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For other uses, see Jerusalem (disambiguation).

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Jerusalem (Hebrew: יְרוּשָׁלַיִםⓘ, Yerushaláyim or Yerushalaim; Arabic: القُدسⓘ, al-Quds, "the Holiness")[1] is Israel's capital[2] and largest city both in population and area, with a population of approximately 724,000 (as of 2006) in an area totaling 126 square kilometers (49 sq mi).[3]

Located in the Judean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea and the Dead Sea, Jerusalem is considered holy to the three major Abrahamic religions — Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Jerusalem has been the holiest city in Judaism and the spiritual center of the Jewish people since the 10th century BCE.[4] [5] The city is widely considered the third-holiest in Sunni Islam and contains a number of significant and ancient Christian landmarks. Thus, while the city has a large Jewish majority, a wide range of national, religious, and socioeconomic groups are represented. The walled area of Jerusalem, which until the late 19th century formed the entire city, is now called the Old City and was added to the list of World Heritage Sites in 1982.[6] It consists of four ethnic and religious sections — the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters. Barely one kilometer square,[7] the Old City is home to several of Jerusalem's most important and contested religious sites, including the Western Wall and Temple Mount for Jews, the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque for Muslims, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre for Christians.

Surrounding the Old City are more modern areas of Jerusalem. The civic and cultural center of modern Israel extends from western Jerusalem toward the country's other urban areas to the west, while areas populated by a Palestinian majority dominate north, east and south of the Old City. Today, Jerusalem remains central to the Arab-Israeli conflict; Israel's annexation of the primarily Arab neighborhoods that form East Jerusalem has been particularly controversial, as Jerusalem has been claimed by Palestinians as the capital for a future Palestinian state. Thus, the status of united Jerusalem as Israel's "eternal capital"[8][9] is not widely recognized by the international community, and most countries locate their embassies in Tel Aviv.

Name

Main article: Names of Jerusalem

Although the precise origin of the name remains uncertain, the Hebrew Yerushalayim may be understood as "Heritage of Peace" — a portmanteau of yerusha ("heritage") and shalom ("peace").[10][11][12] Alternatively, the second part of the portmanteau may instead be Salem (Shalem literally "whole" or "in harmony") as the name in reference to the city of Jerusalem in the first book of the Torah, Genesis.[13] Similarly, the Amarna letters call the city the Akkadian Urušalim, a cognate of the Hebrew Ir Shalem ("city of Salem"). Some consider a connection between the name and Shalim, the deity known from Ugaritic myths as personifying dusk.[14] The ending -ayim or -im has the appearance of the Hebrew dual, leading some scholars to argue that Jerusalem represents the fact that the city lies on two hills. However, the treatment of the ending as a suffix makes the rest of the name incomprehensible in Hebrew.

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Jerusalem
City of David 1000 BCE
Second Temple Period 538 BCE–70 CE
Aelia Capitolina 130–325 CE
Byzantine 325–638 CE
Early Muslim 638–1099
Crusader 1099–1187
Late Medieval 1187–1517
Ottoman 1517–1917
British Mandate 1917–1948
Modern period
  • (Jordanian and Israeli annexation of East Jerusalem)
    		•  1948-
    Sieges
    Before Common Era
    Common Era
    Places
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  • Chief Rabbi
  • Grand Mufti
  • Greek Orthodox Patriarch
  • Crusader kings
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    A Midrashic interpretation comes from Genesis Rabba, which explains that Abraham came to the city that was then called Shalem after rescuing Lot.[15] Upon arrival, he asked the king and high priest Melchizedek to bless him, and Melchizedek did so in the name of God (indicating that he, like Abraham, was a monotheist). According to exegeses, God immortalizes this encounter between Melchizedek and Abraham by renaming the city in honor of them: the name Yeru (derived from Yireh, the name Abraham gives to the Temple Mount) is placed in front of the contemporary name of Shalem.[15]

    History

    Main article: History of Jerusalem

    Archaeological findings indicate the existence of development within present-day Jerusalem as far back as the 4th millennium BCE,[16] but the earliest written records of the city come in the Execration Texts (c. 19th century BCE) and the Amarna letters (c. 14th century BCE).[17][18] According to Biblical accounts, the Jebusites, a Canaanite tribe, inhabited the area around the present-day city (under the name Jebus) until the late 11th century BCE. At that point (c. 1000s BCE), the Israelites, led by King David, invaded and conquered the city, expanded it southward, established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah (the United Monarchy), and renamed it to its present-day name of Yerushalayim (Jerusalem).[19][20][21]

    See also: History of ancient Israel and Judah, History of Palestine, and Timeline of Jerusalem

    The Temple Periods

    David's reign ended around 970 BCE, at which point his son Solomon became the new king.[22] Biblical sources state that within a decade Solomon had proceeded to build what would become the first of two Holy Temples within city limits. The location of Solomon's Temple (or simply the First Temple) remains a significant site in Jewish history (and to some extent the history of Christianity) as the last known location of the Ark of the Covenant[23] and a focal point of worship for Jews.

    Reconstruction of the First Temple

    The next four centuries — until the destruction of Solomon's Temple (c. 586 BCE) — would later become known as the First Temple Period.[24] This period was marked by the division of the United Monarchy, which occurred at the time of Solomon's death (c. 930 BCE) when the ten northern tribes originally part of the Monarchy split off to form the Kingdom of Israel. Under the leadership of the bloodline of David and Solomon, Jerusalem continued as the capital of the southern product of the split, the Kingdom of Judah.[25] Later, with the Assyrian conquest of the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BCE, Jerusalem became the center of a Judah strengthened by the great number of Israeli refugees. However, in approximately 586 BCE the Kingdom of Judah, including the city of Jerusalem, also met its demise at the hands of the Babylonians.[25] With that, the First Temple Period came to a close and a gap in Jerusalem's prosperity began.

    In 538 BCE, after fifty years of Babylonian captivity, the Jews were given permission from Persian King Cyrus the Great to return to Judah so they could rebuild Jerusalem and its central temple (known as the Second Temple).[26][27] Jerusalem resumed its role as capital of Judah and center of Jewish worship for another four centuries, with a considerable portion of that period under Hasmonean rule. By 19 BCE, the Temple Mount was elevated[28] and construction began on an expansion of the Second Temple under Herod the Great, a Jewish client king under Roman rule.[22] In 6 CE, the city, as well as much of the surrounding Palestine, came under direct Roman rule as the Iudaea Province.[29] Still, the unchallenged Roman rule over Jerusalem and the region came to an end with the first Jewish-Roman war, the Great Jewish Revolt, which resulted in the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Jerusalem once again served as the national capital for the people of the region during the three-year rebellion known as Bar Kokhba's revolt. The Romans succeeded in sacking and recapturing the city in 135 CE; as a punitive measure, the Jews were banned from Jerusalem.

    Shifts in control

    File:Jerusalem1099.jpg
    Capture of Jerusalem during the First Crusade, 1099 (a medieval manuscript)

    In the five centuries following Bar Kokhba's revolt, the city remained under Roman and Byzantine rule. With the city controlled by Roman Emperor Constantine I during the 4th century, Jerusalem was transformed into a center for Christianity, with the construction of sites such as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. For most of the time between Constantine's rule until the arrival of the Muslim forces in 638, Jews were banned from Jerusalem.[30] From that point, the rights of the non-Muslims under Islamic territory were governed by the Pact of Umar, and Christians and Jews living in the city were granted autonomy in exchange for a required poll tax (jizya).[31] When Caliph Umar first came to the city, he requested that Sophronius, the reigning Patriarch of Jerusalem, guide him and his associates to the site of the Jewish Holy Temple, whereupon he later decided to build a mosque. By the end of the 7th century, a subsequent caliph, Abd al-Malik, had commissioned and completed the construction of the Dome of the Rock over the Foundation Stone.[32] In the four hundred years that followed, Jerusalem's prominence diminished as Arab powers in the region jockeyed for control.[33]

    Map of Jerusalem, 1883

    In 1099, Jerusalem was sieged by the First Crusaders, who killed most of its Muslim and Jewish inhabitants. That would be the first of several conquests to take place over the next five hundred years. In 1187, the city was taken from the Crusaders by Saladin.[34] Between 1228 and 1244, it was given by Saladin's descendant al-Kamil to the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Jerusalem fell again in 1244 to the Khawarizmi Turks, who were later, in 1260, replaced by the Mamelukes. In 1517, Jerusalem and its environs fell to the Ottoman Turks, who would maintain control of the city until the 20th century.[34]

    In 1917 after the Battle of Jerusalem, the British Army, led by General Edmund Allenby, captured the city.[35] The League of Nations, through its 1922 ratification of the Balfour Declaration, entrusted the United Kingdom to administer the Mandate of Palestine and help establish a Jewish state in the region.[36] The period of the Mandate saw the construction of new garden suburbs in the western and northern parts of the city[37][38] and the establishment of institutions of higher learning such as the Hebrew University, founded in 1925.[39]

    The State of Israel

    As the British Mandate of Palestine was expiring, the 1947 UN Partition Plan (Part III) recommended "the creation of a special international regime in the City of Jerusalem, constituting it as a corpus separatum under the administration of the United Nations."[40] However, this plan was never implemented and at the end of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Jerusalem found itself divided between Israel and Jordan (then known as Transjordan). The ceasefire line established through the 1949 Armistice Agreements between Israel and Jordan cut through the center of the city from 1949 until 1967, during which time West Jerusalem was part of Israel and East Jerusalem was part of Jordan. In 1950, Israel designated West Jerusalem as its capital.

    Ever since Israel captured East Jerusalem from Jordan in the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel has administered and asserted sovereignty over the entire city. Israel's 1980 Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel declared Jerusalem, "complete and united", to be the capital of Israel,[41] while East Jerusalem has been claimed as the intended capital of a future Palestinian state.[42][43] The status of the city and of its holy places remains disputed to this day.

    Geography

    Panoramic view from the Mount of Olives

    Jerusalem is situated around 31°47′N 35°13′E / 31.783°N 35.217°E / 31.783; 35.217 on the southern spur of a plateau in the Judean Mountains, which include the Mount of Olives and Mount Scopus. The elevation of the Old City section is approximately 760 meters (2,500 ft) above mean sea level.[44] The whole of Jerusalem is surrounded by valleys and dry riverbeds (wadis), although those to the north are less pronounced than those on the other sides.

    Three of the most prominent valleys in the region, the Kidron, Hinnom, and Tyropoeon Valleys, intersect in an area just south of the city of Jerusalem.[45] The Kidron Valley runs just to the east of the Old City and separates the Mount of Olives from the city proper. Along the western side of Jerusalem is the Valley of Hinnom, known within Biblical eschatology for its association with the concept of hell.[46] A third valley commenced in the northwest near the present-day location of Damascus Gate, ran south-southeasterly down to the Pool of Siloam, and divided the lower part into two hills (the lower and the upper cities of Josephus). Today, this valley, the Tyropoeon Valley, is mostly hidden from view due to the amount of debris that has accumulated within the ravine over the past few millennia.[45]

    Jerusalem is sixty kilometers (39 miles)[47] east of Tel Aviv and the Mediterranean Sea. On the opposite side of the city, approximately thirty-five kilometers (20 miles)[48] away, is the Dead Sea, the lowest body of water on Earth. Neighboring cities and towns include Bethlehem and Beit Jala to the south, Abu Dis and Ma'ale Adummim to the east, Mevaseret Zion to the west, and Giv'at Ze'ev to the north.

    Climate

    Residing at a latitude just north of the Tropic of Cancer and located close to the Mediterranean Sea, Jerusalem, like much of the rest of Israel, is characterized by a Mediterranean climate. The city is subtropical and remains mild even during the winter months, although snowfall is not too rare and usually occurs at least once a year. During January, the coldest month of the year, the average high temperature is 12°C (53°F), while the average high temperature during July and August, the warmest months of the year, is 29°C (84°F).[49] The average annual precipitation is close to 590 millimetres (23 in.) although rain seldom falls during the summer months between May and September.[49]

    Climate averages for Jerusalem
    Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
    High | °C (°F) 12 (53) 13 (56) 16 (61) 21 (70) 25 (77) 28 (82) 29 (84) 29 (84) 28 (82) 25 (77) 19 (66) 14 (57)
    Low | °C (°F) 4 (39) 4 (40) 6 (43) 9 (49) 12 (54) 15 (59) 17 (63) 17 (63) 16 (61) 14 (57) 9 (49) 6 (42)
    Precipitation
    mm (in)     		142.2
    (5.6)    		 114.3
    (4.5)    		 99.1
    (3.9)    		 30.5
    (1.2)    		 2.5
    (0.1)    		 N/A N/A N/A 0.0
    (0.0)    		 22.9
    (0.9)    		 68.8
    (2.7)    		 109.2
    (4.3)
    Source: The Weather Channel[49]

    Most of the air pollution in Jerusalem comes from vehicular traffic, which is especially concentrated in East Jerusalem.[50] Many main streets in Jerusalem are not built to accommodate the increasing amount of traffic, meaning drivers are forced to spend greater amounts of time in traffic and release greater amount of carbon monoxide into the air. Industrial pollution from within the city is sparse, but emissions from factories on the Israeli Mediterranean coast can travel eastward and settle over the city.[50]

    Since the time of the British Mandate, building codes have stated that all new structures in Jerusalem are to be built of Jerusalem stone.[38] Although these codes increase building costs somewhat, Jerusalem stone gives the city a distinct, antiquated look.

    Demographics

    State of Israel
    Israel
    Geography
    History
    Conflicts
    Foreign relations
    Security forces
    Economy

    In May 2006, Jerusalem had a population of 724,000, of whom 65% were Jewish, 32% were Muslim, and 2% were Christian.[3] In 2005, Jerusalem received 2,450 immigrants, with nearly three quarters of them arriving from the United States, France, and former members of the Soviet Union. Within Israel, the number of people moving into Jerusalem has been far lower than that of people moving out of Jerusalem. Even though over ten thousand Israelis migrated to Jerusalem in 2005, over sixteen thousand left during the same time period.[3] Ultimately, the population of Jerusalem continues to rise due to high birth rates, especially from the Arab and Haredi Jewish communities (whose birth rates are higher than the Israeli national average). Total fertility rates in Jerusalem, consequently, are far higher than those of comparable cities in the region; with a total fertility rate of 4.02, Jerusalem's is more than twice that of Tel Aviv (with 1.98) and well above the Israeli national average of 2.90. Similarly, the average size of Jerusalem's 180,000 households is 3.8 people.[3]

    During 2005, the total number of residents in Jerusalem grew by approximately thirteen thousand (1.8%) — also well above the Israeli national average. However, as the city has continued to grow, the religious and ethnic composition of Jerusalem has proceeded to shift. Although Jews account for the majority of people in Jerusalem, they only account for thirty-one percent of the children under age fifteen.[3] This recent data corroborates the observation that the Jewish percentage within Jerusalem has been declining over the past four decades. In 1967, the year of the Six-Day War, Jews accounted for seventy-four percent of the population, nine percentage points more than during 2006.[51] One possible source of the change may be the increasing level of conservatism in the city. Many of those leaving the city are younger and follow less conservative branches of Judaism; as a result, they have begun to seek out more secular lifestyles in the coastal Israeli cities of Tel Aviv and Haifa.[52]

    Demographics and the Jewish-Arab population split continue to play a major role in carving the outcome of the dispute over Jerusalem. In 1998, the chairman of the Jerusalem Development Authority even proposed expanding city limits to the west so as to include more areas heavily populated with Jews.[53]

    See also: Demographics of Jerusalem

    Government

    The Jerusalem City Council has thirty-one elected members, of whom one is the mayor (currently Uri Lupolianski) and six are the mayor's deputies.[54] The remaining members, unlike those in the top seven positions, serve on the City Council voluntarily, without payment. Most debates and conferences among members of the council are held in private, but the Jerusalem City Council holds meetings each month that are open to the public.[54] Within the city council, religious political parties form an especially powerful faction, accounting for the majority of its seats.[55] The city falls under the Jerusalem District, with Jerusalem as the district's capital.

    Capital of Israel

    Israel proclaimed Jerusalem as its capital in 1950 and since then all branches of the Israeli government — legislative, judicial, and executive — have resided there.[56] At the time of the proclamation, Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan and thus only West Jerusalem was considered Israel's capital. Immediately after the 1967 Six-Day War, however, Israel incorporated East Jerusalem into its country as well as its Jerusalem District, making it a de facto part of the Israeli capital. Israel enshrined the status of the "complete and united"[41] Jerusalem — west and east — as its capital, in the 1980 Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel.[41]

    The Knesset Building in Jerusalem, home to the legislative branch of the Israeli government

    The non-binding United Nations Security Council Resolution 478 declared that this law was "null and void and must be rescinded forthwith" and advised member states to withdraw their diplomatic representation from the city as a punitive measure. Most of the few countries with embassies in Jerusalem complied with the resolution by relocating them to Tel Aviv, which was already home to most embassies prior to Resolution 478. Currently only two members of the United Nations — Costa Rica and El Salvador — have their embassies located within the city limits of Jerusalem, although there are embassies in Mevaseret Zion, a suburb of Jerusalem, and four consulates within the city itself.[57] However, in August 2006, both Costa Rica and El Salvador stated their intentions to relocate their embassies to Tel Aviv.[58][59] The United States has committed to moving its embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem since the passing of its Jerusalem Embassy Act of 1995,[60] but construction on the new diplomatic mission has been repeatedly postponed.

    Despite the absence of embassies within the city, Israel's most prominent governmental institutions, including the Knesset,[61] the Supreme Court,[62] and the houses of the President and Prime Minister, remain in Jerusalem.

    See also: Positions on Jerusalem and Politics of Israel

    Palestinian claims

    Prior to the creation of the State of Israel, Jerusalem served as the capital of the British Mandate of Palestine, which included present-day Israel and Jordan.[63] From 1949 until 1967, only West Jerusalem was considered part of the Israeli capital, but since then, the whole of Jerusalem has been under Israeli control. According to the Oslo Accords, the final status of Jerusalem should be determined by peaceful negotiation, although the Palestinian National Authority asserts that the capital of a future Palestinian state will be situated in East Jerusalem.[64] As of now, the most notable official Palestinian presence in the city is the Orient House, which was the headquarters of the Palestinian Liberation Organization during the late 20th century.[65]

    Culture

    The Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum

    Although Jerusalem is known around the world for its religious significance, the city is also home to many artistic and cultural venues. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem's premier art museum, annually attracts nearly one million visitors, with about a third coming from outside Israel.[66] The twenty-acre (80,000-m2)[66] Museum complex is comprised of several artistic institutions that primarily focus on archaeology, sculptures, and traditional artwork from around the world. Among some of the Israel Museum's most notable artifacts are the Dead Sea scrolls, discovered in the mid 20th century not far from Jerusalem; they are located in the Museum's Shrine of the Book.[67] The Museum also plays a major role in educating children in the region, with one hundred thousand children visiting the Museum's Youth Wing each year.[66] The Israel Museum owns three additional art institutions within the city of Jerusalem — the Rockefeller Archaeological Museum (formerly the Palestine Archaeological Museum), Ticho House, and the Paley Center of Art. Since its opening in 1938, the Rockefeller Museum, located in East Jerusalem, has hosted artifacts recovered in the first half of the twentieth century.[68][69] The Ticho House is located in downtown Jerusalem and primarily houses work by Israeli artist Anna Ticho.[70]

    The Children's Monument at Yad Vashem

    Another prominent cultural institution and attraction within the city is Yad Vashem, the city's official memorial to the victims of the Holocaust. Within Yad Vashem is the world's largest[71] library of information related to the Holocaust, containing an estimated one hundred thousand books and articles.[72] The complex contains a 4200-m2 (45,000-ft.2) museum recounting the Holocaust from the Jewish perspective and another museum containing artwork made by those who endured the event.[72] In addition to the museums are several traditional memorials dedicated to victims of the Holocaust; each year these sites host commemorative events for Holocaust Martyrs' Remembrance Day. As a result, Yad Vashem is both a research and educational institution and a location where visitors can reflect upon the events of the Holocaust.

    One of the city's foremost orchestras is the Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra, which has been operating since the 1940s.[73] The Orchestra has not only held performances in the city of Jerusalem, but also in cities around the world, including Vienna, Frankfurt, and New York City.[73] Within walking distance of the Old City is a cultural district which includes the Khan Theatre, the only repertoire theater in the city,[74] as well as the Jerusalem Centre for the Performing Arts, which hosts over 150 concerts annually.[75] Other prominent facilities for the performing arts include the Jerusalem Music Center[76] and the Palestinian National Theatre. The Palestinian National Theatre, founded in 1984, was originally the only artistic and cultural institution in East Jerusalem[77] and today remains committed to presenting art from the Palestinian perspective.[78]

    The nationwide Israel Festival,[79] with international artists and street performers, has been occurring each summer since 1961. In the past quarter-century, Jerusalem has taken a more active role in organizing the event, hosting the majority of the Festival's performances.

    Religious significance

    Main article: Religious significance of Jerusalem
    The Western Wall, one of the holiest sites in Judaism

    Jerusalem plays an important role in the three Abrahamic religions — Judaism, Christianity, and Islam — as well as in a number of smaller religious groups. The 2000 Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem revealed there were, at the time, 1204 synagogues, 158 churches, and 73 mosques within the city.[80] However, while Jerusalem has harbored peaceful religious coexistence, it has also caused controversy, especially over the Temple Mount.

    Since the 10th century BCE, Jerusalem has been considered the holiest city in Judaism[4][5] as it was the site of Solomon's Temple and the Second Temple. Today, the Western Wall, a remnant of the Second Temple, is the holiest site in the Jewish religion aside from the Temple Mount itself.[81] Due to the importance of the site, synagogues around the world have their walls opposite the entrances (or, less commonly, the entrances themselves)[82] facing the "Holy of Holies" in Jerusalem.[83] As prescribed in the Shulchan Aruch, prayer is also supposed to be performed facing the city.[83][84]

    The main entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre

    Christianity reveres Jerusalem not only for its role in the Old Testament but also for its significance in the life of Jesus. According to Biblical accounts, Jesus was brought to the city of Jerusalem not long after his birth[85] and later in his life cleansed the Second Temple.[86] The Cenacle, site of Jesus' Last Supper, is located on Mount Zion close to the Tomb of King David.[87][88] Another prominent Christian site in Jerusalem is Golgotha, the location where Jesus was crucified. The Gospel of John merely describes the site as being located outside Jerusalem,[89] but recent archaeological evidence suggests Golgotha is located not far from the Old City walls, within the present-day confines of the city.[90] The land currently occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is considered one of the top candidates for Golgotha and thus has been a Christian pilgrimage site for the past two thousand years.[90][91][92]

    The Dome of the Rock atop the Temple Mount

    Jerusalem is usually considered the third-holiest place in Islam.[93][94][95] Before it was permanently switched to the Kabaa in Mecca, the qibla (direction of prayer) for Muslims was Jerusalem.[96] The city's lasting place in Islam, however, is primarily due to Muhammad's Night of Ascension (c. 620 CE). Muslims believe Muhammad was miraculously transported one night from Mecca to the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, whereupon he ascended to Heaven to meet previous prophets.[97][98] The first verse in the Qur'an's Surat al-Isra notes the destination of Muhammad's journey as al-Aqsa (the farthest) mosque,[99] in reference to the location in Jerusalem. Today, the Temple Mount is topped by two Islamic landmarks intended to commemorate the event — al-Aqsa Mosque, derived from the name mentioned in the Qur'an, and the Dome of the Rock, which Muslims believe stands over the stone from which Muhammad ascended to Heaven.

    See also: Jerusalem in Judaism, Jerusalem in Christianity, Jerusalem in Islam, and Jerusalem in Mandaeism

    Sports

    The two most popular sports in Jerusalem and Israel are football (soccer) and basketball.[100] Beitar Jerusalem Football Club is one of the most popular teams in Israel, with several former and current political figures known for attending its games.[101] Jerusalem's other major football team, and one of Beitar's top rivals, is Hapoel Jerusalem Football Club. However, whereas Beitar has been Israel State Cup champion five times (1976, 1979, 1985, 1986, and 1989),[102] Hapoel has only won the Cup once (in 1973). Similarly, Beitar plays in Israel's more prestigious Ligat ha'Al, while Hapoel plays in the secondary Liga Leumit. In basketball, however, Hapoel Jerusalem has the upper-hand. In a league dominated by Maccabi Tel Aviv it has never won a championship. Nevertheless, Hapoel Jerusalem has been able to win three Israeli Cups (1996, 1997 and 2007) and one European ULEB Cup (in 2004).[103] Since it opened in 1989, Teddy Kollek Stadium has served as Jerusalem's primary football stadium, with 21,000 seats.[104]

    Economy

    Historically, Jerusalem's economy was supported almost exclusively by religious pilgrims, as it was located far from the major ports of Jaffa and Gaza.[105] Jerusalem's religious landmarks today remain the top draw for foreign visitors, with the majority of tourists visiting the Western Wall and the Old City,[3] but in the past half-century it has become increasingly clear that Jerusalem's providence cannot solely be sustained by its religious significance.[105]

    Although many statistics indicate economic growth in the city, since 1967 the mostly Palestinian East Jerusalem has lagged behind the development of West Jerusalem.[105] Nevertheless, the percentage of households with employed persons is higher for Arab households (76.1%) than for Jewish households (66.8%). The unemployment rate in Jerusalem (8.3%) is slightly better than the national average (9.0%), although the civilian labor force accounted for less than half of all persons fifteen years or older — lower in comparison to that of Tel Aviv (58.0%) and Haifa (52.4%).[3] Poverty in the city has increased dramatically in recent years; between 2001 and 2007, the number of people below the poverty threshold increased by forty percent.[106] In 2006, the average monthly income for a worker in Jerusalem was NIS5,940 (US$1,410), NIS1,350 less than that for a worker in Tel Aviv.[106]

    To preserve the unique religious significance of the city, heavy industry in Jerusalem is discouraged; only about 2.2% of Jerusalem's land is assigned to "industry and infrastructure". In comparison, industry and infrastructure use more than twice that percentage of land in Tel Aviv and more than seven times that percentage in Haifa.[3] Although Tel Aviv remains Israel's financial center, Jerusalem is beginning to see an increasing number of global high tech corporations. Northern Jerusalem's Har Hotzvim region in particular is beginning to see a variety of large companies, including Intel, Teva Pharmaceutical Industries, and ECI Telecom, crop up. When completed, the industrial park will contain over one hundred businesses, a fire station, and a school, encompassing 530,000 m² (130 acres).[107]

    Since the establish of the State of Israel, the national government has remained a major player in Jerusalem's economy. The government, centered in Jerusalem, not only provides a large number of jobs for those in the region but also offers subsidies and incentives to potential businesses.[105]

    Transportation

    Main article: Transport in Jerusalem
    Jerusalem's Central Bus Station

    The closest major airport to Jerusalem was Atarot Airport until it was closed and put under the control of the Israel Defense Forces in 2001 due to conflict in Ramallah and the West Bank. Air traffic to the region now goes through Ben Gurion International Airport, which serves both Jerusalem and Tel Aviv. As one of only two international airports in the country, Ben Gurion is Israel's busiest airport, serving nine million passengers annually.[108] Domestic intercity travel is handled by Israel Railways, which hopes to transport forty million passengers annually by 2010.[109] Jerusalem's Malha train station accommodates most of Jerusalem's intercity rail traffic, residing at the terminus of an Israel Railways line to Tel Aviv.[110][111] Although the train station also serves inter-city bus lines, Jerusalem's Central Bus Station is the main starting point for travel operated by Egged Bus Cooperative, the second-largest bus company in the world.[112] When completed in 2011,[113] a high-speed rail line from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem will terminate at the Central Bus Station[114] (and, later on, the Malha train station).

    Begin Expressway is one of Jerusalem's major north-south thoroughfares; it runs on the western side of the city until it merges with Route 443, which goes toward Tel Aviv. Route 60 runs through the center of the city near the Green Line that, de facto, separates East Jerusalem from West Jerusalem. Plans have been made to construct a 35-kilometre (22-mi) ring road around the city, in the hope it will make the region wealthier by connecting suburbs to the city center.[115] The eastern half of the project was conceptualized decades ago, but reaction to the proposed highway is still mixed.[115] As of now, alternatives to personal automobiles are mostly limited to taxicabs and bus lines. However, this will change soon as a new rail-based transit system is currently being constructed. The rail-based system was first envisioned in 1995; since then, light rail has been chosen over a subway or monorail design due to its cheaper cost, minimal disruption, and preservation of the city center's aesthetics.[116] The first of eight lines in the Jerusalem Light Rail, which will transport an estimated 200,000 people daily, is scheduled to be completed in January 2009 with twenty-four stations.[113]

    Education

    File:P8020749.JPG
    The campus of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem atop Mount Scopus

    Jerusalem is home to several prestigious universities, offering courses in Israel's three most-commonly spoken languages — Hebrew, Arabic, and English. Founded in 1925, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem[117] remains arguably the most accomplished university in the city and all of Israel. The original Board of Governors included prominent Jewish intellectuals, including world-renowned scientists Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud.[39] The university has produced many Nobel laureates; recent winners associated with Hebrew University include Avram Hershko,[118] David Gross,[119] and Daniel Kahneman.[120] One of the university's biggest assets is the Jewish National and University Library, which includes over five million individual sources.[121] The library began operating in 1892, more than three decades before the university was established, and today stands as one of the world's largest sources of Jewish literature, the national library of Israel, and the university's central library.[122]

    Al-Quds University is another major institution of higher learning in the vicinity of Jerusalem, although it was founded more recently — in 1984.[123] The university is intended to serve as the region's flagship university for the Arab and Palestinian peoples as it considers itself "the only Arab university in Jerusalem".[124] Al-Quds University resides southeast of the city proper on a campus encompassing 190,000 sq. m (47 acres).[123] Other colleges and universities in Jerusalem include two art schools associated with the Hebrew University — the Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance[125] and Bezalel Academy of Art and Design.[126]

    The Jerusalem College of Technology, founded in 1969, today combines education in engineering and other high-tech industries with Jewish education.[127] The college is one of many schools in Jerusalem — from the university level down to grade school — that integrate religion into the classroom. Yeshivot and other Jewish schools are common throughout the city, with the Mir yeshiva being the largest in the city and all of Israel.[128] There were nearly eight thousand twelfth-grade students in Hebrew-language schools during the 2003–2004 school year.[3] However, due to the large portion of the population attending Orthodox Jewish schools, only fifty-five percent of those students took matriculation exams (the Bagrut) and only thirty-seven percent of them were eligible to graduate accordingly.[3] Unlike public schools, most Orthodox schools do not prepare students to take standardized tests.

    Schools for Palestinians in Jerusalem and much of Israel have been criticized for being of lesser quality than those for Jewish Israeli students.[129] Many schools in the heavily Arab East Jerusalem are filled to capacity, leaving between four and five thousand children without a proper education.[129] Because Palestinian students in public schools still need to pass the Bagrut exams, much of their curriculum parallels that of other Israeli schools. As a result, an emphasis is put on Judaism, even though most Arab and Palestinians students do not associate with the religion.[129]

    Notes and references

    1. ^ Jerusalem in other languages: Arabic Bibles use أورشليم Ûrshalîm; official Arabic in Israel: أورشليم القدس, Urshalim-al-Quds (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names)
    2. ^ Jerusalem is the capital under Israeli law. The presidential residence, government offices, supreme court and parliament (Knesset) are located there. The Palestinian Authority foresees East Jerusalem as the capital of its future state. The United Nations and most countries do not recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital, arguing that the final status of Jerusalem is pending future negotiations between Israel and the Palestinian Authority. Most countries maintain their embassies in Tel Aviv (see CIA Factbook and Map of Israel) See Positions on Jerusalem for more information.
    3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Press Release: Jerusalem Day" (pdf). Central Bureau of Statistics. 2006-05-24. Retrieved 2007-03-10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help) (Statistics regarding the demographics of Jerusalem refer to the unified and expanded Israeli municipality, which includes the pre-1967 Israeli and Jordanian municipalities as well as several additional Palestinian villages and neighborhoods to the northeast. Some of the Palestinian villages and neighborhoods have been relinquished to the West Bank de facto by way of the Israeli West Bank barrier, [Laub, Karin (2006-12-02). "Jerusalem Barrier Causes Major Upheaval". The Associated Press via The Washington Post. Retrieved 2007-03-10. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)] but their legal statuses have not been reverted.)
    4. ^ a b "The Holy City". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2003-02-23. Retrieved 2007-04-02. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help) "The Jewish bond to Jerusalem was never broken. For three millennia, Jerusalem has been the center of the Jewish faith, retaining its symbolic value throughout the generations."
    5. ^ a b Ma'oz, Moshe (2000). Jerusalem: Points of Friction — And Beyond. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 1. ISBN 9041188436. Jerusalem became the center of the Jewish people some 3,000 years ago. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); line feed character in |coauthor= at position 5 (help)
    6. ^ "Old City of Jerusalem and its Walls". UNESCO World Heritage List. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 2007-04-02.
    7. ^ Segal, Jerome M. (1997). "Negotiating Jerusalem". The University of Maryland Institute for Philosophy and Public Policy. Retrieved 2007-01-11.
    8. ^ "The Status of Jerusalem". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 1999-03-14. Retrieved 2007-02-12. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    9. ^ Ben-Gurion, David (2007-04-02). "Statements of the Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion Regarding Moving the Capital of Israel to Jerusalem". The Knesset.
    10. ^ Bethune, George Washington (1845). The Fruit of the Spirit. Mentz & Rovoudt. p. 93. is the New Jerusalem, or "heritage of peace." {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    11. ^ See also the Biblical commentator Nachmanides for explanation.
    12. ^ Allen, Joseph Henry (1879). Hebrew Men and Times: From the Patriarchs to the Messiah. Roberts Brothers. p. 125. name it Jerusalem, the "heritage of Peace."
    13. ^ From the King James Version of the Bible: "And Melchizedek king of Salem brought forth bread and wine: and he was the priest of the most high God." (Genesis 14:18)
    14. ^ "Jerusalem, the Old City". al-Quds University. Retrieved 2007-01-12.
    15. ^ a b Landau, Yehezkel (1996). "Sharing Jerusalem: The Spiritual And Political Challenges". Service International De Documéntation Judéo-Chrétienne. 29 (2–3). Retrieved 2007-01-14. I will share another meta-midrash...believers in the One Supreme God.
    16. ^ "Timeline for the History of Jerusalem". Jewish Virtual Library. American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. Retrieved 2007-01-15.
    17. ^ Vaughn, Andrew G. (2003-08-01). "Jerusalem at the Time of the United Monarchy". Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: the First Temple Period. pp. 32–33. ISBN 1589830660. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help); External link in |author= and |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
    18. ^ Shalem, Yisrael (1997-03-03). "History of Jerusalem from Its Beginning to David". Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City. Bar-Ilan University Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies. Retrieved 2007-01-18. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    19. ^ Greenfeld, Howard (2005-03-29). A Promise Fulfilled: Theodor Herzl, Chaim Weizmann, David Ben-Gurion, and the Creation of the State of Israel. Greenwillow. p. 32. ISBN 006051504X. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
    20. ^ "Timeline". City of David. Ir David Foundation. Retrieved 2007-01-18.
    21. ^ Much of the information regarding King David's conquest of Jerusalem comes from Biblical accounts, but modern-day historians have begun to give them credit due to a 1993 excavation (Pellegrino, Charles R. (1995-12-01). Return to Sodom & Gomorr (Second revised ed.). Harper Paperbacks. p. 271. ISBN 0380726335. [see footnote] {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)).
    22. ^ a b Michael, E. (2005-02-28). The Complete Book of When and Where: In The Bible And Throughout History. Tyndale House Publishers, Inc. pp. 20–1, 67. ISBN 0842355081. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
    23. ^ Merling, David (1993-08-26). "Where is the Ark of the Covenant?". Andrew's University. Retrieved 2007-01-22. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); External link in |author= (help)
    24. ^ Zank, Michael. "Capital of Judah I (930-722)". Boston University. Retrieved 2007-01-22.
    25. ^ a b Zank, Michael. "Capital of Judah (930-586)". Boston University. Retrieved 2007-01-22.
    26. ^ Sicker, Martin (2001-01-30). Between Rome and Jerusalem: 300 Years of Roman-Judaean Relations. Praeger Publishers. p. 2. ISBN 0275971406. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
    27. ^ Zank, Michael. "Center of the Persian Satrapy of Judah (539-323)". Boston University. Retrieved 2007-01-22.
    28. ^ Zank, Michael. "The Temple Mount". Boston University. Retrieved 2007-01-22.
    29. ^ Crossan, John Dominic (1993-02-26). The Historical Jesus: the life of a Mediterranean Jewish peasant (Reprinted ed. ed.). San Francisco: HarperCollins. p. 92. ISBN 0060616296. from 4 BCE until 6 CE, when Rome, after exiling [Herod Archelaus] to Gaul, assumed direct prefectural control of his territories {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
    30. ^ Zank, Michael. "Byzantian Jerusalem". Boston University. Retrieved 2007-02-01.
    31. ^ Marcus, Jacob Rader (2000). The Jew in the Medieval World: A Source Book, 315-1791 (Revised ed. ed.). Hebrew Union College Press. pp. 13–15. ISBN 087820217X. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |edition= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
    32. ^ Hoppe, Leslie J. (2000). The Holy City: Jerusalem in the Theology of the Old Testament. Michael Glazier Books. p. 15. ISBN 0814650813. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
    33. ^ Zank, Michael. "Abbasid Period and Fatimid Rule (750-1099)". Boston University. Retrieved 2007-02-01.
    34. ^ a b "Main Events in the History of Jerusalem". Jerusalem: The Endless Crusade. The CenturyOne Foundation. 2003. Retrieved 2007-02-02.
    35. ^ Fromkin, David (2001-09-01). A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East (2nd reprinted ed.). Owl Books. pp. 312–3. ISBN 0805068848. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
    36. ^ Mendelsson, David. "British Rule". Department for Jewish Zionist Education. The Jewish Agency for Israel. Retrieved 2007-02-02.
    37. ^ Tamari, Salim (1999). "Jerusalem 1948: The Phantom City" (Reprint). Jerusalem Quarterly File (3). Retrieved 2007-02-02.
    38. ^ a b Eisenstadt, David (2002-08-26). "The British Mandate". Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City. Bar-Ilan University Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies. Retrieved 2007-02-10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    39. ^ a b "History". The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
    40. ^ "Considerations Affecting Certain of the Provisions of the General Assembly Resolution on the "Future Government of Palestine": The City of Jerusalem". The United Nations. 1948-01-22. Retrieved 2007-02-03. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    41. ^ a b c "Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 1980-07-30. Retrieved 2007-04-02. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    42. ^ "No Mid-East advance at UN summit". BBC. 2000-09-07. Retrieved 2007-02-03. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    43. ^ Khaled Abu Toameh (2007-01-11). "Abbas: Aim guns against occupation". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 2007-02-03. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    44. ^ Cabrera, Enrique (1998-12-31). Drought Management Planning in Water Supply Systems. Springer. p. 304. ISBN 0792352947. The Old City of Jerusalem (760 m) in the central hills {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
    45. ^ a b Bergsohn, Sam (2006-05-15). "Geography". Cornell University. Retrieved 2007-02-09. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    46. ^ Walvoord, John (1996-01-07). "The Metaphorical View". Four Views on Hell. Zondervan. p. 58. ISBN 0310212685. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
    47. ^ Rosen-Zvi, Issachar (2004). Taking Space Seriously: Law, Space and Society in Contemporary Israel. Ashgate Publishing. p. 37. ISBN 0754623513. Thus, for instance, the distance between the four large metropolitan regions are—39 miles {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
    48. ^ Federman, Josef (2004-08-18). "Debate flares anew over Dead Sea Scrolls". AP via MSNBC. Retrieved 2007-02-09. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    49. ^ a b c "Monthly Averages for Jerusalem, Israel". The Weather Channel. Retrieved 2007-02-07.
    50. ^ a b Ma'oz, Moshe (2000). Jerusalem: Points of Friction-And Beyond. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 44–6. ISBN 9041188436. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
    51. ^ Sel, Neta (2006-05-23). "Jerusalem: More tourists, fewer Jews". YNet. Retrieved 2007-03-10. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    52. ^ Hockstader, Lee (1998-08-16). "Jewish Drop In Jerusalem Worries Israel". The Washington Post via Cornell University. Retrieved 2007-03-10. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    53. ^ Laub, Karin (2006-12-02). "Jerusalem Barrier Causes Major Upheaval". The Associated Press via The Washington Post. Retrieved 2007-03-10. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    54. ^ a b Cidor, Peggy (2007-03-15). "Corridors of Power: A tale of two councils". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 2007-03-28. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    55. ^ Coker, Margaret (2006-11-11). "Jerusalem Becomes A Battleground Over Gay Rights Vs. Religious Beliefs". Cox Newspapers. Retrieved 2007-03-28. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    56. ^ "Jerusalem and Berlin Embassy Relocation Act of 1998". The Library of Congress. 1998-06-25. Retrieved 2007-02-12. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    57. ^ "Embassies and Consulates in Israel". Israel Science and Technology Homepage. Retrieved 2007-02-13.
    58. ^ "El Salvador will move embassy to Tel Aviv". The Jerusalem Post. 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2007-02-13. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    59. ^ Hoffman, Gil (2006-08-17). "Costa Rica to relocate embassy to TA". AP via The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 2007-02-13. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    60. ^ "Jerusalem Embassy Act of 1995" (PDF). U.S. Government Printing Office. 1995-11-08. Retrieved 2007-02-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    61. ^ Official site of the Knesset: (Arabic / English / Hebrew)
    62. ^ Official site of the Judicial Authority: (Arabic), (English), (Hebrew)
    63. ^ Orfali, Jacob G. (1995). Everywhere You Go, People Are the Same. Ronin Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 0914171755. In the year 1923, [Jerusalem] became the capital of the British Mandate in Palestine {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
    64. ^ Segal, Jerome M. (Fall 1997). "Negotiating Jerusalem". The University of Maryland School of Public Policy. Retrieved 2007-02-25.
    65. ^ Klein, Menachem (2001). "The PLO and the Palestinian Identity of East Jerusalem". Jerusalem: The Future of a Contested City. New York University Press. p. 189. ISBN 081474754X. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
    66. ^ a b c "About the Museum". The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
    67. ^ "Shrine of the Book". The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
    68. ^ "The Rockefeller Archaeological Museum". The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
    69. ^ "The Rockefeller Archaeological Museum: About the Museum: The Permanent Exhibition". The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
    70. ^ "Ticho House". The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
    71. ^ "Yad Vashem". The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
    72. ^ a b "About Yad Vashem". The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
    73. ^ a b "History". Jerusalem Orchestra. Retrieved 2007-03-04.
    74. ^ "About Us". The Khan Theatre. 2004. Retrieved 2007-03-04.
    75. ^ "The Jerusalem Centre for the Performing Arts". Jerusalem Theater. Retrieved 2007-03-04.
    76. ^ Official site of the Jerusalem Music Center: (English)
    77. ^ "History". Palestinian National Theatre. Retrieved 2007-03-04.
    78. ^ "Mission". Palestinian National Theatre. Retrieved 2007-03-04.
    79. ^ Official site of the Israel Festival: (English and Hebrew)
    80. ^ Guinn, David E. (2006-10-02). Protecting Jerusalem's Holy Sites: A Strategy for Negotiating a Sacred Peace (1st ed. ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 142. ISBN 0521866626. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |edition= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
    81. ^ "What is the Western Wall?". The Kotel. Retrieved 2007-03-06.
    82. ^ Goldberg, Monique Susskind. "Synagogues". Ask the Rabbi. Schechter Institute of Jewish Studies. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
    83. ^ a b Segal, Benjamin J. (1987). Returning: The Land of Israel as Focus in Jewish History. Jerusalem, Israel: Department of Education and Culture of the World Zionist Organization. p. 124. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
    84. ^ The Jewish injunction to pray toward Jerusalem comes in the Orach Chayim section of Shulchan Aruch (94:1) — "When one rises to pray anywhere in the Diaspora, he should face towards the Land of Israel, directing himself also toward Jerusalem, the Temple, and the Holy of Holies."
    85. ^ From the King James Version of the Bible: "And when the days of her purification according to the law of Moses were accomplished, they brought [Jesus] to Jerusalem, to present him to the Lord;" (Luke 2:22)
    86. ^ From the King James Version of the Bible: "And they come to Jerusalem: and Jesus went into the temple, and began to cast out them that sold and bought in the temple, and overthrew the tables of the moneychangers, and the seats of them that sold doves;" (Mark 11:15)
    87. ^ Boas, Adrian J. (2001-10-12). "Physical Remains of Crusader Jerusalem". Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades. Routledge. p. 112. ISBN 0415230004. The interesting, if not reliable illustrations of the church on the round maps of Jerusalem show two distinct buildings on Mount Zion: the church of St Mary and the Cenacle (Chapel of the Last Supper) appear as separate buildings. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
    88. ^ Endo, Shusaku (1999). Richard A. Schuchert (ed.). A Life of Jesus. Paulist Press. p. 116. ISBN 0809123193. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    89. ^ From the King James Version of the Bible: "This title then read many of the Jews: for the place where Jesus was crucified was nigh to the city: and it was written in Hebrew, and Greek, and Latin." (John 19:20)
    90. ^ a b Stump, Keith W. (1993). "Where Was Golgotha?". Worldwide Church of God. Retrieved 2007-03-11.
    91. ^ Ray, Stephen K. (2002). St. John's Gospel: A Bible Study Guide and Commentary for Individuals and Groups. p. 340. ISBN 0898708214. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
    92. ^ O'Reilly, Sean (2000-11-30). Pilgrimage: Adventures of the Spirit (1st ed. ed.). Travelers' Tales. p. 14. ISBN 1885211562. The general consensus is that the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is marks the hill called Golgotha, and that the site of the Crucifixion and the last five Stations of the Cross are located under its large black domes. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |edition= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
    93. ^ Esposito, John L. (2007-03-11). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 157. ISBN 0195157133. The Night Journey made Jerusalem the third holiest city in Islam
    94. ^ Brown, Leon Carl (2000-09-15). "Setting the Stage: Islam and Muslims". Religion and State: The Muslim Approach to Politics. Columbia University Press. p. 11. ISBN 0231120389. The third holiest city of Islam—Jerusalem—is also very much in the center... {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
    95. ^ Hoppe, Leslie J. (2000). The Holy City: Jerusalem in the Theology of the Old Testament. Michael Glazier Books. p. 14. ISBN 0814650813. Jerusalem has always enjoyed a prominent place in Islam. Frequently Jerusalem is spoken of as the third holiest city in Islam... {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
    96. ^ Cordesman, Anthony H. (2005-10-30). "The Final Settlement Issues: Asymmetric Values & Asymmetric Warfare". The Israeli-Palestinian War: Escalating to Nowhere. Praeger Security International. p. 62. ISBN 0275987582. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
    97. ^ Peters, Francis E. (2003-10-20). "Muhammad the Prophet of God". The Monotheists: The Peoples of God. Princeton University Press. pp. 95–6. ISBN 0691114609. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
    98. ^ "Sahih Bukhari". Compendium of Muslim Texts. University of Southern California. Retrieved 2007-03-11. (from an English translation of Sahih Bukhari, Volume IX, Book 93, Number 608)
    99. ^ From Abdullah Yusuf Ali's English translation of the Qur'an: "Glory to (Allah) Who did take His servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the farthest Mosque, whose precincts We did bless,- in order that We might show him some of Our Signs: for He is the One Who heareth and seeth (all things)." (17:1)
    100. ^ Torstrick, Rebecca L. (2004-06-30). Culture and Customs of Israel. Greenwood Press. p. 141. ISBN 0313320918. The two most popular spectator sports in Israel are soccer (Israeli football) and basketball. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
    101. ^ Griver, Simon (1997). "Betar Jerusalem: A Local Sports Legend Exports Talent to Europe's Top Leagues". Israel Magazine via the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 2007-03-07. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
    102. ^ Template:He icon "Home". Beitar Jerusalem F.C. Retrieved 2007-03-07. (The listing of championship wins are located on the left side.)
    103. ^ Template:He icon "Home". Hapoel Migdal Jerusalem. Retrieved 2007-03-07. (The listing of championship wins are located at the bottom after the completion of the Flash intro.)
    104. ^ Eldar, Yishai (2001-12-01). "Jerusalem: Architecture Since 1948". Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 2007-03-07. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    105. ^ a b c d Dumper, Michael (1996-04-15). The Politics of Jerusalem Since 1967. Columbia University Press. pp. 207–10. ISBN 0231106408. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
    106. ^ a b "Study shows poverty level in Jerusalem double that of other Israeli cities". Israel Insider. 2007-01-11. Retrieved 2007-03-11. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    107. ^ "Har Hotzvim Industrial Park". Har Hotzvim Industrial Park. Retrieved 2007-03-13.
    108. ^ Smith, Patrick (2006-06-09). "Ask the Pilot". Salon. {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
    109. ^ "General Information: Railway 2000". Israel Railways. Retrieved 2007-04-01.
    110. ^ "Jerusalem - Malha". Israel Railways. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
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    112. ^ Solomon, Shoshanna (2001-11-01). "Facets of the Israeli Economy – Transportation". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 2007-03-14. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    113. ^ a b Afra, Orit (2007-02-08). "Panacea or pain?". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 2007-03-17. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    114. ^ "Life in Jerusalem – Transportation". Rothberg International Station – Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
    115. ^ a b Burstein, Nathan (2006-01-19). "Running rings around us". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 2007-03-17. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    116. ^ "Solution". Jerusalem Mass Transit System Project. Retrieved 2007-03-17.
    117. ^ Official site of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem: (Hebrew), (Hebrew)
    118. ^ Hershko, Avram. "Avram Hershko". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
    119. ^ Gross, David. "David J. Gross". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
    120. ^ Kahneman, Daniel. "Daniel Kahneman". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
    121. ^ "About the Library: Main Collections". Jewish National and University Library. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
    122. ^ "About the Library: History and Aims". Jewish National and University Library. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
    123. ^ a b "Science & Technology". al-Quds University. Retrieved 2007-03-19.
    124. ^ "Urgent Appeal". al-Quds University. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
    125. ^ Official site of the Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance: (Hebrew), (English)
    126. ^ Official site of Bezalel Academy of Art and Design: (Hebrew), (English)
    127. ^ "About JCT". Jerusalem College of Technology. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
    128. ^ Wohlgelernter, Elli (2000-12-28). "The village of Mir, where Torah once flowed". Jewish Agency for Israel. Retrieved 2007-03-26. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    129. ^ a b c "Summary". Second Class Discrimination Against Palestinian Arab Children in Israel's Schools. Human Rights Watch. 2001. Retrieved 2007-03-27. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

    Other resources

    File:Jrslm 044PAN.jpg
    Panoramic view on the Western Wall and Dome of the Rock
    • Cheshin, Amir S.; Bill Hutman and Avi Melamed (1999). Separate and Unequal: the Inside Story of Israeli Rule in East Jerusalem. Harvard University Press.
    • Cline, Eric (2004). Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11313-5.
    • Collins, Larry, and La Pierre, Dominique (1988) O Jerusalem!, Simon and Shuster, N.Y. ISBN 0-671-66241-4
    • Gold, Dore (2007) The Fight for Jerusalem: Radical Islam, The West, and the Future of the Holy City. Regnery Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-1-59698-029-7.
    • Köchler, Hans (1981). The Legal Aspects of the Palestine Problem with Special Regard to the Question of Jerusalem. Vienna: Braumüller. ISBN 3-7003-0278-9
    • The Holy Cities: Jerusalem produced by Danae Film Production, distributed by HDH Communications; 2006.
    • Wasserstein, Bernard (2002). Divided Jerusalem: The Struggle for the Holy City. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09730-1.

    See also

    Sister cities

    Government

    Culture

    Education

    Maps

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    Media

    31°47′N 35°13′E / 31.783°N 35.217°E / 31.783; 35.217

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