. The Arabs and Berbers diffused sugar throughout the Arab Empire from the 8th century.[11]
Muslims introduced cash cropping[12] and the modern crop rotation system where land was cropped four or more times in a two-year period. Winter crops were followed by summer ones, and in some cases there was in between. In areas where plants of shorter growing season were used, such as spinach and eggplants, the land could be cropped three or more times a year. In parts of Yemen, wheat yielded two harvests a year on the same land, as did rice in Iraq.[8] Muslims developed a scientific approach based on three major elements; sophisticated systems of crop rotation, highly developed irrigation techniques, and the introduction of a large variety of crops which were studied and catalogued according to the season, type of land and amount of water they require. Numerous encyclopaedias on farming and botany were produced, with highly accurate precision and details.[13]
Age of discovery
- Further information: Muslim age of discovery and Muslim navigational technology
- See also: Ibn Battuta and Pre-Columbian Islamic contact theories
The earliest forms of globalization began emerging during the Arab Empire and the Islamic Golden Age, when the knowledge, trade and economies from many previously isolated regions and civilizations began integrating due to contacts with Muslim explorers, sailors, scholars, traders, and travelers. Some have called this period the "Pax Islamica" or "Afro-Asiatic age of discovery", in reference to the Muslim Southwest Asian and North African traders and explorers who travelled most of the Old World, and established an early global economy[14] across most of Asia and Africa and much of Europe, with their trade networks extending from the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Indian Ocean and China Sea in the east.[15] This helped establish the Arab Empire (including the Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid caliphates) as the world's leading extensive economic power throughout the 7th-13th centuries.[14] Several contemporary medieval Arabic reports also suggest that Muslim explorers from al-Andalus and the Maghreb may have travelled in expeditions across the Atlantic Ocean, possibly even to the Americas, between the 9th and 14th centuries.[16]
Capitalist market economy
- Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution - Capitalist market economy
The origins of capitalism and free markets can be traced back to the Caliphate,[17] where the first market economy and earliest forms of merchant capitalism took root between the 8th-12th centuries, which some refer to as "Islamic capitalism".[18] A vigorous monetary economy was created on the basis of the expanding levels of circulation of a stable high-value currency (the dinar) and the integration of monetary areas that were previously independent. Innovative new business techniques and forms of business organisation were introduced by economists, merchants and traders during this time. Such innovations included the earliest trading companies, big businesses, contracts, bills of exchange, long-distance international trade, the first forms of partnership (mufawada) such as limited partnerships (mudaraba), and the earliest forms of credit, debt, profit, loss, capital (al-mal), capital accumulation (nama al-mal),[12] circulating capital, capital expenditure, revenue, cheques, promissory notes,[19] trusts (waqf), startup companies,[20] savings accounts, transactional accounts, pawning, loaning, exchange rates, bankers, money changers, ledgers, deposits, assignments, and the double-entry bookkeeping system.[21] Organizational enterprises similar to corporations independant from the state also existed in the medieval Islamic world.[22][23] Many of these early capitalist concepts were adopted and further advanced in medieval Europe from the 13th century onwards.[12]
Commerce
- Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution - Commerce
Guilds were officially unrecognized by the medieval Islamic city, but trades were supervised by an official recognized by the city. Each trade developed its own identity, whose members would attend the same mosque, and serve together in the militia. Slaves were often employed on sugar plantations and salt mines, but more likely as domestic house servants or professional soldiers.
The systems of contract relied upon by merchants was very effective. Merchants would buy and sell on commission, with money loaned to them by wealthy investors, or a joint investment of several merchants, who were often Muslim, Christian and Jewish. Recently, a collection of documents was found in an Egyptian synagogue shedding a very detailed and human light on the life of medieval Middle Eastern merchants. Business partnerships would be made for many commercial ventures, and bonds of kinship enabled trade networks to form over huge distances. Networks developed during this time enabled a world in which money could be promised by a bank in Baghdad and cashed in Spain, creating the cheque system of today. Each time items passed through the cities along this extraordinary network, the city imposed a tax, resulting in high prices once reaching the final destination. These innovations made by Muslims and Jews laid the foundations for the modern economic system.
Industrial growth
- Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution - Industrial growth and Inventions in the Muslim world
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg/220px-Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg)
Muslim engineers in the Islamic world were responsible for numerous innovative industrial uses of hydropower, the first industrial uses of tidal power, wind power, steam power,[24] and fossil fuels such as petroleum, and the earliest large factory complexes (tiraz in Arabic).[25] The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were first invented in the Islamic world, including fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, paper mills, sawmills, shipmills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, tide mills, and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.[26] Muslim engineers also invented crankshafts and water turbines, first employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.[11] Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe later laid the foundations for the Industrial Revolution in 18th century Europe.[27]
Many industries were generated due to the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, including the earliest industries for agribusiness, astronomical instruments, ceramics, chemicals, distillation technologies, clocks, glass, mechanical hydropowered and wind powered machinery, matting, mosaics, pulp and paper, perfumery, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, rope-making, shipping, shipbuilding, silk, sugar, textiles, water, weapons, and the mining of minerals such as sulfur, ammonia, lead and iron. The first large factory complexes (tiraz) were built for many of these industries. Knowledge of these industries were later transmitted to medieval Europe, especially during the Latin translations of the 12th century, as well as before and after. For example, the first glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11th century by Egyptian craftsmen in Greece.[28] The agricultural and handicraft industries also experienced high levels of growth during this period.[15]
Labour
- Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution - Labour
The labour force in the Caliphate were employed from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds, while both men and women were involved in diverse occupations and economic activities.[29] Women were employed in a wide range of commercial activities and diverse occupations[30] in the primary sector (as farmers for example), secondary sector (as construction workers, dyers, spinners, etc.) and tertiary sector (as investors, doctors, nurses, presidents of guilds, brokers, peddlers, lenders, scholars, etc.).[31] Muslim women also had a monopoly over certain branches of the textile industry.[30]
Technology
- Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution: Technology, Muslim Agricultural Revolution: Industrial growth, and Inventions in the Muslim world
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Al-jazari_robots.jpg/220px-Al-jazari_robots.jpg)
A significant number of inventions were produced by medieval Muslim scientists and engineers, including inventors such as Abbas Ibn Firnas, Taqi al-Din, and especially al-Jazari, who is considered the "father of robotics"[32] and "father of modern day engineering".[33]
Some of the other inventions and discoveries from the Islamic Golden Age include the camera obscura, coffee, hang glider, hard soap, shampoo, pure distillation, liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation, filtration, distilled alcohol, uric acid, nitric acid, alembic, crankshaft, valve, reciprocating suction piston pump, mechanical clocks driven by water and weights, programmable humanoid robot, combination lock, quilting, pointed arch, scalpel, bone saw, forceps, surgical catgut, windmill, inoculation, smallpox vaccine, fountain pen, cryptanalysis, frequency analysis, three-course meal, stained glass and quartz glass, Persian carpet, modern cheque, celestial globe, explosive rockets and incendiary devices, torpedo, and royal pleasure gardens.[32]
Urbanization
- Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution: Urbanization
As urbanization increased, Muslim cities grew unregulated, resulting in narrow winding city streets and neighborhoods separated by different ethnic backgrounds and religious affiliations. These qualities proved efficient for transporting goods to and from major commercial centers while preserving the privacy valued by Islamic family life. Suburbs lay just outside the walled city, from wealthy residential communities, to working class semi-slums. City garbage dumps were located far from the city, as were clearly defined cemeteries which were often homes for criminals. A place of prayer was found just near one of the main gates, for religious festivals and public executions. Similarly, Military Training grounds were found near a main gate.
Muslim cities also had advanced domestic water systems with sewers, public baths, drinking fountains, piped drinking water supplies,[34] and widespread private and public toilet and bathing facilities.[35] By the 10th century, Cordoba had 700 mosques, 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries, the largest of which had 600,000 books, while as many as 60,000 treatises, poems, polemics and compilations were published each year in al-Andalus.[36] The library of Cairo had more than 100,000 books, while the library of Tripoli is said to have had as many as three million books. The number of important and original Arabic works on science that have survived is much larger than the combined total of Greek and Latin works on science.[37]
Muslim Scientific Revolution
A number of modern scholars, notably Robert Briffault, Will Durant, Fielding H. Garrison, Alexander von Humboldt, Muhammad Iqbal, and Hossein Nasr, consider modern science to have begun from Muslim scientists, who were pioneers of the scientific method and introduced a modern empirical, experimental and quantitative approach to scientific inquiry. Some have referred to their achievements as a "Muslim scientific revolution".[38][39][40][41]
Scientific method
- Further information: Islamic science: Scientific method
The modern scientific method was first developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, especially in the works of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century, who was the pioneer of experimental physics.[42] The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experimentation and quantification to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation. Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) wrote the Book of Optics, and he is known as the father of optics for empirically proving that vision occurred because of light rays entering the eye, as well as for inventing the camera obscura to demonstrate the physical nature of light rays.[43][44]
Ibn al-Haytham has also been described as the "first scientist" for his introduction of the scientific method,[45] and some also consider him the founder of psychophysics and experimental psychology,[46] for his pioneering work on the psychology of visual perception.[47][48]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Ghotb2.jpg/220px-Ghotb2.jpg)
Astronomy
Advances in astronomy included the construction of the first observatory in Baghdad during the reign of Caliph Al-Ma'mun,[49] the first elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena by Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, the first semantic distinction between astronomy and astrology by al-Biruni.[50] the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the Ptolemaic model, perfected forms of the astrolabe,[51] the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, and the beginning of astrophysics and celestial mechanics after Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir discovered that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres were subject to the same physical laws as Earth.[52]
Several Muslim astronomers also considered the possibility of the Earth's rotation on its axis and perhaps a heliocentric solar system.[53][54] It is known that the Copernican heliocentric model in Nicolaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus was adapted from the geocentric model of Ibn al-Shatir and the Maragheh school in a heliocentric context.[55]
Chemistry
Geber is considered the father of chemistry,[56][57] for introducing an early experimental scientific method, as well as the alembic, still, retort, and the chemical processes of pure distillation, liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation, and filtration.[32]
The study of alchemy and the theory of the transmutation of metals were first debunked by al-Kindi,[58] followed by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[59] and Avicenna.[60] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī stated an early version of the law of conservation of mass, noting that a body of matter is able to change, but is not able to disappear.[61] Alexander von Humboldt and Will Durant regarded the Muslim chemists as the founders of chemistry.[62][63]
Experimental physics
- Further information: Islamic science: Optics and Islamic science: Mechanics
The study of experimental physics began with Ibn al-Haytham,[64] the father of optics, who pioneered the experimental scientific method and used it drastically transform the understanding of light and vision in his Book of Optics, which has been ranked alongside Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica as one of the most influential books in the history of physics.[65]
The experimental scientific method was soon introduced into mechanics by al-Biruni,[66] and early precursors to Newton's laws of motion were discovered by several Muslim scientists. The law of inertia, known as Newton's first law of motion, and the concept of momentum, part of Newton's second law of motion, were discovered by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen)[67][68] and Avicenna.[69][70] The proportionality between force and acceleration, foreshadowing Newton's second law of motion, was discovered by Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi,[71] while the concept of reaction, foreshadowing Newton's third law of motion, was discovered by Ibn Bajjah (Avempace).[72] Theories foreshadowing Newton's law of universal gravitation were developed by Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir,[73] Ibn al-Haytham,[74] and al-Khazini.[75] It is known that Galileo Galilei's mathematical treatment of acceleration and his concept of impetus[76] grew out of earlier medieval Muslim analyses of motion, especially those of Avicenna[69] and Ibn Bajjah.[77]
Mathematics
Among the achievements of Muslim mathematicians during this period include the development of algebra and algorithms (see Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī), the invention of spherical trigonometry,[78] the addition of the decimal point notation to the Arabic numerals, the discovery of all the trigonometric functions besides sine, al-Kindi's introduction of cryptanalysis and frequency analysis, al-Karaji's introduction of algebraic calculus and proof by mathematical induction, the development of analytic geometry and the earliest general formula for infinitesimal and integral calculus by Ibn al-Haytham, the beginning of algebraic geometry by Omar Khayyam, the first refutations of Euclidean geometry and the parallel postulate by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, the first attempt at a non-Euclidean geometry by Sadr al-Din, and numerous other advances in algebra, arithmetic, calculus, cryptography, geometry, number theory and trigonometry.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cheshm_manuscript.jpg/220px-Cheshm_manuscript.jpg)
Medicine
Muslim physicians made many significant advances and contributions to medicine, including anatomy, ophthalmology, pathology, the pharmaceutical sciences (including pharmacy and pharmacology), physiology, and surgery, and they set up some of the earliest dedicated hospitals, including the first psychiatric hospitals.[79]
Al-Razi (Rhazes) recorded clinical cases of his own experience, provided very useful recordings of various diseases, and discovered measles and smallpox. Al-Kindi wrote the De Gradibus, in which he first demonstrated the application of mathematics to medicine and pharmacology, such as a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs and the determination in advance of the most critical days of a patient's illness.[80]
Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis), the father of modern surgery,[81] wrote the Kitab al-Tasrif, in which he invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women,[82] as well as the surgical uses of catgut and forceps, the ligature, surgical needle, scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula,[83] and bone saw.[32] Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) made important advances in eye surgery, as he correctly explained the process of sight and visual perception for the first time in his Book of Optics.[82]
Avicenna, the father of modern medicine, wrote The Canon of Medicine and The Book of Healing. His contributions include the introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology,[84] the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, the introduction of quarantine to limit the spread of contagious diseases, the introduction of clinical trials,[85] the first descriptions on bacteria and viral organisms,[86] the distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, the contagious nature of phthisis and tuberculosis, the distribution of diseases by water and soil, and the first careful descriptions of skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, and nervous ailments,[79] and the use of ice to treat fevers, and the separation of medicine from pharmacology, important to the development of the pharmaceutical sciences.[82]
Ibn al-Nafis was the first to describe human blood circulation and pulmonary circulation. Ibn al-Lubudi rejected the theory of humorism, and discovered that the body and its preservation depend exclusively upon blood, women cannot produce sperm, the movement of arteries are not dependant upon the movement of the heart, the heart is the first organ to form in a fetus' body, and the bones forming the skull can grow into tumors.[87] Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib discovered that infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms which enter the human body.[88] Mansur ibn Ilyas drew comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems.[2]
Other sciences
Many other advances were made by Muslim scientists in biology (anatomy, botany, evolution, physiology and zoology), the earth sciences (anthropology, cartography, geodesy, geography and geology), psychology (experimental psychology, psychiatry, psychophysics and psychotherapy), and the social sciences (demography, economics, sociology, history and historiography).
Some of the most famous scientists from the Islamic world include Geber (polymath, father of chemistry), Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (father of algebra and algorithms), al-Farabi (polymath), Abu al-Qasim (father of modern surgery),[89] Ibn al-Haytham (polymath, father of optics, founder of experimental psychology, pioneer of scientific method, "first scientist")[46], Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (polymath, father of Indology[90] and geodesy, "first anthropologist"),[91] Avicenna (polymath, father of momentum[92] and modern medicine),[93] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (father of demography,[94] cultural history,[95] historiography,[96] the philosophy of history, sociology,[97] and the social sciences),[98] among many others.
Other achievements
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kharaghan.jpg/300px-Kharaghan.jpg)
Architecture
The Great Mosque of Xi'an in China was completed circa 740, and the Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq was completed in 847. The Great Mosque of Samarra combined the hypostyle architecture of rows of columns supporting a flat base above which a huge spiraling minaret was constructed.
The Spanish Muslims began construction of the Great Mosque at Cordoba in 785 marking the beginning of Islamic architecture in Spain and Northern Africa (see Moors). The mosque is noted for its striking interior arches. Moorish architecture reached its peak with the construction of the Alhambra, the magnificent palace/fortress of Granada, with its open and breezy interior spaces adorned in red, blue, and gold. The walls are decorated with stylized foliage motifs, Arabic inscriptions, and arabesque design work, with walls covered in glazed tiles.
Another distinctive sub-style is the architecture of the Mughal Empire in India in the 15-17th centuries. Blending Islamic and Hindu elements, the emperor Akbar constructed the royal city of Fatehpur Sikri, located 26 miles (42 km) west of Agra, in the late 1500s and his son Shah Jahan had constructed the mausoleum of Taj Mahal for Mumtaz Mahal in the 1650s, though this time period is well after the Islamic Golden Age.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Sughrat.jpg/220px-Sughrat.jpg)
Arts
The golden age of Islamic (and/or Muslim) art lasted from 750 to the 16th century, when ceramics, glass, metalwork, textiles, illuminated manuscripts, and woodwork flourished. Lusterous glazing became the greatest Islamic contribution to ceramics. Manuscript illumination became an important and greatly respected art, and portrait miniature painting flourished in Persia. Calligraphy, an essential aspect of written Arabic, developed in manuscripts and architectural decoration.
Literature
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Cassim.jpg/220px-Cassim.jpg)
The most well known fiction from the Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights), which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales. The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.[99] All Arabian fantasy tales were often called "Arabian Nights" when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, in any version, and a number of tales are known in Europe as "Arabian Nights" despite existing in no Arabic manuscript.[99]
This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland.[100] Many imitations were written, especially in France.[101] Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba. Part of its popularity may have sprung from the increasing historical and geographical knowledge, so that places of which little was known and so marvels were plausible had to be set further "long ago" or farther "far away"; this is a process that continues, and finally culminate in the fantasy world having little connection, if any, to actual times and places.
A number of elements from Arabic and Persian mythology are now common in modern fantasy, such as genies, bahamuts, magic carpets, magic lamps, etc.[101] When L. Frank Baum proposed writing a modern fairy tale that banished stereotypical elements, he included the genie as well as the dwarf and the fairy as stereotypes to go.[102]
The Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran, is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history. Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story, which has influenced some modern works of fantasy fiction, such as The Heroic Legend of Arslan.
Philosophy
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/AverroesColor.jpg/220px-AverroesColor.jpg)
Arab philosophers like al-Kindi, and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Persian philosophers like Ibn Sina (Avicenna) played a major role in preserving the works of Aristotle, whose ideas came to dominate the non-religious thought of the Christian and Muslim worlds. They would also absorb ideas from China, and India, adding to them tremendous knowledge from their own studies. Three speculative thinkers, al-Kindi, al-Farabi, and Avicenna (Ibn Sina), fused Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam.
From Spain the Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and Ladino, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy. The Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides, muslim sociologist-historian Ibn Khaldun, Carthage citizen Constantine the African who translated Greek medical texts, and the muslim Al-Khwarzimi's collation of mathematical techniques were important figures of the Golden Age.
One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was Averroes (Ibn Rushd), founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, and who is regarded as a founding father of secular thought in Western Europe.[103]
Ghazali, the famous Persian jurist and philosopher, wrote a devastating critique in his Tahafut al-Falasifa on the speculative theological works of Kindi, Farabi and Ibn Sina (Avicenna). Philosophy in the Muslim world never recovered from this critique, even though Ibn Rushd (Averroes) responded strongly in his Tahafut al-Tahafut to many of the points Ghazali raised.
Other influential Muslim philosophers include al-Jahiz, a pioneer of evolutionary thought and natural selection; Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen), a pioneer of phenomenology and the philosophy of science, and a critic of Aristotle's concept of place (topos); and Ibn Khaldun, considered the father of the philosophy of history and a pioneer of social philosophy.
End of the Golden Age
Mongol invasion
In 1206, Genghis Khan from Central Asia established a powerful Mongol Empire. A Mongolian ambassador to the Caliph in Baghdad is said to have been murdered,[2] which may have been the cause of Hulagu Khan's sack of Baghdad in 1258.
The Mongols conquered most of the Eurasian land mass, including both China in the east and much of the old Islamic caliphate and Islamic Khwarezm, as well as Russia and Eastern Europe in the west, and subsequent invasions of the Levant. Later Mongol leaders, such as Timur, though himself became a Muslim, destroyed many cities, slaughtered thousands of people and did irrevocable damage to the ancient irrigation systems of Mesopotamia. These invasions transformed a civil society to a nomadic one.
Eventually, the Mongols that settled in parts of Persia, Central Asia and Russia converted to Islam and in many instances became assimilated into various Muslim Iranian or Turkic peoples (for instance, one of the greatest Muslim astronomers of the 15th century, Ulugh Beg, was a grandson of Timur). The Ottoman Empire rose from the ashes, but the Golden Age was over.
Causes of decline
"The achievements of the Arabic speaking peoples between the ninth and twelfth centuries are so great as to baffle our understanding. The decadence of Islam and of Arabic is almost as puzzling in its speed and completeness as their phenomenal rise. Scholars will forever try to explain it as they try to explain the decadence and fall of Rome. Such questions are exceedingly complex and it is impossible to answer them in a simple way."
— George Sarton, The Incubation of Western Culture in the Middle East [104]
The Islamic civilisation which had at the outset been creative and dynamic in dealing with issues, began to struggle to respond to the challenges and rapid changes it faced during the 12th and 13th century onwards towards the end of the Abbassid rule. Despite a brief respite with the new Ottoman rule, the decline continued until its eventual collapse and subsequent stagnation in the 20th century.
Despite a number of attempts by many writers, historical and modern, none seem to agree on the causes of decline.
The main views on the causes of decline comprise the following: political mismanagement after the early Caliphs (10th century onwards), closure of the gates of ijtihad (independent reasoning) and the institutionalisation of taqleed (imitation) rather than ijtihad or bid‘ah (innovation) by the 13th century, foreign involvement by invading forces and colonial powers (11th century Crusades, 13th century Mongol Empire, 15th century Reconquista, 19th century European empires), and the disruption to the cycle of equity based on Ibn Khaldun's famous model of Asabiyyah (the rise and fall of civilizations).
Tolerance about different ideas reduced and faded. Seminaries systematically forbade philosophical thought which comprising both natural and theological aspects of world in Islamic context. Even polemic debates were abandoned after the 13th century. Institutions of science comprising Islamic universities, libraries (including the House of Wisdom), observatories, and hospitals, had been destroyed by foreign invaders like the Mongols and never promoted again.[105] Not only wasn't new publishing equipment accepted but also wide illiteracy overwhelmed Muslim society.
Some historians have recently come to question the traditional picture of decline, pointing to continued astronomical activity as a sign of a continuing and creative scientific tradition through to the 15th century, of which the works of Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375) and Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) are considered two of the most noteworthy examples.[106][107]
Criticism of ascribing the Golden Age to Islam
The issue of Islamic Civilization being a misnomer has been raised by a number of recent scholars such as the secular Iranian historian, Dr. Shoja-e-din Shafa in his recent controversial books titled Rebirth (Persian: تولدى ديگر) and After 1400 Years (Persian: پس از 1400 سال) manifesting the intrinsic contradiction of expressions like "Islamic civilization", "Islamic science", "Islamic medicine", "Islamic astronomy", "Islamic scientists", etc. Shafa states that while religion has been a cardinal foundation for nearly all empires of antiquity to derive their legitimacy from, it does not possess adequate defining factors to advance a kingdom or domain in accumulation and furtherance of science, technology, arts, and culture in a way to justify attribution of such developments to existence and practice of a certain faith within that realm. While various empires in the course of mankind's history advocated and officialized the religion they deemed most appropriate to exercise their absolute authority over the masses, we never ascribe their achievements to the faith they practiced. Ergo, using Islamic attribute for the abovementioned terms is as impertinent as arbitrarily concocted namings such as "Christian Civilization" for the totality of "Roman Empire" as of Constantine I's reign onwards, "Byzantine Empire" and all subsequent European empires that advocated Christianity one way or another; or "Zoroastrian Architecture" for all the architectural innovations and marvels that pre-Islamic Persian Empire later loaned to its Muslim conquerors.
Shafa particularly points out that counting all scholars in the Islamic empires as muslims, can also be misleading, since with the harsh punishment and prosecution awaiting alleged heretics and Zendiqs, no sane scientist or intellectual would dare express his/her true faith and religious thoughts. To exemplify this matter, Shafa alludes to two of the most prominent physicians/philosophers of the Islamic era, namely Avicenna and Rhazes; the former being a true muslim that was charged with heresy for mere utterance of his philosophical ideas; and the latter daringly and openly criticizing revelational religions (viz. Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism) in three of his controversial treatises, exposing himself to great peril. Bearing this personality comparison in mind, factors other than Islamic thought should be considered to have contributed to the great achievements of such individuals.
Bernard Lewis states:[108]
"There have been many civilizations in human history, almost all of which were local, in the sense that they were defined by a region and an ethnic group. This applied to all the ancient civilizations of the Middle East—Egypt, Babylon, Persia; to the great civilizations of Asia—India, China; and to the civilizations of Pre-Columbian America. There are two exceptions: Christendom and Islam. These are two civilizations defined by religion, in which religion is the primary defining force, not, as in India or China, a secondary aspect among others of an essentially regional and ethnically defined civilization. Here, again, another word of explanation is necessary."
Notes
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- ^ a b c d e f g Vartan Gregorian, "Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith", Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pg 26-38 ISBN 081573283X
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- ^ Bülent Þenay. "Sufism". Retrieved 2007-06-26.
- ^ "Muslim History and the Spread of Islam from the 7th to the 21st century". The Islam Project. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
- ^ Thomas F. Glick (1977), "Noria Pots in Spain", Technology and Culture 18 (4), p. 644-650.
- ^ a b c Andrew M. Watson (1974), "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700-1100", The Journal of Economic History 34 (1), p. 8-35.
- ^ The Globalisation of Crops, FSTC
- ^ Andrew M. Watson (1983), Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 052124711X.
- ^ a b Ahmad Y Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering
- ^ a b c Jairus Banaji (2007), "Islam, the Mediterranean and the rise of capitalism", Journal Historical Materialism 15 (1), p. 47-74, Brill Publishers.
- ^ Al-Hassani, Woodcock and Saoud (2007), Muslim heritage in Our World, FSTC publishing, 2nd Edition, p. 102-123.
- ^ a b John M. Hobson (2004), The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation, p. 29-30, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521547245.
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- ^ The Cambridge economic history of Europe, p. 437. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521087090.
- ^ Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", The Journal of Economic History 29 (1), p. 79-96 [81, 83, 85, 90, 93, 96].
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- ^ Said Amir Arjomand (1999), "The Law, Agency, and Policy in Medieval Islamic Society: Development of the Institutions of Learning from the Tenth to the Fifteenth Century", Comparative Studies in Society and History 41, p. 263-293. Cambridge University Press.
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- ^ Maya Shatzmiller, p. 36.
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- ^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part 1: Avenues Of Technology Transfer
- ^ Maya Shatzmiller, p. 6-7.
- ^ a b Maya Shatzmiller, p. 400-401.
- ^ Maya Shatzmiller, p. 350-362.
- ^ a b c d Paul Vallely, How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, The Independent, 11 March 2006.
- ^ 1000 Years of Knowledge Rediscovered at Ibn Battuta Mall, MTE Studios.
- ^ Fiona MacDonald (2006), The Plague and Medicine in the Middle Ages, p. 42-43, Gareth Stevens, ISBN 0836859073.
- ^ Tor Eigeland, "The Tiles of Iberia", Saudi Aramco World, March-April 1992, p. 24-31.
- ^ Dato' Dzulkifli Abd Razak, Quest for knowledge, New Sunday Times, 3 July 2005.
- ^ N. M. Swerdlow (1993). "Montucla's Legacy: The History of the Exact Sciences", Journal of the History of Ideas 54 (2), p. 299-328 [320].
- ^ Ahmad Y Hassan and Donald Routledge Hill (1986), Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History, p. 282, Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Abid Ullah Jan (2006), After Fascism: Muslims and the struggle for self-determination, "Islam, the West, and the Question of Dominance", Pragmatic Publishings, ISBN 978-0-9733687-5-8.
- ^ Abdus Salam, H. R. Dalafi, Mohamed Hassan (1994). Renaissance of Sciences in Islamic Countries, p. 162. World Scientific, ISBN 9971507137.
- ^ Salah Zaimeche (2003), An Introduction to Muslim Science, FSTC.
- ^ David Agar (2001). Arabic Studies in Physics and Astronomy During 800 - 1400 AD. University of Jyväskylä.
- ^ David C. Lindberg (1968). "The Theory of Pinhole Images from Antiquity to the Thirteenth Century", Archive for History of the Exact Sciences 5, p. 154-176.
- ^ R. S. Elliott (1966). Electromagnetics, Chapter 1. McGraw-Hill.
- ^ Bradley Steffens (2006). Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246.
- ^ a b Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 16 (2).
- ^ Bradley Steffens (2006). Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246.
- ^ Reynor Mausfeld, "From Number Mysticism to the MauBformel: Fechner's Pyschophysics in the Tradition of Mathesis Universalis", Keynote Address International Symposium in Honour to G.Th. Fechner, International Society for Pyshophysics 19-23, October 2000, University of Leipzig.[1]
- ^ Nas, Peter J (1993). Urban Symbolism. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 350. ISBN 9-0040-9855-0.
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- ^ Krebs, Robert E. (2004). Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Greenwood Press. p. 196. ISBN 0-3133-2433-6.
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- ^ George Saliba (1999). Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe? Columbia University. The relationship between Copernicus and the Maragheh school is detailed in Toby Huff, The Rise of Early Modern Science, Cambridge University Press.
- ^ John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", Third World Quarterly, Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830.
- ^ Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Geber). University of Indonesia.
- ^ Felix Klein-Frank (2001), "Al-Kindi", in Oliver Leaman & Hossein Nasr, History of Islamic Philosophy, p. 174. London: Routledge.
- ^ Michael E. Marmura (1965). "An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina by Seyyed Hossein Nasr", Speculum 40 (4), p. 744-746.
- ^ Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 196-197.
- ^ Farid Alakbarov (Summer 2001). [A 13th-Century Darwin? Tusi's Views on Evolution, Azerbaijan International 9 (2).
- ^ Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). Miracle of Islamic Science, Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.
- ^ Will Durant (1980). The Age of Faith (The Story of Civilization, Volume 4), p. 162-186. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671012002.
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This article needs additional citations for verification. (July 2007) |
See also
- Islamic science
- Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world
- List of Arab scientists and scholars
- List of Iranian scientists
- List of the Muslim Empires
- Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain
- Latin translations of the 12th century
- Islamic studies
- Islamic scholars
- Islamic conquests
- Global Empire
External links
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- Golden age of Arab and Islamic Culture
- Islamic web
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- Sufism: General Essay
- The Islam Project: Overview of Muslim History
- The Story of Islam's Gift of Paper to the West
- Wiet, Gaston. "Baghdad: Metropolis of the Abbasid Caliphate." Chapter 5
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