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File:Bordercontrol.jpg

Border control at a US airport.

Border controls are measures taken by a country or a group of countries to monitor or regulate its borders. Border controls are put in place to control the movement of people, animals and goods into as well as out of a country. Specialised government agencies are usually created to perform border controls. Such agencies may perform various functions such as customs, immigration, security, quarantine, beside other functions. Official designations, jurisdictions and command structures of these agencies vary considerably. Prior to World War I, border controls were only sporadically implemented.^[1]

Functions

Border controls exist to:

control immigration (both legal and illegal)
control the movement of citizens
execute the customs functions as to
- collect excise tax
- prevent smuggling of drugs, weapons, endangered species, humans and other illegal or hazardous material, or prevent wanted criminals from international travel.
- control the spread of human or animal diseases (see also quarantine)^[2]

Border security

Border security is a form of border control by which one country secures its border or borders with one or more of its neighbouring countries. Its aim is to mitigate illegal immigration and enforce customs regulations.^[3]

In India, border security focuses primarily on the Bangladeshi and Pakistani borders. In order to deter unlawful immigration from Bangladesh, India is constructing the India-Bangladesh barrier. On the Pakistani border, the Border Security Force aims to prevent the infiltration of Asian territory by terrorists from Pakistan and other countries in the west (e.g. Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, etc).

In the United States, it is typically discussed in regard to the Mexico-United States border. Security along this border is composed of many distinct elements, including not only physical barriers but also patrol routes, lighting, and personnel responsible for patrolling the border. President Donald Trump's proposal to build a wall along the border was a major fixture of his campaign, and he has since attempted to have Congress pay $18 billion for its cost in the short term. Security experts, however, say that other measures would be more effective at reducing illegal immigration than building a wall, including border surveillance and an increase in the number of customs agents.^[4]

Similar to India’s barrier with Bangladesh and the proposed wall between America and Mexico, Iran has constructed a wall on its frontier with Pakistan. The wall aims to mitigate unauthorised border crossings^[5] and stem the flow of drugs,^[6] and is also a response to terrorist attacks, notably the one in the Iranian border town of Zahedan on 17 February 2007, which killed thirteen people, including nine Iranian Revolutionary Guard officials.^[7]

Border security has, over the first two decades of the century, also become a major concern in the Schengen Area, specifically as a result of the European migrant crisis. The walls at Melilla and at Ceuta on Spain’s border with Morocco are a part of the trend towards increasing border security in response to an unprecedented rise in both refugees and economic migrants from countries in Sub Saharan Africa. Similar, though less drastic, measures have been taken on the Schengen area’s borders with Turkey in response to the refugee crisis created in Syria by militant groups such as Daesh and the Syrian Free Army. The creation of European Union’s collective border security organisation, Frontex, is another aspect of the bloc’s growing focus on border security.

Specific requirements

The degree of strictness of border controls varies between countries and borders. In some countries, controls may be targeted at the traveller's religion, ethnicity, nationality, or other countries that have been visited. Others may need to be certain the traveller has paid the appropriate fees for their visas and has future travel planned out of the country. Yet others may concentrate on the contents of the traveler's baggage, and imported goods to ensure nothing is being carried that might bring a biosecurity risk into the country.

Free travel areas

Certain neighbouring countries may agree to fully or partially abolish border controls between them.

Central America-4 Border Control Agreement

The Central America-4 Border Control Agreement abolishes border controls for land travel between El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Guatemala. However, this does not apply to air travel.

Union State of Russia and Belarus

The Union State of Russia and Belarus is a supranational union of Russia and Belarus, which eliminates all border controls between the two nations. However, each country continues to maintain its own visa policies, thus resulting in non-citizens of the two countries generally being barred from travelling directly between the two.

Western Europe

No border control: Border crossing between two Schengen Agreement states: Germany and Netherlands.

The two most significant free travel areas in Western Europe are the Schengen area, in which very little if any border control is generally visible, and the Common Travel Area (CTA), which partially eliminates such controls for nationals of the United Kingdom and Ireland. Between countries in the Schengen Area, and to an extent within the CTA on the British Isles, internal border control is often virtually unnoticeable, and often only performed by means of random car or train searches in the hinterland, while controls at borders with non-member states may be rather strict.

Greater India

India and Nepal maintain a similar arrangement to the CTA and the Union State of Russia and Belarus. Indians and Nepalis aren’t subject to any migration controls in each other’s countries and there are few controls on land travel by citizens across the border.

India and Bhutan also have a similar system. The border between Jaigaon, in the Indian state of West Bengal, and the city of Phuentsholing is essentially open, and although there are internal checkpoints, Indians are allowed to proceed throughout Bhutan with a voter’s ID or an identity slip from the Indian consulate in Phuentsholing. Similarly, Bhutanese passport holders enjoy free movement in India.

Expedited border controls

Certain countries and trade blocs establish programmes for high-frequency and/or low risk travellers to expedite border controls, subjecting them to lighter or automated checks, or priority border control facilities. In some countries, citizens or residents have access to automated facilities not available to foreigners.

Asia

China

The e-Channel is an automated border control facility available at airports in Hong Kong, Macau, and at land borders between the mainland and the Special Administrative Regions. It is open to Chinese citizens with permanent residence in the appropriate regions, and to selected foreign nationals.

Singapore

Automated border controls exist at Singapore Changi Airport for Singapore residents and certain foreign nationals with long term passes. Similar facilities exist for motorcyclists at the border crossings with Malaysia.

South Korea

South Korea maintains a programme known as the Smart Entry Service, open for registration by South Koreans aged 7 or above and by registered foreigners aged 17 or above^[8]. Foreign nationalities eligible to register include Singaporean citizens, American citizens^[9], and Chinese citizens of Taiwan^[10].

North America

North America has a range of expedited border control programmes.

NEXUS and FAST

A NEXUS lane at the U.S. side of the Ambassador Bridge.

NEXUS is a joint Canadian-American expedited border control programme for low risk travellers holding Canadian or American citizenship or permanent residence. Membership requires approval by Canadian and American authorities and entitles members to dedicated RFID-enabled lanes when crossing the land border. A NEXUS card can also be utilised as a travel document between the two countries and entitles passengers to priority border control facilities in Canada and Global Entry facilities in America.

Free and Secure Trade (FAST) is a similar programme for commercial drivers and approved importers, reducing the amount of customs checks conducted at the border and expediting the border control process.

Canadian citizens and Permanent Residents who are approved by Canadian authorities but not by the Americans can join CANPASS, which provides similar border control benefits but solely in Canada.

Global Entry and SENTRI

Global Entry is an American programme for frequent travellers that enables them to utilise automated border control facilities and priority security screening. In addition to Americans and Permanent Residents, the programme is open to Indian^[11], Singaporean^[12], and South Korean citizens amongst others.

SENTRI is a similar programme for American and Mexican citizens that additionally allows members to register their cars for expedited land border controls. When entering America across the Canadian border, it can be used as a NEXUS card, but not the other way around.

Viajero Confiable

Viajero Confiable is a Mexican programme similar to Global Entry that allows expedited border controls in Mexico.

APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC)

The ABTC is an expedited border control programme for business travellers from APEC economies (excluding Canada and America). It provides visa exemptions and access to expedited border control facilities. ABTC holders are eligible for expedited border control at Canadian airports but not for any visa exemptions.

ABTCs are generally issued only to citizens of APEC member countries, however Hong Kong issues them to Permanent Residents who are not Chinese citizens, a category primarily consisting of British, Indian, and Pakistani citizens.

Internal border controls

Asia

Some countries maintain border controls within their own territory. These are not uncommon in some parts of Asia. For example, minority regions in India and China often require special permits (i.e. Restricted Area Permits, Protected Area Permits, Tibet Travel Permits, or Alien Travel Permits) for foreign nationals to enter in addition to visas where required. In some cases, these restrictions are not limited to foreigners. For instance, certain minority areas of India additionally require Indian citizens to possess an Inner Line Permit to enter. Similarly, the Tibet Autonomous Region in China requires Chinese citizens from Taiwan to obtain TTPs and ATPs even though Chinese citizens from the mainland, Hong Kong, and Macau are exempt.

Within China, border controls are maintained for those travelling between the mainland, special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau, and areas controlled by the Republic of China. Foreign nationals need to present their passports or other types of travel documents when traveling between these areas. For Chinese nationals (including those with British National (Overseas) status), there are special documents for travel between these territories. For example, Hong Kong Permanent Identity Card and Home Return Permit are required for Hong Kong Permanent Residents who are Chinese citizens to cross the border. Similar arrangements (i.e Mainland Travel Permit for Taiwan Residents and similar permits issued by Taiwan authorities) exist for travel between Taiwan and territories controlled by the People’s Republic of China.

The most restrictive internal border controls west of the Pacific are in North Korea. Citizens are not allowed to travel outside their areas of residence without explicit authorisation, and access to the capital city of Pyongyang is heavily restricted.^[13]^[14] Similar restrictions are imposed on tourists, who are only allowed to leave Pyongyang on government-authorised tours to approved tourist sites.

Another example is the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, which have maintained their own border controls^[15] since joining Malaysia in 1963.

Meanwhile in Bhutan, a microstate accessible by road only through India, there are interior border checkposts (primarily on the Lateral Road) and, additionally, certain areas require special permits to enter, whilst visitors not proceding beyond the border city of Phuentsholing do not need permits to enter for the day (although such visitors are de facto subject to Indian visa policy since they must proceed through Jaigaon).

Europe

Israeli checkpoint outside the Palestinian city of Ramallah. August 2004

An example from Europe is the implementation of border controls on travel between Svalbard and the Schengen Area, which includes the rest of Norway. Other examples of effective internal border controls in Europe include the closed cities of certain CIS members, areas of Turkmenistan that require special permits to enter, restrictions on travel to the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region in Tajikistan, and (depending on whether Northern and Southern Cyprus are considered separate countries) the Cypriot border. Israeli checkpoints also constitute a significant example of internal border controls in Europe. Spread throughout the State of Israel and the areas of the State of Palestine under de facto Israeli control, internal checkpoints are a key feature of Israeli life, and Israel’s internal border controls are amongst Europe’s most restrictive.

American territories

Multiple types of internal border controls exist in America. These include the maintenance of autonomous or separate immigration policies in each of America’s major territories in the Pacific, i.e. Guam, American Samoa, and the Northern Mariana Islands. Each of these territories maintains its own visa exemptions, and there are consequently immigration and customs checks on travel between the these territories and the American mainland.

The US Virgin Islands are a special case, falling within America’s immigration zone but being a customs free territory. As a result, there are no immigration checks between the two but there travellers arriving in Puerto Rico or the American mainland directly from the Virgin Islands are subject to border control for customs inspection. America also maintains interior checkpoints along its borders with Mexico and Canada, subjecting people to border controls even after they have entered the country. The city of Hyder, Alaska has also been subject to internal border controls since the United States chose to stop regulating arrivals in Hyder from British Columbia.

Realm of New Zealand

Tokelau, Niue, and the Cook Islands maintain independent and less restrictive border controls from New Zealand. The Cook Islands further maintain a separate nationality law. Additionally, border controls for Tokelau are complicated by the fact that the territory is, for the most part, only accessible via Samoa.

Prescreening border controls

America

The American government operates border preclearance facilities at a number of ports and airports in foreign territory. They are staffed and operated by U.S. Customs and Border Protection officers. Travelers pass through U.S. Immigration and Customs, Public Health, and Agriculture inspections before boarding their aircraft, ship, or train. This process is intended to streamline border procedures, reduce congestion at ports of entry, and facilitate travel between the preclearance location and U.S. airports unequipped to handle international travellers.

These facilities are present at the majority of major Canadian airports, as well as selected airports in Bermuda, Aruba, the Bahamas, Abu Dhabi and Ireland. Facilities located in Canada accept NEXUS cards and American Passport Cards in lieu of passports. The two facilities in the Bahamas provide visa free access to Bahamian citizens, who otherwise require a visa to enter America.

Preclearance facilities are also operated at Pacific Central Station, the Port of Vancouver, and the Port of Victoria in British Columbia, and there are plans to open one at Montreal Central Station in Quebec.

Hong Kong, China

West Kowloon railway station

A component of the Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong Express Rail Link, West Kowloon station will contain a “Mainland Port Area”, essentially enabling passengers and goods to clear mainland Chinese immigration on Hong Kong soil.

Shenzhen Bay Control Point

The Shenzhen Bay Control Point is a Hong Kong immigration facility co-located with mainland Chinese facilities at Shenzhen Bay Port. It is located in the Chinese mainland on land leased from the city of Shenzhen in Guangdong province. It essentially enables travellers to clear both mainland and Hong Kong border controls in one place, thus eliminating any need for border control on the Hong Kong side of the Shenzhen Bay Bridge.

Singapore and Malaysia

Woodlands Train Checkpoint

Singaporean exit and Malaysian entry preclearance border controls are co-located at the Woodlands Train Checkpoint, whilst Malaysian exit controls are located separately at Johor Bahru.

Johor Bahru - Singapore Rapid Transit

The upcoming Rapid Transit System(RTS) connecting Singapore and Johor Bahru will feature border control preclearance both on the Singaporean side and on the Malaysian side. This will enable passengers arriving in Singapore from Malaysia or vice versa to proceed straight to their connecting transport, since the RTS will link to both the Singapore MRT system (Thomson-East Coast MRT Line) and Johor Bahru Sentral railway station. Unlike the preclearance systems adopted by the United States and Hong Kong, but similar to the United Kingdom’s juxtaposed comtrols, this system will mitigate arrival border controls on both sides of the border.^[16] ^[17]

United Kingdom

Ferry

French entry border control for ferries between Dover and Calais or Dunkerque take place at the Port of Dover, whilst French exit and British entry border control takes place at Calais and Dunkerque.

Rail

Border control for rail travel between the United Kingdom and the Schengen Area features significant prescreening. This includes customs and immigration prescreening on both sides of the Eurotunnel, and immigration-only prescreening for the Eurostar between the United Kingdom and stations located in Belgium and France. Eurostar and Eurotunnel passengers departing from the Schengen area go through both French or Belgian exit border control and British entry border controls before departures, while passengers departing from the United Kingdom undergo French border controls on British soil.

Entry stamp into the Schengen Area issued by the French Border Police at St Pancras International station. ('LFT' stands for 'Liaison fixe transmanche' (literally: cross-Channel fixed link))
Exit stamp from the Schengen Area issued by the French Border Police at Paris Gare du Nord station. ('LFT' stands for 'Liaison fixe transmanche' (literally: cross-Channel fixed link))
British entry stamp issued by the UK Border Force at Paris Gare du Nord station.

Informal prescreening

In some cases countries can introduce controls that functions as border controls but aren't border controls legally and don't need to be performed by government agencies. Normally they are performed and organised by private companies, based on a law that they have to check that passengers don't travel into a specific country if they aren't allowed to. Such controls can take effect in one country based on the law of another country without any formalised border control prescreening agreement in force. Even if they aren't border controls they function as such. The most prominent example is airlines which check passports and visa before passengers are allowed to board the aircraft. Also for some passenger boats such check are performed before boarding.

Controversies

Discriminatory practices

Israel

Border control, both on entry and on exit, at Israeli airports rate passengers' potential threat to security using factors including nationality, ethnicity, and race.^[18]^[19] Instances of discrimination against Arabs, people perceived to be Muslim, and Russian Jews amongst others have been reported in the media^[20]^[21]. Security at Tel Aviv's Ben Gurion Airport relies on a number of fundamentals, including a heavy focus on what Raphael Ron, former director of security at Ben Gurion, terms the "human factor", which he generalised as "the inescapable fact that terrorist attacks are carried out by people who can be found and stopped by an effective security methodology."^[22] As part of its focus on this so-called "human factor," Israeli security officers interrogate travelers using racial profiling, singling out those who appear to be Arab based on name or physical appearance.^[23] Even as Israeli authorities argue that racist, ethnic, and religious profiling are effective security measures, according to Boaz Ganor, Israel has not undertaken any known empirical studies on the efficacy of the technique of racial profiling.^[24]

United States

Since the implementation of added security measures in the aftermath of the 2001 World Trade Centre attacks, reports of discrimination against people perceived to be Muslim by American border security officers have been prevalent in the media.^[25] The travel restrictions implemented during the Trump presidency primarily against Muslim majority countries have provoked controversy over whether such measures are a legitimate Border security measure or unethically discriminatory.

Bhutan

Starting primarily in the 1990s, the Bhutanese government implemented strict restrictions on Nepali residents and implemented internal border control policies to restrict immigration or return of ethnic Nepalis. This policy shift effectively ended previously liberal immigration policies with regards to Nepalis and counts amongst the most racialised border control policies in Asia.

Australian offshore detention centres

Template:Pacific Solution

Beginning in 2001, Australia implemented border control policies featuring the detention of asylum seekers and economic migrants who arrived unlawfully by boat in nearby islands in the Pacific. These policies are controversial and in 2017 the Supreme Court of Papua New Guinea declared the detention centre at Manus Island to be unconstitutional. The adherence of these policies to international human rights law is a matter of controversy.

North Korean refugees in China

China does not currently recognise North Korean defectors as refugees and subjects them to immediate deportation if caught. The China-DPRK border is fortified and both sides aim to deter refugees from crossing. This aspect of Chinese border control policy has been criticised by human rights organisations.^[26]^[27]

Restrictions on Northern Cypriot airspace

As a result of Northern Cyprus's sovereignty dispute with Southern Cyprus, Southern Cyprus (a member of the European Union) has imposed restrictions on the North's airports, and pressure from the European Union has resulted in all countries other than Turkey recognising the South's ability to impose border restrictions on the North, negating the right to self determination of the predominantly Turkish Northern Cypriot population and subjecting their airports to border controls imposed by the predominantly Greek South.^[28] As a result, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkish economic support and is unable to develop a functioning economy.^[29]

References

^ Keynes, John Maynard (1920). "II Europe Before the War". The Economic Consequences of the Peace. New York: Harcourt Brace.
^ Champion P.D.; Hofstra D.E.; Clayton J.S.(2007) Border control for potential aquatic weeds. Stage 3. Weed risk assessment. Science for Conservation 271. p. 41. Department of Conservation, New Zealand. [1]
^ "Border Security". Department of Homeland Security.
^ Nixon, Ron (2018). "To Pay for Wall, Trump Would Cut Proven Border Security Measures". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2018-02-04.
^ "Iran erecting wall along the border with Pakistan". The Hindu. March 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-11.
^ Dahl, Fredrik (May 13, 2007). "INTERVIEW-"Iranian wall" seen hindering drug smugglers-UN". Reuters. Archived from the original on July 6, 2008. Retrieved 2007-06-11. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ "Pakistan and Iran blame Afghanistan for unrest". Daily Times. May 19, 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-11.
^ [2]
^ [3]
^ [4]
^ "Expedited entry into US for Indian travellers from now on - Times of India". The Times of India. Retrieved June 28, 2017.
^ "Faster immigration clearance for eligible Singaporeans travelling to US". www.channelnewsasia.com. Retrieved July 6, 2016.
^ [5]
^ [6]
^ [7]
^ Final plan for Singapore-Johor Bahru Rapid Transit System (RTS) link by end of 2014
^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-09-03. Retrieved 2014-08-27. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ "What can we learn from Ben Gurion Airport in Israel to help push aviation security in the U.S. to the next level?". Access Control & Security Systems. Retrieved 4 May 2007.
^ "Israeli-style security might have averted hijackings". USA Today. 2001-09-13. Retrieved 2007-05-07.
^ [8]
^ [9]
^ Cited K. C. Khurana, Aviation Management: Global Perspectives, Global India Publications, 2009 p.271
^ "Israeli airport security order dancer to prove identity with dance steps". International Herald Tribune. September 9, 2008. Archived from the original on September 14, 2008. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
^ Bernard E. Harcourt, ‘Muslim profiles Post-9/11: Is Racial Profiling an Effective Counter-terrorist Measure and Does It Violate the Right to be Free fronm Discrimination?,’ in Ben Goold, Liora Lazarus (eds.),Security and Human Rights, Bloomsbury Publishing 2007 pp.73-98 p.93.
^ [10]
^ "2013 Update "THE LIST" of North Korean Refugees & Humanitarian Workers Seized by Chinese Authorities" (PDF). North Korea Freedom Coalition. 13 December 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 December 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2013. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ "Sign the Petition Calling on China to Stop the Forced Repatriation of North Korean Refugees". North Korea Freedom Coalition. 13 December 2013. Archived from the original on 13 December 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2013. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ Frank Hoffmeister (2006). Legal Aspects of the Cyprus Problem: Annan Plan And EU Accession. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 218. ISBN 90-04-15223-7.
^ "Universities: Little accord on the island". The Independent. London. 8 November 2007. Retrieved 20 May 2010.

@@ Line 216: / Line 216: @@
 In some cases countries can introduce controls that functions as border controls but aren't border controls legally and don't need to be performed by government agencies. Normally they are performed and organised by private companies, based on a law that they have to check that passengers don't travel into a specific country if they aren't allowed to. Such controls can take effect in one country based on the law of another country without any formalised border control prescreening agreement in force. Even if they aren't border controls they function as such. The most prominent example is airlines which check passports and visa before passengers are allowed to board the aircraft. Also for some passenger boats such check are performed before boarding.
+==Controversies==
+===Discriminatory practices===
+====Israel====
+Border control, both on entry and on exit, at Israeli airports rate passengers' potential threat to security using factors including nationality, ethnicity, and race.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://securitysolutions.com/news/security_exposing_hostile_intent|title=What can we learn from Ben Gurion Airport in Israel to help push aviation security in the U.S. to the next level?|publisher=Access Control & Security Systems|accessdate=4 May 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2001/09/12/israelisecurity.htm | title=Israeli-style security might have averted hijackings | accessdate=2007-05-07 | newspaper=USA Today| date=2001-09-13}}</ref> Instances of discrimination against [[Arabs]], people perceived to be Muslim, and Russian Jews amongst others have been reported in the media<ref>[https://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-my-friends-were-pro-israel-then-they-met-israeli-airport-security-1.5474044]</ref><ref>[https://www.timesofisrael.com/abu-ghosh-restaurateur-airport-security-humiliated-my-wife/]</ref>. Security at Tel Aviv's [[Ben Gurion Airport]] relies on a number of fundamentals, including a heavy focus on what Raphael Ron, former director of security at Ben Gurion, terms the "human factor", which he generalised as "the inescapable fact that [[terrorist attack]]s are carried out by people who can be found and stopped by an effective security methodology."<ref>Cited K. C. Khurana, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ESWo4Zl5g1IC&pg=PA271 ''Aviation Management: Global Perspectives,''] [[Global Indian Foundation| Global India Publications]], 2009 p.271</ref> As part of its focus on this so-called "human factor," Israeli security officers interrogate travelers using [[racial profiling]], singling out those who appear to be [[Arab]] based on name or physical appearance.<ref>{{cite web|newspaper=International Herald Tribune|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/09/09/africa/ME-Israel-Airport-Dance.php|title=Israeli airport security order dancer to prove identity with dance steps|date=September 9, 2008|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080914174321/http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/09/09/africa/ME-Israel-Airport-Dance.php|archive-date=September 14, 2008|access-date=January 10, 2017}}</ref> Even as Israeli authorities argue that [[racial profiling|racist, ethnic, and religious profiling]] are effective security measures, according to [[Boaz Ganor]], Israel has not undertaken any known empirical studies on the efficacy of the technique of racial profiling.<ref>Bernard E. Harcourt, [https://books.google.com/books?id=LuXbBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 ‘Muslim profiles Post-9/11: Is Racial Profiling an Effective Counter-terrorist Measure and Does It Violate the Right to be Free fronm Discrimination?,’] in Ben Goold, Liora Lazarus (eds.),''Security and Human Rights,'' [[Bloomsbury Publishing]] 2007 pp.73-98 p.93.</ref>
+====United States====
+Since the implementation of added security measures in the aftermath of the [[9/11|2001 World Trade Centre attacks]], reports of discrimination against people perceived to be Muslim by American border security officers have been prevalent in the media.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/08/26/how-discrimination-against-muslims-at-airports-actually-hurts-the-fight-against-terrorism/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.9dea42870b45]</ref> The [[Trump travel ban|travel restrictions]] implemented during the Trump presidency primarily against Muslim majority countries have provoked controversy over whether such measures are a legitimate [[Border control#Border security|Border security]] measure or unethically discriminatory.
+====Bhutan====
+{{main|Lhotshampa|Bhutanese refugees}}
+Starting primarily in the 1990s, the Bhutanese government implemented strict restrictions on Nepali residents and implemented internal border control policies to restrict immigration or return of ethnic Nepalis. This policy shift effectively ended previously liberal immigration policies with regards to Nepalis and counts amongst the most racialised border control policies in Asia.
+===Australian offshore detention centres===
+{{Pacific Solution|Nauru Regional Processing Centre|Manus Regional Processing Centre}}
+Beginning in 2001, Australia implemented border control policies featuring the detention of asylum seekers and economic migrants who arrived unlawfully by boat in nearby islands in the Pacific. These policies are controversial and in 2017 the [[Supreme Court of Papua New Guinea]] declared the detention centre at Manus Island to be unconstitutional. The adherence of these policies to international human rights law is a matter of controversy.
+===North Korean refugees in China===
+{{main|North Korean defectors#China}}
+China does not currently recognise North Korean defectors as refugees and subjects them to immediate deportation if caught. The China-DPRK border is fortified and both sides aim to deter refugees from crossing. This aspect of Chinese border control policy has been criticised by human rights organisations.<ref>{{cite web | title= 2013 Update "THE LIST" of North Korean Refugees & Humanitarian Workers Seized by Chinese Authorities | work= North Korea Freedom Coalition | date= December 13, 2013 | url= http://www.nkfreedom.org/UploadedDocuments/2013.12.10_THE_LIST_ENGLISH.pdf | accessdate= December 13, 2013 | deadurl= no | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20131213141020/http://www.nkfreedom.org/UploadedDocuments/2013.12.10_THE_LIST_ENGLISH.pdf | archivedate= 13 December 2013 | df= dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title= Sign the Petition Calling on China to Stop the Forced Repatriation of North Korean Refugees| work= North Korea Freedom Coalition| date= December 13, 2013| url= http://www.nkfreedom.org/News/Sign-the-Petition-Calling-on-China-to-Stop-Repatriation-of-North-Koreans.aspx| accessdate= December 13, 2013| deadurl= yes| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20131213141309/http://www.nkfreedom.org/News/Sign-the-Petition-Calling-on-China-to-Stop-Repatriation-of-North-Koreans.aspx| archivedate= 13 December 2013| df= dmy-all}}</ref>
+===Restrictions on Northern Cypriot airspace===
+As a result of [[Northern Cyprus]]'s sovereignty dispute with [[Republic of Cyprus|Southern Cyprus]], Southern Cyprus (a member of the European Union) has imposed restrictions on the North's airports, and pressure from the European Union has resulted in all countries other than Turkey recognising the South's ability to impose border restrictions on the North, negating the right to [[self determination]] of the predominantly Turkish Northern Cypriot population and subjecting their airports to border controls imposed by the predominantly Greek South.<ref>{{cite book|author=Frank Hoffmeister|title=Legal Aspects of the Cyprus Problem: Annan Plan And EU Accession|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LZXbg3ZwvGoC&pg=PA218|year=2006|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=90-04-15223-7|page=218}}</ref> As a result, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkish economic support and is unable to develop a functioning economy.<ref name=indepuni>{{cite news| url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/higher/universities-little-accord-on-the-island-399360.html | work=The Independent | location=London | title=Universities: Little accord on the island | date=8 November 2007 | accessdate=20 May 2010}}</ref>
 == See also ==
 * [[Border barrier]]

v t e Border protection agencies (list)
Africa	Algeria GNA PAF Angola PGFA SME Benin ABeGIEF DEI USSF Botswana Burkina Faso DPF DSE Burundi CGM PAFE Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad GN GNNT PNT Comoros Democratic Republic of the Congo DGM DPF Republic of the Congo DGST DIE Côte d'Ivoire DST ONECI Djibouti Egypt Border Guard PINA Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Eswatini Ethiopia Gabon The Gambia Ghana BGU GIS Guinea Guinea Bissau Kenya BPU DIS Lesotho Liberia Libya LBG LPA Madagascar Malawi Mali DGGN DNF DPF DRGS Mauritania DGGN DST Mauritius Morocco DGSN DGST GRM Mozambique RPF SENAMI Namibia DICC NAB SFF Niger DST GN GNN Nigeria CMCF NIS Rwanda São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal DPAF DPETV DST Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa BMA JOD SAIS SAPS South Sudan Sudan BIB GAB GDPI Tanzania Togo DGDN GNT Tunisia DGFE GNT Uganda DCIC FFU Zambia Zimbabwe DIZ PSU
Asia	Afghanistan Armenia AVV MS NSS SZ Azerbaijan BPQMI DMX DSX Bahrain Bangladesh BGB DIP SB Bhutan Brunei Cambodia China CII NIA Georgia BPG Migratsiis Politsiis SCMI Hong Kong India AR BOI BSF ITBP RR SFF SSB Indonesia Imigrasi Border Security Task Force (Satgas Pamtas) Iran BAFIA Immigration Marzbani NAJA Iraq Israel CPA Magav PIBA Yamam Yamas Japan Jordan BRD DBS Kazakhstan KQQK UQK SQ North Korea South Korea KIS ROK MP Kuwait GDLBS GDR Kyrgyzstan MCK OKMMK Laos Lebanon Macau Malaysia AKSEM JIM RS Maldives Mongolia GIKG KKEG Myanmar BGF BGP MIP Nepal APF DOI Oman Border Guard DGPR Pakistan DGIP FC GB Scouts PR Palestine Philippines Qatar Border Guard GDP Saudi Arabia GDBG GDP Singapore Sri Lanka DIE NBMC Syria Border Guard BSF IAPD Republic of China (Taiwan) Tajikistan MS QS KDAM Thailand BPP IB TP Timor-Leste SM UPF Turkey GIGM Göçmen Hudut JGK Turkmenistan DMG DSG United Arab Emirates Border Guard ICA Manafth Uzbekistan DXX CQ MvaFRBB Vietnam Yemen Border Guard IPNA
Europe	Akrotiri and Dhekelia Albania Andorra Immigration UFE Austria BFA LPD Belarus DPK UGIM Belgium IBZ DGA Bosnia and Herzegovina GPBiH SPS Bulgaria DM GDBP Croatia UIDUP UZG Cyprus CRMD YAM Czech Republic OAMP SCP Denmark HS Politi SIRI US Estonia Finland Migri RVL France DCPAF DGEF OFII OFPRA Germany BAMF BPOL Gibraltar BCA Greece DAM KAPS Guernsey Hungary Border Guard OIF Iceland Ireland GNIB INIS Italy DCIPF DLCI GdF L'AC Jersey Latvia PMLP RS Liechtenstein APA LaPo SBG Lithuania MD VSAT Luxembourg Immigration PGD Malta IMA MPF AFM Moldova BMA PF Monaco Montenegro Netherlands AVIM IND KMar North Macedonia Norway Grensekom GSV PU UDI UNE Poland SG UDSC Portugal ACM Romania IGI PFR Russia GUVM PSFSB San Marino Serbia KIRS UGP Slovakia MÚ ÚHCP Slovenia SMP SUNZ Spain CGEF GC OAR SEM Sweden NOA SMA Switzerland SBG SEM Ukraine DMS DPSU United Kingdom HMPO IE UKBF UKVI Vatican City
North America	Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Barbados Belize BMA DINS Canada CBSA IRCC Costa Rica DGME Fronteras Cuba BF DIIE Dominica Dominican Republic CESFRONT DGMRD FTC-1 UPF El Salvador Border Patrol DGME DISEFRO Greenland Grenada Guatemala DIPAFRONT IGM Haiti DIE POLIFRONT Honduras DNSPF INM Jamaica Mexico GN INM Nicaragua Panama APAP SENAFRONT SNM Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago United States CBP DMB ICE USBP USCIS
Oceania	American Samoa Australia Federated States of Micronesia Border Control Immigration Fiji BAF FID Kiribati Marshall Islands Nauru New Zealand Palau Papua New Guinea ICA PNGDF Samoa Solomon Islands Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu BV VIS
South America	Argentina DNM GNA Bolivia Border Police DIGEMIG UPCOM Brazil BPFron GESFRON PF Chile CdC JENAMIG Colombia Ecuador Guyana DOC GPF Paraguay Peru Migraciones PNP Suriname Immigration KMP VZ Uruguay Venezuela GNB Immigration SAIME
International	United Nations International Organization for Migration CIS European Union
Non-recognized	Donetsk MS DNR SPO DNR Kosovo DCAM DPK Luhansk SPO LNR UMS LNR Northern Cyprus Somaliland SIBC Transnistria PU MGB UPVM MVD
Defunct	Albania (till 1939) Byzantine Empire Czechoslovakia (till 1939) East Germany Estonia (till 2010) Germany (till 1945) Italy (till 1943) Liechtenstein (till 1923) Poland KOP (till 1939) BPT (till 1991) Roman Empire Soviet Union Spain (till 1940) Portugal SEF (till 2023) United Kingdom IND (till 2007) BIA (till 2008) UKBA (till 2013) West Germany
Border guard Coast guard Customs Law enforcement agency Types Intelligence agency

v t e Commercial aviation
Airlines	Airline codes Airline holding companies Cargo airline Charter airlines Flag carriers Low-cost airlines Non-scheduled airline Passenger airlines Regional airlines
Alliances	Oneworld SkyTeam Star Alliance Value Alliance Vanilla Alliance U-FLY Alliance
Trade groups	International ACO ATAG IATA IATAN IFALPA ISTAT United States A4A RAA Europe A4E ASD ECA EBAA ERA ETWF Other regions AACO AAPA AFRAA RAAA
Aircrew	Pilot in command (Captain) First officer Second officer Third officer Relief crew Flight attendant Flight engineer Loadmaster Aircraft pilot Purser Dead mileage
Airliner	Travel class First class Business class Premium economy class Economy class Basic economy class Aircraft cabin Aircraft lavatory Aircraft seat map Airline meal Airline seat Buy on board Crew rest compartment In-flight entertainment Inflight smoking Galley Sickness bag
Airport	Aerodrome Airline hub Airport check-in Airport lounge Airport rail link Airport terminal Airside pass Airstair Boarding Domestic airport Gate International airport Jet bridge Low-cost carrier terminal Runway Transit hotel
Customs / Immigration	Arrival card Border control (internal) Departure card Passport Timatic Travel document Travel visa (Electronic)
Environmental effects	Hypermobility Environmental effects of aviation
Law	Air transport agreement Air route authority between the United States and China Bermuda Agreement (UK–US, 1946–1978) Bermuda II Agreement (UK–US, 1978–2008) Cross-strait charter Beijing Convention Cape Town Treaty Chicago Convention Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives European Common Aviation Area Flight permit Freedoms of the air EU–US Open Skies Agreement Hague Hijacking Convention Hague Protocol Montreal Convention Paris Convention of 1919 Rome Convention Sabotage Convention Tokyo Convention Warsaw Convention
Intergovernmental organizations	ICAO ECAC Eurocontrol EASA ENCASIA
Baggage	Bag tag Baggage allowance Baggage carousel Baggage cart Baggage reclaim Baggage handler Baggage handling system Baggage sizer Checked baggage Hand luggage Lost luggage (WorldTracer) Luggage lock
Aviation safety	Air rage Air traffic control Air traffic service Aircraft safety card Airport authority Airport crash tender Airport police Airport security Airspace class Area control center Brace position Civil aviation authority Control area Control zone Controlled airspace Evacuation slide Flight information region Flight information service Flight recorder Instrument flight rules Overwing exits Pre-flight safety demonstration Sky marshal Special use airspace Special visual flight rules Terminal control area Terminal control center Uncontrolled airspace Upper information region Visual flight rules
Airline tickets	Airline booking ploys Airline reservations system Airline ticket Airline timetable Bereavement flight Boarding pass Codeshare agreement Continent pass Electronic ticket Fare basis code Flight cancellation and delay Frequent-flyer program Government contract flight One-way travel Open-jaw ticket Overbooking (Overselling) Passenger name record Red-eye flight Round-the-world ticket Standby Tracking Travel agency Travel website
Ground crew	Aircraft maintenance technician Aircraft ground handling Baggage handler Flight dispatcher
Miscellaneous	Air cargo Air travel Aviation taxation and subsidies Mile high club

Revision as of 09:53, 1 August 2018

Functions

Border security

Specific requirements

Free travel areas

Central America-4 Border Control Agreement

Union State of Russia and Belarus

Western Europe

Greater India

Expedited border controls

Asia

China

Singapore

South Korea

North America

NEXUS and FAST

Global Entry and SENTRI

Viajero Confiable

APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC)

Internal border controls

Asia

Europe

American territories

Realm of New Zealand

Prescreening border controls

America

Hong Kong, China

West Kowloon railway station

Shenzhen Bay Control Point

Singapore and Malaysia

Woodlands Train Checkpoint

Johor Bahru - Singapore Rapid Transit

United Kingdom

Ferry

Rail

Informal prescreening

Controversies

Discriminatory practices

Israel

United States

Bhutan

Australian offshore detention centres

North Korean refugees in China

Restrictions on Northern Cypriot airspace

See also

References

Further reading