Food and drink prohibitions

This article is about practices and beliefs in relation to various animals as food. For more discussion on religious views, see Unclean animals.

Swine are considered treyf, non-kosher ("unfit" or "unclean") in Judaism or haraam ("forbidden") in Islam

Taboo food and drinks are food and drink which people abstain from consuming for religious or cultural reasons.

Origins and rationale

Certain foods may be considered taboo by the rules promulgated by a religion concerning what is and what is not allowed to be eaten. The term is especially used in relation to Judaism and Islam, as well as the widespread Hindu prohibition on slaughtering sacred cows. Many religions include such rules, although they rarely reach the level of breadth and detail which is observed in Judaism.

These rules can cover such matters as permissible and impermissible foodstuffs, rules regarding how food is to be slaughtered, and prohibited combinations of food (some foods, even though permissible in themselves, are not allowed in combination). Some foods may also be prohibited during certain festivals, even though normally allowed; and some foods may be prohibited only to particular classes of people (e.g. priests), but allowed for others.

Various religions forbid the consumption of certain types of food. For example, Judaism prescribes a strict set of rules, called Kashrut, regarding what can and cannot be eaten. Certain denominations of Christianity also hold to these or similar rules. In Islamic practice, the laws of Haram and Halal dictate, among other things, certain foods which may not be eaten. Hindus, and Jains often follow religious directives to observe vegetarianism and avoid eating meat. Hinduism has no specific proscriptions against eating meat, so some Hindus do eat meat. However, many other Hindus apply the concept of "ahimsa" (non-violence) to their diet, so they advocate and practice forms of vegetarianism. Due to philosophical differences and dietary needs among many modern Indian Hindus, all meat is considered a taboo except mutton (usually in India the goat's flesh, or sometimes sheep's flesh), chicken and fish.

Australian Aborigines traditionally had personal totems. While religious practices varied from group to group, it was common that the eating of the totemic animal was considered taboo, either by the entire clan, or the individual with the personal totem.

Also comparable is the strong prohibition among Manchus against the eating of dog meat, which is a common part of the cuisine among the Manchus' neighboring Northeastern Asian peoples - though in this case the prohibition is not grounded in a specific religious tradition. (The Manchus also avoid the wearing of hats made of dog's fur, common among their neighbors).

Aside from conscious taboos there are unconscious cultural taboos against the consumption of some animals. For example, even though there is no law against eating dog meat in the United States and Europe, it is widely considered unacceptable. In Southeast Asia, most countries excluding Vietnam rarely consume dog meat either because of Islamic or Buddhist values or animal rights as in the Philippines. Similarly, horse meat is rarely eaten in the US and UK, but is common in some parts of continental Europe and is considered a delicacy in Japan (basashi). Within a given society, some meats will be considered taboo simply because they are outside the range of the generally accepted definition of a foodstuff, not necessarily because the meat is considered repulsive in flavor, aroma, texture or appearance.

Some authorities impose cultural food taboos in the form of law. This is alleged to be dietary persecution and possibly human rights abuse. For example, even after resumption to Chinese rule, Hong Kong has not lifted its ban on supplying meat from dogs and cats, imposed in colonial times. A fairly recent addition to cultural food taboos is that of eating the meat and/or eggs of endangered species or animals that are otherwise protected by law or international treaty. Examples of such protected species include whales, sea turtles, and migratory birds.

The origin of food taboos is still being debated. Some claim they are a result of health considerations or other practical considerations, other say it's a result of human symbolic systems.

Taboo food

Amphibians and reptiles

Both Judaism and Islam strictly forbid the consumption of amphibians such as frogs and reptiles such as crocodiles and snakes. Nevertheless, frogs are raised commercially in certain countries and frog legs are considered a delicacy in France, Portugal, Italy, China, Caribbean and in parts of the USA.

Consumption of snakes has a long history in China and Vietnam where it is seen as a special culinary dish. The snake's blood and bile is considered a male aphrodisiac and is often drunk along with the combination of rice wine. Rattlesnake is eaten to a certain degree in southwestern USA and is available in specialty meat shops. Certain tribes living around Lake Turkana in Ethiopia regularly hunt crocodiles and the consumption of crocodile meat and alligator meat can also be observed in countries such as Australia, Thailand, South Africa and the United States. In Australia the meat is typically available in some restaurants and specialty meat outlets.

Bears

The meat of brown and blacks bears is eaten in several parts of the world, while polar bears are also traditionally consumed in Alaska. Bear meat must be cooked thoroughly as it can often be infected with trichinellosis. Bears are not considered kosher in Judaism while all predatory terrestrial animals are haram in Islam. Jews and Muslims would therefore normally abstain from eating bear meat.

Birds

The Old Testament of the Bible (Leviticus 11:13) explicitly states that the eagle, griffon, and osprey are not to be eaten. Large domesticated fowl such as chickens, turkeys, and ducks are commonly eaten in many cultures, along with their wild game counterparts.

Pigeons are raised and eaten in parts of the Middle East, Asia and Europe, where the young birds are known as "squab". Special towers are visible all over Egyptian villages, where these pigeons are raised. They are considered a delicacy served as a main course with rice. In North America, however, pigeons are more typically regarded as unfit for consumption, although hunted as a game bird in many states.

Many people also find the thought of eating the meat of crows and other scavengers repulsive, as evidenced by the expression "eating crow".

Eating swans is generally considered unacceptable in Europe and the Americas, and the swan is a protected bird in England. All mute swans in Britain belong to the sovereign, Queen Elizabeth II, an historical quirk dating from the twelfth century. Nevertheless, reports about the eating of swans are seen from time to time.

Small birds such as songbirds have also traditionally been eaten in the Middle East, Asia and some European cultures; one such dish is the Ambelopoulia of Cyprus. In Western cultures today, most people regard songbirds as backyard wildlife rather than as food. In addition, migratory birds are protected by international treaty.

Camels

Bactrian camel

Another animal that is not eaten in Europe and North America is the camel, although it is not unusual to eat it in the Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia. Although not often eaten in Australia, it is somewhat of a novelty – camel lasagne is available in Alice Springs. The eating of a camel is strictly prohibited by the Torah. Although the camel is a cud-chewer, the Levites still considered it "unclean". While the foot of a camel is split into two toe-like structures, it does not meet the biblical cloven hoof criterion. The meat of a camel may also have been spurned due to the camel's physiology. All of a camel's fat is stored in its hump. This makes the rest of the body very lean, which is not good for eating.

Although there are similarities in both Islam and Judaism regarding the Kashrut and Halal foods, there are significant differences, including the consumption of camel flesh. According to the materialistic anthropologist Marvin Harris, since Arabs were nomads, camels were essential for their travels, but, in case of emergency, Muslims could not afford to starve because of the taboo.

Camel meat has been eaten for centuries. It has been recorded by ancient Greek writers as an available dish in ancient Persia at banquets, usually roasted whole. The ancient Roman emperor Heliogabalus, born and raised in Syria, enjoyed camel's heel. Camel meat is often eaten in countries such as Somalia (where it is called Hilib geyl), Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Libya, Sudan, Mauritania and other arid regions where alternative forms of protein may be limited or where camel meat has had a long cultural history. Not just the meat but also blood is a consumable item as is the case in northern Kenya where camel blood is a source of iron, vitamin D, salts and minerals (although Muslims do not drink or consume blood products). A recent report leads to some caution since cases have emerged of where eating raw camel liver has led to human plague.

Caribou/Reindeer

Although reindeer is popular as a dish in Alaska, Norway, Sweden, Finland (especially sautéed reindeer), Russia and Canada, many people in the United Kingdom and Ireland are squeamish about the idea of eating reindeer meat. This relates to the popular culture myth of the reindeer as assistant to Father Christmas ("eating Rudolph"), as opposed to the “cows of the north” vision of the Northern countries.

Swedish astronaut Christer Fuglesang was not allowed to bring dried reindeer with him onboard a shuttle mission as it was unthinkable for the Americans so soon before Christmas. He had to go with moose instead.

Cats

Main article: Cat meat

Cats are eaten in parts of southern China, northern Vietnam, and Lesotho. In Guangdong, China, cat is reportedly served along with snake and chicken in a dish called "The Dragon, Tiger and Phoenix". In desperate times, people have been known to resort to cooking and eating cats, in places where it is otherwise not usual to do so, it occurred during the Siege of Leningrad as well as in a poverty-stricken shanty town in Rosario, Argentina, in 1996 (though the much-advertised cat meal was later revealed to have been set up by media from Buenos Aires).

Cats are sometimes confused with civet cats, which are not felines at all. This has led Americans to accuse some Chinese manufacturers of using cat fur in their products. Others worry that some traditional medicines imported into the United States are of unknown animal origin. In 2001 , a shipment of cat toys imported into the United States from China were recalled and destroyed because they were trimmed with cat fur, which had just been banned in the U.S.

Some Australian Aboriginal tribes have been known to hunt the feral cats as a secondary source of meat. One tribe well known for this activity believe this cat to be either indigenous or of ancient, non-European origin. However, one recent DNA analysis has shown its genetic similarity to British shorthair cats. Feral cats in Australia are regularly hunted, but not eaten, by non-Aboriginals due to their being voracious pests. They are considered a danger to native species. There is a small minority of scientists who contend the cats are more likely to eat from rubbish dumps and other food sources provided by humans.

The term roof-hare (roof-rabbit, German Dachhase) applies to cat meat presented as that of a hare, another pet used as a source of meat. Subtracting the skin, feet, head and tail, hares and cats are practically identical. The only way to distinguish them is by looking at the processus hamatus of the feline scapula, which should have a processus suprahamatus. Dar gato por liebre ("to pass off a cat as a hare") is an expression common to many Spanish-speaking countries, equivalent to "to pull the wool over someone's eyes" derived from this basic scam. There is an equivalent Portuguese expression Comprar gato por lebre, meaning "to buy a cat as a hare". More specifically, in Brazil, cat meat is seen as repulsive and people often shun barbecue establishments suspected of selling cat meat (although this seems unlikely, since cat meat is very different from beef). The expression churrasco de gato ("cat barbecue") is largely used in Brazil with a humorous note, especially for roadside stands that offer grilled meat on a stick (often coated with farofa), due to their poor hygiene conditions and the fact that the source of the meat is mostly unknown. Cases of passing off cat meat as lamb shish kabab in less reputable shops, are also regularly reported in Egypt.

During the so called Bad Times of hunger in Europe during and after WW I and WW II roof-rabbit was a common food, it's still proverbial.

Cows

Main article: Sacred cow

Many Hindus, particularly Brahmins, are vegetarians, abstaining from eating any meat at all, including fish (save for Brahmins in Bengal who do consume only fish and Kashmiri Pandits who consume meat and fish). Most Hindus, except some semi-tribals and Dalits in a few pockets of India, abstain from the consumption of beef, as the cow holds a sacred place in Hindu society. However, the taboo does not extend to dairy products, since the preparation of dairy products does not involve slaughtering the animal.

According to the scriptures of later Hinduism, it is a grave sin to kill a cow, to take part in its slaughter, or to eat its flesh. While the injunctions against eating beef arose long after the Vedas had been written, it is assumed that the largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations of Hindus throughout the centuries relied so heavily on the cow for all sorts of dairy products, the tilling of fields, and fuel or fertiliser that its status as a willing "caretaker" of humanity grew to identifying it as an almost maternal figure. The economic origins of the cow-eating taboo can be observed from etymology: The Sanskrit word for cattle is pashu, which is cognate with the Latin word pecu, from which derives words pertaining to money in Latin (and into English) : pecunia, impecunious.

Traditionally people from lower castes, like Dalits, ate beef and carabeef (buffalo). In modern times, beef-eating has gained some acceptance in various parts of India, but only by those Hindus who are sometimes considered (and sometimes even scorned) by the others as being "extra-modern" or "over-Westernized". By Indian law, the slaughter of cattle is banned in almost all Indian states except the states of Kerala and Arunachal Pradesh. Slaughter of cows is an extremely emotional and provocative issue for both mainstream Hindus and the followers of Hindutva.

Some ethnic Chinese may also refrain from eating cow meat, because many of them feel that it is wrong to eat an animal that was so useful in agriculture. Some Chinese Buddhists discourage the consumption of beef although it is not considered taboo.

Veal

Main article: Veal

Some people, especially in Britain, Ireland and United States of America, choose not to eat veal (the meat of young cattle) due to concerns about inhumane treatment of the calves. In the UK, this taboo is waning due to a 2007 EU directive banning veal crates and anæmia-inducing diets.

Crustaceans and other seafood

Blue crabs for sale at a market in Piraeus.

Almost all types of non-piscine seafood, such as shellfish, lobster, shrimp or crawfish, are forbidden by Judaism, and some followers of Christianity because such animals live in water but do not have both fins and scales (Leviticus 11:10-12). In Islam the consumption of seafood is based on whether the animal itself has fangs (see "the Book of Foods" chapters in Sahih al Bukhari).

As with swine, crustaceans and many other forms of non-piscine seafood are scavengers that work at filtering the water. Improperly collected or uncooked seafood can be dangerous. It is probable that people who lived far from the sea and had no experience in choosing proper seafood would prefer to forgo all seafood as a question of safety.

Dogs

Main article: Dog meat

In a number of countries around the world, apart from being kept as pets, certain breeds of dogs are slaughtered as a source of meat and specifically raised on farms for that purpose.

According to the ancient Hindu scriptures (cf. Manusmriti and medicinal texts like Sushrut-Samhita), dog's meat was regarded as the most unclean (and rather poisonous) food possible—it was worthy only for the lowest of the untouchable castes — who were therefore called śvapaca (those cooking dog's meat).

In the Philippines, it is against the law to slaughter dogs as food and most Filipinos find it repulsive to eat dog meat. However, illegal slaughterhouses exist, and these are located mostly in the northern part of the country. The brutality of the manner of slaughtering the animals has come to the attention of the media which showed television documentaries of the illegal trade of dog meat.

Donkeys

In Islam, Prophet Muhammad, in a Hadith Al-Bukhari forbids the eating of donkey meat.

Elephants

In Western societies elephants have often been associated with circuses and used for entertaining purposes. However, in Central and West Africa elephants are hunted for their meat. Some people in Thailand also believe that eating elephant meat improves their sex lives and elephants are sometimes hunted specifically for this.

Judaism prohibits the consumption of elephant meat as an unclean land animal, (similarly to the prohibition on camel meat) as does Islam.

Fish

Some Kikuyu and Kalenjin people of Kenya observe a taboo against the consumption of fish. The rejection of fish may be attributable to the arid conditions and associated scarcity of water. In Somalia entire tribes have a taboo on fish and would not even intermarry with tribes that do eat fish. This is probably due to cattle being the means of wealth, and fishermen seen as destitute.

Certain species of fish are also forbidden in Judaism such as the freshwater eel (Anguillidae) and all species of catfish. Although they live in water, they appear to have no fins or scales (except under a microscope). (See Leviticus). Islamic laws are more flexible in this and catfishes and sharks are generally seen as halal as they are special types of fish; eel is considered permitted in the majority of the Islamic schools while some forbid it. A common interpretation regarding some of the Islamic prohibitions is that animals that "live in both worlds" may not be consumed. This applies to primarily aquatic animals that nest or breed on land.

The Greenland Norse, a civilization that lasted about 300 years following a colonization from Iceland, might have had something that resembles a taboo against fish. Jared Diamond proposes this theory based on the fact that few fish bones or other remains have been found from Greenland Norse archaeological sites, and little fishing equipment. Primarily, it seems, they sustained themselves on agriculture, cattle, pork, goats and occasionally seal meat, in a climate that render such sustenance next-to impossible.

As is clear in the Catechism (section 1438), the Roman Catholic Church requires penance during Lent and on Fridays throughout the year. Traditional penance on Fridays is abstaining from meat. However, a vegetarian, for example, would be required to fulfil this requirement in another way. In medieval times, meat was more expensive than fish; making meat taboo forced austerity on the believers.

Some Buddhists do not eat fish, in observance with vegetarian practices.

Fungi

Some Buddhists avoid mushrooms as they grow in low places, and are believed to lower the eater by their consumption. Alternatively, it could be due to the Mahayana belief that Siddhartha died from eating a meal which included (unknowingly) poisonous mushrooms. Theravadins instead contend that he died from eating spoiled pork.

Guinea pig

A plate of "cuy" meat in Peru

Guinea pigs (cavies) were originally bred for their meat, and only became an exotic popular pet when introduced to Europe from America.

Guinea pigs, or cuy (plural cuyes), continue to be a significant part of the diet in Peru, mostly in the Andes Mountains highlands, where they are an important source of protein and a mainstay of Andean folk medicine.

In 2004, the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation took legal action to stop vendors serving cuy at an Ecuadorian festival in Flushing Meadows Park. New York State allows for the consumption of guinea pigs, but New York City prohibits it. Accusations of cultural persecution have since been leveled.

La Molina National Agrarian University, Peru's most prestigious agrarian university, has bred a larger, faster-growing variety of the animal that it hopes will prove a nutritional boon to the country, as well as a source of export income. This breed grows to about 2 kg, or at least twice the size of the native breed.

Capybara and Paca

The guinea pig's close rodent cousins capybara and paca are consumed as food in South America. The Catholic Church's taboo on eating meat during Lent does not apply to the capybara, as early missionaries gave a faulty description to the Pope, leading him to declare it a fish.[4][5]

Horses

Main article: Horse meat

Smoked and salted horse meat on a sandwich.

Horse may not be eaten by observant Jews, since under Mosaic Law, horse meat is forbidden because the horse is not a ruminant, nor does it have cloven hooves. In Islamic thought horses are generally considered makruh, i.e. the meat is not haram but the eating of it is disliked.

The eating of horse meat is a food taboo to most people in the United Kingdom, the US, and Australia, and its supply is sometimes even illegal. In the UK, this strong taboo includes banning horsemeat from commercial pet food and DNA testing of some types of salami suspected of containing donkey meat. Like lobster and camel, it is forbidden in Judaism and some sects of Christianity. In 732 AD, year of the battle of Tours, which showed the emergent importance of cavalry, Pope Gregory III began an effort to stop the pagan practice of horse eating, calling it "abominable". Horses were far more necessary to stop the Muslim cavalry, threatening the Christian ascendant in Europe, with their own weapons. His edicts are based on the same scripture as the Jewish prohibitions and this ban remained unlifted until the 18th century. The people of Iceland allegedly expressed reluctance to embrace Christianity for some time largely over the issue of giving up horse meat.

However, it is fairly common in Scandinavia and parts of continental Europe, and is considered a delicacy in Japan, where it is also eaten raw as a type of sashimi. Horse meat was also very popular in Malta until a few years ago, and a few horse meat shops still exist and a few restaurants serve it for locals and tourists.

Human meat

Main article: Cannibalism

Of all the taboo meat, human flesh ranks as the most proscribed. Historically, humans have consumed the flesh of fellow humans in rituals and out of insanity, hatred, or overriding hunger — almost never as a common part of their diet.

See also: Donner Party

Insects

See also: Entomophagy

See also: Category:Insects as food

Except for certain locusts and related species, insects are not considered kosher. Islam also allows the consumption of locusts, which are eaten in certain parts of Arabia today. Many find the consumption of insects to be disgusting rather than immoral. In particular, some insects and insect larvae, such as weevils and maggots, are associated with food spoilage.

Many different kinds of insects have traditionally been consumed as food in non-European cultures, including locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets, and larvae such as caterpillars, bee grubs and witchetty grubs. For example, grasshoppers (inago) and bee larvae (hachinoko) are eaten in some regions of Japan, and silkworm larvae (beondegi in Korean or nhộng in Vietnamese) are a popular snack food in these countries. Mopane worms, a species of caterpillar, are an important protein source in South Africa. Bugs, as well as spiders, are popular all over Southeast Asia. In Mexican cuisine, insects such as chapulines and jumiles are considered "pre-hispanic cuisine", representative of the diets of indigenous peoples prior to the Spanish conquest.

Casu marzu is a type of cheese made in Sardinia, Italy that has been deliberately cultivated with the larvae of the cheese fly to change the characteristics of the cheese.

Western taboos against insects as a food source generally do not apply to honey (concentrated nectar which has been regurgitated by bees). For example, honey is considered kosher even though honeybees are not, an apparent exception to the normal rule that products of an unclean animal are also unclean. This topic is covered in the Talmud and is explained to be permissible on the grounds that the bee does not make the honey, the flower does, and it is only stored in bees. On the other hand, many vegans avoid honey as they would any other animal product.

Kangaroo

Main article: Kangaroo meat

Kangaroo meat consumption has a long history in Australia by Indigenous Australians (a staple meat in many cases) and early European settlers (Kangaroo-tail stew was a popular settler dish). However it has had a varied history as meat in Australia due to the emotive association, predominantly by foreigners, of kangaroos as pets and a national symbol. In actuality the relatively lower consumption compared to beef and lamb is primarily due to the higher relative cost and more exotic "gamey" flavor of the meat. Kangaroo meat is the base of dishes in many restaurants and is available at many butchers and major supermarkets as mince, sausages and steak. The meat can also be smoke cured and makes an interesting prosciutto.

Living animals

Islamic and Judaic law forbids any portion that is cut from a live animal. Even in cultures that do not prescribe ritual methods of livestock slaughter, the consumption of animals that are still alive is often seen as barbaric. Notable exceptions are ikizukuri and oyster. These forms of sashimi have been banned in some countries.

Another notable exception is shrimp. In Shanghai, China, and surrounding areas, live shrimp is a common dish served both in homes and restaurants. The shrimp are usually served in a bowl of alcohol, which makes the shrimp sluggish and complacent. Local belief is that live shrimp are "healthier" than those served "already dead" or cooked.

Offal

Heads, brains, trotters and tripe on sale in an Istanbul market.

Offal is the internal organs of butchered animals, and may refer to parts of the carcass such as the head and feet ("trotters") in addition to organ meats such as sweetbreads and kidney. Offal is a traditional part of many European and Asian cuisines, including such dishes as the well-known steak and kidney pie in the United Kingdom.

In countries such as Australia, Canada and the United States, on the other hand, many people are squeamish about eating offal. In these countries, organ meats that are considered edible in other cultures are more often regarded as fit only for processing into pet food under the euphemism "meat by-products". Except for liver (chicken, beef, or pork), and intestines used as natural sausage casings, organ meats consumed in the U.S. tend to be regional or ethnic specialties; for example, tripe as menudo or mondongo among Latinos, chitterlings in the southern states, scrapple in the Philadelphia region, and beef testicles called Rocky Mountain oysters or "prairie oysters" in the west.

In some regions, such as the EU, brains and other organs which can transmit bovine spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow disease") and similar diseases have now been banned from the foodchain as specified risk materials.

Opossum and Raccoon

Until around the mid-20th century, opossums and raccoons were widely eaten game animals in the United States. Today, these animals are generally hunted and trapped for their fur and occasionally eaten, especially in the southern United States. Even older editions of The Joy of Cooking feature recipes for cooking Opossum and Raccoon. Their meat is considered to be rich in protein and is used to make stews, cuisine, and specialty dishes. The consumption of their meat is usually abstained; since these animals are frequent scavengers, omnivores, and the fact that some raccoons are being kept as exotic pets.

Opossums often remind people of rats, and might be considered an unclean animal to eat.

Because raccoons have a vague relation to dogs and bears, some cultures may consider eating raccoon meat comparable to eating dog meat.

Pigs/Pork

Main article: Religious restrictions on the consumption of pork

Consumption of pigs is forbidden among Muslims, Jews, Seventh-day Adventists, and others. There are various theories concerning the origins of this taboo (e.g. Qur'an 16:115, Biblical injunctions in Leviticus 11,7-8 and Deuteronomy 14,8), but none have been universally accepted.

In the 19th century some people attributed the pig taboo in the Middle East to the danger of the parasite trichina. This theory still circulates outside scientific circles, but is now rejected by most anthropologists.

Materialistic beliefs attempt to prove that the pig taboo is just a product of practical considerations. The late Marvin Harris, in particular, posited that pigs are not suited for being kept in the Middle East on an ecological and socio-economical level; for example, pigs are not suited to living in arid climates and thus require far more water than other animals to keep them cool, and instead of grazing they compete with humans for foods such as grains. As such, raising pigs was seen as a wasteful and decadent practice.

A common explanation to the fact that pigs are widely considered unclean in the Middle East is that they are omnivorous, not discerning between meat or vegetation in their natural dietary habits. The willingness to consume meat sets them apart from most other domesticated animals which are commonly eaten (cows, horses, goats, etc.) who would naturally eat only plants. In most, though not all cases, mammals do not eat the meat of other meat-eaters; consumption of pigs by humans would thus seem unnatural.

It is often said that pig flesh is the closest thing in nature to human flesh, and in the past some peoples of Papua New Guinea used a phrase which translated as "long pig" to refer to human flesh. Pigs have also been considered for xenotransplantation, as their internal organs are remarkably similar to those of humans.

One other explanation for pork taboos given by some scholars is that some foods are prohibited so that humans will understand that they have limitations, basically as a reminder that they must keep to the discipline of their Creator, and that they should not take lightly their obligation to steward all the Earth's species well. This explanation is not universally accepted. There is also a controversial theory that there might have been a Scottish pork taboo many centuries ago.

Primates

The consumption of apes such as chimpanzees, gorillas, mandrills and guenons is quite common in rural areas of Sub-Saharan Africa. Bonobos (also known as pygmy chimpanzees), have been extensively hunted in Congo to the level that they are now considered an endangered species. In certain parts of Congo the hand and feet of gorillas are regarded as a delicacy and are served to special guests. Apes are also eaten in southeast Asia (especially Indonesia). Some consider the consumption of apes to be too close to human cannibalism due to the similarity of our own species. The similarity increases the danger of viruses. Most of it is "bushmeat" or caught from the wild, in areas of high primate populations such as Central Africa and southeast Asia. One of the major theories for the origin of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in humans is the eating of primate meat infected with a similar virus. (see: Kuru).

Rabbit

Cottontail rabbit

The book of Leviticus in the Bible classifies the rabbit as unclean because it does not have a split hoof, even though it does chew and reingest partially digested material (often loosely translated "chew the cud" in English).

In Islam Sunni Muslims do not have this prohibition on rabbit and hare, but Shia Muslims along with Alevis and Alawites consider the meat of rabbit and hare haraam.

Rats and mice

In most Western cultures, rats and mice are considered either unclean vermin or pets and thus unfit for human consumption, traditionally being seen as carriers of plague. However, rats are commonly eaten in rural Thailand, Vietnam and other parts of Indochina. Cane rats (Thryonomys swinderianus and Thryonomys gregorianus) and some species of field mice are a rich source of protein in Africa. Bamboo rats are also commonly eaten in the poorer parts of Southeast Asia

In Ghana, Thryonomys swinderianus locally referred to as "Akrantie", "Grasscutter" and (incorrectly) as "Bush rat" is a common food item. The proper common name for this rodent is "Greater Cane Rat", though actually it is not a rat at all and is is a close relative of porcupines and guinea pigs that inhabit Africa, south of the Saharan Desert. In 2003, the U.S. barred the import of this and other rodents from Africa because an outbreak at least nine human cases of monkeypox , an illness never before been seen in the Western Hemisphere.

Historically, rats and mice have also been eaten in the West during times of shortage or emergency, such as during the Battle of Vicksburg and the Siege of Paris. Dormice were also domesticated and raised for food in Ancient Rome. In some Asian countries, mice are eaten, and go by the name of vole. In France, rats bred in the wine stores of Gironde were cooked with the fire of broken wine barrels and eaten, dubbed as cooper's entrecôte. In some communities the muskrat (which is not a rat at all) is hunted for its meat (and fur) (e.g. some parts of Flanders); see also under "Fish" for consumption of beaver tails.

Snails

Snails have been eaten for thousands of years, beginning in the Pleistocene and are seen a notable delicacy in France and other Mediterranean countries. However, in the Anglosphere (Britain, Ireland, America etc.), eating them is seen as disgusting. Some English-speaking commentators have used the French word for snails, escargot, as an alternative word for snails, particularly snails for consumption.

As they are molluscs, snails are neither kosher nor halal.

Vegetables

In certain versions of Buddhism and Hinduism, onions, garlic and chives are taboo. Specifically, Kashmiri Brahmins forbid "strong flavored" foods. This encompasses garlic, onion, and spices such as black pepper and chili pepper, believing that pungent flavors on the tongue inflame the baser emotions. In Jainism, any kind of roots are considered taboo, since the process of unrooting causes the organisms associated with the root in the soil to die.

Although virtually all vegetables are allowed in Islam, some eccentric rules forbade some vegetables, most notably Al-Hakim of Egypt forbidding molokheya the national dish, due to its being a favorite of historical sectarian rivals.

In Yazidism, the eating of lettuce and butter beans is taboo. The Muslim religious teacher and scholar, Falah Hassan Juma, links the sect's belief of evil found in lettuce to its long history of persecution by Muslims and Christians. The Caliphs of the Ottoman Empire carried out massacres against the Yazidis in the 18th and 19th centuries, with the faithful slain in the lettuce fields then dotting northeastern Iraq. Another historical theory claims one ruthless potentate who controlled the city of Mosul in the 13th century ordered an early Yazidi saint executed. The enthusiastic crowd then pelted the corpse with heads of lettuce.

The followers of Pythagoras were vegetarians (in fact "Pythagorean" at one time came to mean "vegetarian"), however their creed prohibited the eating of beans. The reason is unclear: perhaps the flatulence they cause, perhaps as protection from potential favism, but most likely for magico-religious reasons.

Although it isn't a taboo in a strictest sense, many Germans, in particular older Germans, will not eat swede (Swedish turnip, rutabaga), as they see it as a "famine food", not for general consumption. This taboo existed from the 1916-17 famine (Steckrübenwinter) when Germany had one of the worst winters in memory, where often the only food available was swedes. This led a distaste to the vegetable which still continues today.

Whales

See also: Whaling

Over the last couple of decades, the eating of whale has become increasingly taboo. The International Whaling Commission passed a moratorium on commercial whaling on July 23, 1982 that came into force for the 1985-86 season.

Norway resumed commercial whaling of minke whales in 1993 and it is still a popular meat, especially on Norway's western coast. Once considered an inexpensive substitute for beef, whale meat is now a highly priced delicacy. Iceland resumed commercial whaling in 2006. Japan's whaling is officially done for research purposes. This is specifically sanctioned under IWC regulations that also specifically require that whale meat be fully utilized upon the completion of research. Many international scientific and environmentalist groups argue that the killing is not necessary to conduct the research.

The United States Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 prohibits, with certain exceptions, the taking of marine mammals in United States waters and by U.S. citizens on the high seas, and the importation of marine mammals and marine mammal products into the U.S. Despite the general ban on whale hunting in the United States and Canada, some indigenous groups are allowed to hunt for cultural reasons.

Taboo drinks

Alcohol

Some religions—most notably Islam, Baptists and other Evangelical Christians, Jainism, Sikhism, the Bahá'í Faith, Latter-day Saints, the Nikaya and most Mahayana schools of Buddhism—forbid or discourage the consumption of alcoholic beverages. See also: Christianity and alcohol

Blood

Drinking blood is a strong social taboo in many countries, often with a vague emotive association with vampirism (the consumption of human blood). Still, drinking blood of a freshly killed animal by butchers or hunters is a quite common activity in Estonia.

Although blood sausage, or blood made to cake form, is quite popular in many parts of the world, it is considered repulsive in most of the United States. In Britain and some Commonwealth countries, "black pudding" or "blood pudding" is made from blood and some filler grains and spices, often oatmeal. Blood sausage is also popular in Finland (mustamakkara) and some Baltic nations like Poland (kaszanka), Latvia and Estonia, as well as in Germany (Blutwurst), Hungary (véres hurka), Spain (Morcilla), Slovenia (Krvavica) and France (Boudin). In Portugal, a traditional dish known as cabidela is made by cooking chicken or rabbit in its own blood, sometimes diluted with vinegar. In China, Thailand and Vietnam coagulated chicken, duck, goose or pig blood, known in Chinese as "blood tofu" (血豆腐 xuě dòufǔ) is used in soups, such as the classic Thai dish kuay tiaw reua (boat noodles). In the Philippines, a popular dish called dinuguan is made from pig's blood and seasoned with chili and is traditionally eaten with rice cakes. In Sweden, the blood soup svartsoppa is traditionally eaten on certain holidays. A type of black pudding, blodpudding, is often eaten with lingonberry jam. Polish cuisine, has a version, czernina, which in enjoyed by many adherents, in certain regions. In Laos, and sometimes Thailand (especially the Northeast), a raw version of laap, a meat salad, is made with minced raw-meat, seasoned in spices, and covered with blood. In the western region of Santander Colombia a dish called Pepitoria is made from rice cooked in goat blood. As noted above, some people in China and Vietnam consider certain types of snake blood to be an aphrodisiac, and drink it with Rice Wine.

Followers of Judaism and Islam as well as Jehovah's Witnesses are forbidden to drink blood or eat food made with blood. Jews follow the teaching in Leviticus 17:10-12, that since "the life of the animal is in the blood", no person may eat (drink) the blood on pain of excommunication (through, respectively, cherem, takfir, or disfellowshipping). Jehovah's Witnesses interpret the prohibition against drinking blood in Acts 21:25 as a prohibition against blood transfusion; Jews and Muslims do not reject transfusions. New Testament Christian converts - specifically the Gentiles were taught by the apostles among other things to abstain from from consuming blood. Act 15:28 For it seemed good to the Holy Ghost, and to us, to lay upon you no greater burden than these necessary things; Act 15:29 That ye abstain from meats offered to idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and from fornication: from which if ye keep yourselves, ye shall do well, Fare ye well.

Coffee and tea

Strong drinks are taboo for members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and some other Mormon groups. For most Mormons this includes coffee and tea, and is often interpreted as a taboo against caffeine in general, including cola drinks .

Milk

Milk and cheese were taboo in China, but have become popular in recent years, available at most supermarkets now.

See also

• Cannibalism
• Halal
• Ḥarām
• Islamic dietary laws
• Ital, the dietary laws of the Rastafari movement
• Fasting
• Kashrut
• Kosher foods
• Sacred cow
• Teetotalism
• Temperance movement
• Unclean animals
• Vegetarianism
• Veganism

External links

• Americans squeamish over horse meat
• Korean Animal Protection Society
• China exotic food FAQ
• Traditional German gourmet recipes with horse meat
• Insects as food
• Karl Ammann, wildlife photographer and bushmeat activist
• Cats - Friend or Food?
• Guide to Migratory Bird Laws and Treaties
• Crow recipes
• Taboo Food in Buddhism

Bibliography

• Stewart Lee Allen. In the Devil's Garden: A Sinful History of Forbidden Food. ISBN 0-345-44015-3.
• Calvin W. Schwabe. Unmentionable Cuisine. ISBN 0-8139-1162-1.
• Frederick J. Simoons. Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the Present. ISBN 0-299-14250-7.
• Marvin Harris. Good to Eat. ISBN 0-04-306002-1.
• Morales, Edmundo (1995). The Guinea Pig : Healing, Food, and Ritual in the Andes. University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-1558-1.