London

This article is about the British city. For other uses, see London (disambiguation) and Defining London (below).

St Pauls Cathedral and the City of London

London is the capital city of England and the United Kingdom, and the most populous city in the European Union. ^[1]

London is one of the world's major business, political and cultural centres. It is a leader in international finance,^[2] politics, communications, entertainment, fashion and the arts and has considerable influence worldwide. It is widely regarded as one of the world's major global cities, and has been an important settlement for nearly 2000 years.

London has an estimated population of 7.5 million (as of 2005) and a metropolitan area population of between 12 and 14 million. London has an extremely cosmopolitan population, drawing from a diverse range of peoples, cultures and religions, speaking over 300 different languages.^[3] Residents of London are referred to as Londoners.

The city is an international transport hub and a major tourist destination, counting iconic landmarks such as the Houses of Parliament, Tower Bridge and Buckingham Palace amongst its many attractions, along with famous institutions such as the British Museum and the National Gallery.

Defining London

Today, "London" usually refers to the English region of London, which is coterminous with Greater London. Greater London is sub-divided into the thirty-two London boroughs and the small, ancient City of London at the heart of the conurbation.

Historically, "London" referred to the City of London, from which today's city grew. This growth required cooperation between several authorities, resulting in the creation of the Metropolitan Board of Works in 1855 covering a metropolitan area roughly based on the area of authority of the Metropolitan Buildings Office, defined in 1844. In 1889 the County of London was created, covering the same area as the Metropolitan Board of Works, and responsibilty was transferred to the London County Council. In 1965 the current, larger administrative area was created to replace the County of London. The area of the former County of London is now known as Inner London and the remaining area is known as Outer London. Londoners generally refer to the original City of London simply as "the City" or the "Square Mile".

There are other definitions of "London" which cover varying areas, such as the Greater London Urban Area; the London postal district; the area delimited by the M25 orbital motorway; the London commuter belt; or the area covered by the telephone area code 020.

Some definitions have expanded and contracted over time such as the area of responsibility of London's tranport agency, first defined in 1933 as the area within a radius of 30 miles from Charing Cross but later contracted to coincide with Greater London; and the Metropolitan Police District, first defined in 1829 as the area within 7 miles of Charing Cross and later amended in 1839 (to 15 miles), in 1946 (to include some places but exclude others), in 1965 (to include all of Greater London) and in 2000 (to coincide with Greater London).

The entire London urban area may be classed as a "city" using a geographical definition, but technically it is not so. Officially, London contains two smaller cities within its built-up area: the City of London and the City of Westminster (see City status in the United Kingdom).

Unlike most capital cities, London's status as the capital of the UK has never been granted or confirmed officially — by statute or in written form. Its position as the capital has formed through constitutional convention, making its position as de facto capital a part of the UK's unwritten constitution.

The coordinates of the centre of London (traditionally considered to be the original Charing Cross, near the junction of Trafalgar Square and Whitehall) are approximately 51°30′N 0°8′W / 51.500°N 0.133°W / 51.500; -0.133. The Romans may have marked the centre of Londinium with the London Stone in the City.

Geography & climate

Greater London covers an area of 609 square miles (1,579 km²). Its primary geographical feature is the Thames, a navigable river which crosses the city from the southwest to the east. The Thames Valley is a floodplain surrounded by gently rolling hills such as Parliament Hill and Primrose Hill. These hills presented no significant obstacle to the growth of London from its origins as a port on the north side of the river, and therefore London is roughly circular.

The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensive marshlands. It has been extensively embanked, and many of its London tributaries now flow underground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding. The threat has increased over time due to a slow but continuous rise in high water level by the slow 'tilting' of Britain (up in the north and down in the south) caused by post-glacial rebound. The Thames Barrier was constructed across the Thames at Woolwich in the 1970s to deal with this threat, but a more substantial barrier further downstream may be necessary in the near-future.

London has a temperate climate with regular but generally light precipitation throughout the year. Snow is uncommon, particularly because heat from the urban area can make London 5°C hotter than the surroundings.

History

St. Paul's Cathedral during the World War II bombings of London

Early London

Although there is some evidence of scattered pre-Roman settlement in the area, the first major settlement was founded by the Romans in AD 43. This settlement was called Londinium, commonly believed to be the origin of the present-day name, although a Celtic origin is also possible.

The first London lasted for just seventeen years. Around AD 61, the Iceni tribe of Celts lead by Queen Boudica stormed London, burning it to the ground. The next, heavily-planned incarnation of the city prospered and superseded Colchester as the capital of the Roman province of Britannia in AD 100. However, by the 3rd century AD, the city started a slow decline due to trouble in the Roman Empire, and by the 5th century AD, it was abandoned.

By 600 AD, the Anglo-Saxons had created a new settlement (Lundenwic) about 1km upstream from the old Roman city, around what is now Covent Garden. There was probably a harbour at the mouth of the River Fleet for fishing and trading, and this trading grew until disaster struck in 851 AD, when the new city's ramshackle defences were overcome by a massive Viking raid and it was razed to the ground. A Viking occupation twenty years later was short-lived, and Alfred the Great, the new King of England, established peace and moved the settlement within the defensive walls of the old Roman city (then called Lundenburgh). The original city became Ealdwīc ("old city"), a name surviving to the present day as Aldwych.

Subsequently, under the control of various English kings, London once again prospered as an international trading centre and political arena. However, Viking raids began again in the late 10th century, and reached a head in 1013 when they sieged the city under Danish King Canute and forced English King Aethelred the Unready to flee. In a retaliatory attack, Aethelred's army achieved victory by pulling down London Bridge with the Danish garrison on top (thought to have been immortalised in the nursery rhyme "London Bridge is falling down"), and English control was re-established.

Canute took control of the English throne in 1017, controlling the city and country until 1042, when his death resulted in a reversion to Anglo-Saxon control under his pious step-son Edward the Confessor, who refounded Westminster Abbey and the adjacent Palace of Westminster. By this time, London had become the largest and most prosperous city in England, although the official seat of government was still at Winchester.

Norman & medieval London

Following a victory at the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror, the then Duke of Normandy, was crowned King of England in the newly-finished Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066. William granted the citizens of London special privileges, whilst building a castle in the southeast corner of the city to keep them under control. This castle was expanded by later kings and is now known as the Tower of London, serving first as a royal residence and later as a prison.

In 1097, William II began the building of Westminster Hall, close by the abbey of the same name. The hall proved the basis of a new Palace of Westminster, the prime royal residence throughout the Middle Ages. Westminster became the seat of the royal court and government (persisting until the present day), whilst its distinct neighbour, the City of London, was a centre of trade and commerce and flourished under its own unique administration, the Corporation of London. Eventually, the adjacent cities grew together and formed the basis of modern central London, superseding Winchester as capital of England in the 12th century.

After the successful defeat of the Spanish armada in 1588, political stability in England allowed London to grow further. In 1603, James I came to the thrones of both England and Scotland, essentially uniting the two countries. His enactment of harsh anti-catholic laws made him unpopular, and an assassination attempt was made on 5 November 1605 – the famous Gunpowder Plot.

Plague caused extensive problems for London in the early 17th century, culminating in the Great Plague in 1665-1666. This was the last major outbreak in Europe, possibly thanks to the disaster that immediately followed in 1666. A fire (the Great Fire of London) broke out in the original City and quickly swept through London's wooden buildings, destroying large swathes of the city (and killing off much of the disease-carrying rat population). Rebuilding took over ten years.

Rise of modern London

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Queen Victoria reigned from 1837-1901

London's growth accelerated in the 18th century and was the world's largest city during the 19th century. This growth was aided from 1836 by London's first railways which put small countryside towns within easy reach of the city. The rail network expanded very rapidly, and caused these places to grow whilst London itself expanded into surrounding fields, merging with neighbouring settlements such as Kensington. Rising traffic congestion on city centre roads led to the creation of the world's first metro system - the London Underground - in 1863, driving yet further expansion and urbanisation.

London's local government system struggled to cope with the rapid growth, especially in providing the city with adequate infrastructure. Between 1855 and 1889, the Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion. It was then replaced by the County of London, overseen by the County Council, London's first elected city-wide administration.

The Blitz and other bombing by the German Luftwaffe during World War II killed over 30,000 Londoners and flattened large tracts of housing and other buildings across London. The rebuilding during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s was characterised by a wide range of architectural styles and has resulted in a lack of architectural unity that has become part of London's character.

An economic revival from the 1980s onwards re-established London's position as an eminent trading centre. However, as the seat of government and the most important city in the UK, it has been subjected to bouts of terrorism. IRA bombers sought to pressure the government into negotiations over Northern Ireland, frequently disrupting city activities with bomb threats - some of which were carried out - until their 1997 ceasefire. More recently, a series of coordinated bomb attacks were carried out by Islamic extremist suicide bombers on the public transport network - just 24 hours after London was awarded the 2012 Summer Olympics.

London districts

Main articles: Central London, City of London, West End of London, East London, East End of London, Docklands, West London, North London, South London

London's vast urban area is often divided into a large set of districts (e.g. Bloomsbury, Mayfair, Whitechapel, among dozens of others). These are for the most part informal designations which have become commonplace through tradition, with no official boundaries. One area of London which does have a strict definition is the City of London (usually just called The City), the principle financial district of the UK. The City has its own governance and boundaries, giving it a distinctive status as a "city within a city". London's other financial hub is the Docklands area in the east of the city, dominated by the Canary Wharf complex, whilst many other businesses locate in the City of Westminster which is the home of the UK's national government.

The West End (actually in Central London, in the City of Westminster) is London's main entertainment and shopping district, with locations such as Oxford Street, Leicester Square and Piccadilly Circus acting as tourist magnets. The actual West London region, further out from the centre, is traditionally known for fashionable and expensive residential areas such as Notting Hill, Kensington and Chelsea - amongst the most expensive places to live in the country.

Meanwhile, the eastern side of London contains the East End - the area closest to the original Port of London, known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London. The surrounding East London area, of which the East End is seen to form a part, saw much of London's early industrial development, and is currently part of the Thames Gateway regeneration that includes the 2012 Olympics.

North London and South London are largely made up of suburbs such as Hampstead and Highgate, Bermondsey, and Croydon. Sporting events are common in these regions, with the Wimbledon Championships accompanied by Premier League football.

Government

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The parties ruling London's boroughs as of 2005.

Greater London is divided into the 32 London boroughs and the City of London. The boroughs are the most important unit of local government in London, and are responsible for running most local services in their respective areas. The City of London is run not by a conventional local authority, but by the historic Corporation of London.

The Greater London Authority (GLA) is the London-wide body responsible for co-ordinating the boroughs, strategic planning, and running some London-wide services such as policing, the fire service and transport. The GLA consists of the Mayor of London and the London Assembly. The mayor is elected by the Supplementary Vote system while the assembly is elected by the Additional Member System.

The incumbent Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, was elected as an independent candidate in the 2000 election. Despite opposition from all the main political parties and the press, his popularity with Londoners has remained high. Livingstone was expelled from the Labour Party when he opposed the official Labour candidate Frank Dobson in the 2000 Mayoral election. Readmitted by that party in 2004, he was re-elected as Mayor as an official Labour candidate in the election later that year.

The GLA was created in 2000 as a replacement body for the former Greater London Council (GLC) which was created in 1965 and abolished in 1986 after political disputes between the GLC (then also led by Ken Livingstone) and the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher.

Previous London wide administrative bodies were the Metropolitan Board of Works (MBW) from 1855 to 1889; the London County Council (LCC) from 1889 to 1965; and the Greater London Council (GLC) from 1965 to 1986. When the GLC was abolished, most of its functions were devolved to the London boroughs, while others were taken over by joint-boards or other unelected bodies. The boroughs thus enjoyed "unitary status" and a degree of autonomy when the GLC was abolished, and although losing some powers to the city government upon its re-creation as the GLA, they still retain control over many areas they did not control under the GLC.

London is represented in the national Parliament by 74 MPs who correspond to local parliamentary constituencies. For a list of London constituencies see List of Parliamentary constituencies in Greater London.

The territorial police force for the 32 London boroughs is the Metropolitan Police Service, more commonly referred to as the Metropolitan Police, or simply "the Met". The City of London has its own police force, the City of London Police.

Health services in London are managed by the national government via the National Health Service (NHS). Greater London is divided into five Strategic Health Authorities ^[4].

Business and economy

London is an important centre in the international economy. As Europe's largest city economy, it generated $365 billion in 2004 (17% of the UK's Gross Domestic Product) although this only refers to the city proper. The economic impact of the entire London metropolitan area is far higher, year-on-year accounting for approximately 30% of the UK's GDP ^[5] or $642 billion (estimate) in 2004. London is also a large financial exporter making it a large contributor to the UK's balance of payments.^[6]

The City of London (see Defining London) is the largest financial centre in London, home to banks, brokers, insurers and legal and accounting firms. A second, smaller financial district is developing at Canary Wharf to the east which includes the global headquarters of HSBC, Reuters, Barclays and the largest law firm in the world, Clifford Chance. 35% of global currency transactions occurred in London as of 2005 (an average daily turnover of $613 billion), with more US dollars traded in London than New York, and more Euros traded there than every city in Europe combined.^[7]

Non-financial business headquarters are located throughout central London. More than half of the UK's top 100 listed companies (the FTSE 100) and over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies are headquartered in central London. Over 70% of the FTSE 100 are located within London's metropolitan area. Media and professional services are important sectors.

Tourism is one of London, as well as the UK's, largest industries, and in 2003 employed the equivalent of 350,000 full-time workers in London.^[8]

From once being the largest port in the world, the Port of London is now only the third-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 50 million tonnes of cargo each year. The main docks are now at Tilbury, which is outside the boundary of Greater London.

Media

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BBC London, the BBC's local television news service on national channel BBC One

Much of the British media is concentrated in London. The BBC is a key employer, and many other broadcasters also have headquarters around the city. Many national newspapers are edited in London, having traditionally been associated with Fleet Street in the City, but they are now primarily based around Canary Wharf. The post-production industry in Soho is also strong, as is publishing.

Local programming, including news, is provided by the regional services of the main networks - BBC London on BBC One and ITV London on ITV1). Many local radio stations are available, whilst London's daily newspaper is the Evening Standard, which is complemented by two free titles distributed at Underground and railway stations.

Transport and infrastructure

Transport is one of the four areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London, but the mayor's financial control is limited. The public transport network, administered by Transport for London (TfL), is one of the most extensive in the world, but faces congestion and reliability issues, which a large investment programme is attempting to address, including £7 billion (€10 billion) of improvements planned for the Olympics.

The centrepiece of the public transport network is the London Underground, the oldest metro system in the world, upon which nearly 1 billion journeys are made each year. The Underground serves the central area and most suburbs to the north of the Thames, whilst those to the south are served by an extensive suburban rail network. Commuter and intercity railways generally do not cross the city centre, instead running into fourteen terminal stations scattered around its historic boundary. The London bus network caters for most local journeys and carries even more passengers than the Underground.

Although the vast majority of journeys involving central London are made by public transport, travel in outer London is car-dominated. An inner ring road (the North and South Circular) and an orbital motorway (the M25) are intersected by a number of busy radial routes - but very few motorways penetrate inner London.

London is an international transport hub, with five sizeable airports and a cross-channel rail service. Heathrow is the busiest international airport in the world; intercontinental traffic is also handled at Gatwick, whilst Stansted and Luton cater mostly for low-cost short-haul flights. London City, the smallest and most central airport, is popular with European business travellers. Eurostar trains link London Waterloo station with Lille and Paris in France, and Brussels in Belgium.

Society & culture

Demographics & Religion

With increasing industrialisation, London's population grew rapidly throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, becoming the most populated city in the world for a period in the late 19th century. It has historically been known as one of the most ethnically diverse cities in the world, and this continues in the modern day. A January 2005 survey suggested that there are more than 300 languages spoken and 50 non-indigenous communities with a population of more than 10,000 in London.^[9] 2001 census data suggests that 40% of London's population classified themselves as non-British, with 29% classifying themselves as "non-white".

A view of St Paul's Cathedral from Ludgate Hill

In terms of religion, London has centres of worship for a multitude of faiths. However, historically been dominated by Christianity - clear from the large number of churches around the area, particularly in the City of London which alone contains around 50 churches. Anglicanism is the primary denomination, and the Archbishop of Canterbury's main residence is actually at Lambeth Palace. Most parts of London north of the Thames are within the diocese of London under the Bishop of London at the famous St Paul's Cathedral in the City, whilst most parts south of the river are administered from Southwark Cathedral as the diocese of Southwark. Important national and royal ceremonies are divided between St Paul's and Westminster Abbey.

The largest Roman Catholic cathedral in England and Wales is Westminster Cathedral, from where the Archbishop of Westminster leads the English and Welsh Catholic church. Other Christian denominations also have headquarters in the city, including the United Reformed Church, the Salvation Army and the Quakers, and immigrant communities have established their own denominations (e.g. Greek Orthodoxy). Evangelical churches are also present in the city.

London is the most important centre of Islam in the United Kingdom. The boroughs of Tower Hamlets and Newham have the highest proportions of Muslims in the UK. London Central Mosque is a well-known landmark on the edge of Regent's Park, and there are many other mosques in the city.

A large Hindu population lives in London, particular in Southall in West London, and the Hindu temple at Neasden is the largest outside India. Hare Krishna monks are a common sight in the city centre.

Over two-thirds of British Jews live in London, which ranks thirteenth in the world as a Jewish population centre.^[10] There are significant Jewish communities in parts of north London such as Stamford Hill and Golders Green.^[11]

Education

London has the largest student population of any British city, although not the highest per capita. It is home to a diverse number of universities, colleges and schools, and is a leading centre of research and development.

With 125,000 students, the University of London is the largest contact teaching university in the United Kingdom and in Europe.^[12] It comprises over 50 colleges and institutes with a high degree of autonomy. Constituent colleges have their own admissions procedures, and are effectively universities in their own right, although all degrees are awarded by the University of London rather than the individual colleges. Its most prestigious colleges are King's, LSE, Imperial and UCL; while smaller member institutes include the School of Oriental and African Studies, Queen Mary, the Institute of Education, and Birkbeck College, which specialises in part time and mature students.

There are other universities, such as UeL, the University of Westminster and London South Bank University, not part of the University of London, some of which were polytechnics until UK polytechnics were granted university status in 1992, and others which were founded much earlier.

Style and fashion

London is one of the "big four" fashion capitals (alongside Paris, New York City and Milan) and is home to some of the finest haute couture in the world. Burberry, Vivienne Westwood, Alexander McQueen, John Galliano and Stella McCartney are all famous London designers. London Fashion Week takes place twice a year.

Some of the world's most renowned department stores are based in London including Harrods, Selfridges and Harvey Nichols. The Knightsbridge district and the Mayfair district (which includes Bond Street) are home to many exclusive designer stores and boutiques. The famous street markets of London, that shot to fame in the 1960s are also well known and include Carnaby Street, Notting Hill and Camden Town. Traditionally the elite men's tailors of London were centred around Savile Row and several high profile English fashion designers of today (such as Alexander McQueen) spent their early days in its service.

Sport

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The London 2012 logo

London has hosted the Summer Olympics twice, in 1908 and 1948. In July 2005 London was chosen to host the Games in 2012, making it the first city in the world to host the Summer Olympics three times.^[13] London was also the host of the British Empire Games in 1934.

The most popular spectator sport in London is football, and London has several of England's leading football clubs. Two of the UK's biggest - Arsenal and Chelsea - are in London, as are several other famous clubs, such as Tottenham Hotspur, Charlton Athletic, Fulham and West Ham United.

Wembley Stadium (which is currently being rebuilt) has traditionally been the home of the English national football team, and serves as the venue for the FA Cup final, as well as rugby league's Challenge Cup final. Twickenham Stadium in west London is the national rugby union stadium, and three Guinness Premiership sides (London Irish, Saracens and Wasps) all originate from London, although they are now all based just outside Greater London.

Two Test cricket grounds are located in London: Lord's, home of Middlesex, in St John's Wood, and The Oval, home of Surrey, in Kennington. The well-known Wimbledon Tennis Championships are also held at the All England Club in the south-western suburb of Wimbledon.

London hosts the annual London Marathon, one of the largest mass-participation marathons in the world, and the Oxford vs. Cambridge Boat Race.

Literature

London has been the setting for many works of literature. The two writers who are perhaps most closely associated with the city are the diarist Samuel Pepys, famous among other things for his eyewitness account of the Great Fire, and Charles Dickens, whose representation of a foggy, snowy, grimy London of street sweepers and pickpockets is a major influence on people's vision of early Victorian London.

James Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson is the most notable biography in English. Most of it takes place in London, and is the source of Johnson's famous aphorism: "When a man is tired of London, he is tired of life; for there is in London all that life can afford."

Other famous works that feature London include A Journal of the Plague Year and Moll Flanders by Daniel Defoe, various works by Charles Dickens, the Sherlock Holmes stories by Arthur Conan Doyle, The Secret Agent by Joseph Conrad, The Waste Land by T. S. Eliot, Down and Out in Paris and London by George Orwell, London Fields (novel) by Martin Amis, Fever Pitch by Nick Hornby, Bridget Jones's Diary by Helen Fielding, White Teeth by Zadie Smith and Brick Lane by Monica Ali.

Among contemporary writers, perhaps the most pervasively influenced by the city is Peter Ackroyd in works such as London: The Biography, The Lambs of London and Hawksmoor.

Film

London has appeared as the setting for many films, for example Notting Hill, and the Ealing comedies. Crime films such as The Krays and Let Him Have It depicted London not long after the Second World War and in the late 1990s the films of Guy Ritchie showed parts of the capital more familiar to Londoners rather than the worldwide audience. Adaptations of Dickens and the Sherlock Holmes novels abound. Renée Zellweger made the area of Borough Market more popular than it already was by appearing as the love seeking character Bridget Jones in Bridget Jones's Diary. When Danny Boyle decided to make his horror film 28 Days Later, the streets of central London were shown deserted and uninhabited. The 2006 film adaptation of Alan Moore's V For Vendetta depicted acts of urban terrorism against a neo-fascist Britain.

Parades & events

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Buckingham Palace with the Union Flag projected onto it

The Lord Mayor's Show is one of London's oldest parades, and celebrates the annual appointment of a new Lord Mayor of the City of London with a procession along the streets of the City each November. Rather less formally, the colourful Notting Hill Carnival is Europe's biggest street carnival, taking place in Notting Hill in West London, where many Caribbean immigrants settled in the 1950s. A newer tradition is the New Year's Day Parade which raises money for charity. At the other end of the spectrum, Trooping the Colour is a very formal military pageant to celebrate the (official) Queen's Birthday.

Tourism

London is one of the most visited cities on Earth, and the city is home to many tourist attractions. Although the majority are located in Central London, others can also be found outside the city centre.

Key attractions

The Palace of Westminster seen across the River Thames.

Many of London's historic sights are world-famous. The City of London is home to St Paul's Cathedral, with the Tower of London and Tower Bridge just outside its official boundary. The Houses of Parliament, Westminster Abbey and Buckingham Palace bring visitors to the City of Westminster to the west, which also counts many of London's top museums and galleries amongst its attractions, including the British Museum, the National Gallery in Trafalgar Square, the Tate Britain, London Zoo and Madame Tussaud's. Royal attractions are always popular - as well as the various palaces, Horse Guards Parade is a ceremonial photo opportunity, whilst nearby Downing Street is home to the Prime Minister.

The Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea further to the west includes the museum district of South Kensington (home to the Science Museum, Natural History Museum, and Victoria and Albert Museum) and Kensington Palace. Many hotels are also located in this area.

Recent years have seen the regeneration of the South Bank and Bankside areas across the river from the City and Westminster, featuring the Globe Theatre, the London Eye, the London Aquarium and the Tate Modern.

Outside the centre, Camden, home to the well-known market, is an attractor just to the north, whilst Greenwich in South London is a popular tourist destination with the Cutty Sark, Royal Observatory and National Maritime Museum. Kew Gardens and Richmond are attractions on the other side of the city in West London, whilst Hampton Court Palace is at the south-western edge of the city.

Entertainment and shopping

Within the City of Westminster, the entertainment district of the West End has its focus around Leicester Square, where London film premieres are held, and Piccadilly Circus, with its giant electronic advertisements. London's theatre district is here, as are many cinemas, bars, clubs and restaurants, including the city's Chinatown district.

A short distance to the east, Covent Garden is a popular tourist destination with its covered market and speciality shops, as well as the Avenue of Stars - London's answer to Hollywood's Walk of Fame, honouring those who have made notable achievements in the entertainments industry. On the northern edge of the West End is the main shopping district, which includes the busy Oxford Street and its upmarket neighbours, Bond Street and Regent Street. Knightsbridge, not far to the southwest, is home to the famously posh Harrods department store and many boutiques.

London also boasts many markets, including the gastronomically popular Borough Market, the famous Portobello Road Market in Notting Hill and Petticoat Lane and Brick Lane in the east.

Parks and gardens

London is well endowed with open spaces. The eight Royal Parks of London are former royal hunting grounds which are now open to the public. Four of these - Green Park, St James's Park, Hyde Park, and Kensington Gardens - form a green strand through the western side of the city centre, whilst a fifth, Regent's Park is just to the north. Many of the smaller green spaces in central London are garden squares which were built for the private use of the residents of the fashionable districts, but in some cases are now open to the public.

The remaining (and largest) three Royal Parks are in the suburbs - Greenwich Park to the south east, and Bushy Park and Richmond Park to the south west. In addition to these spaces, a large number of council-owned parks were developed between the mid 19th century and the Second World War, including Victoria Park, Alexandra Park and Battersea Park. Other major open spaces in the suburbs, such as Hampstead Heath, Wimbledon Common and Epping Forest, have a more informal and semi-natural character, having originally been countryside areas protected against surrounding urbanisation. such as Hampstead Heath, Wimbledon Common and Epping Forest have a more informal, semi-natural character. Some cemeteries provide extensive green land within the city - notably Highgate Cemetery, burial place of Karl Marx and Michael Faraday amongst others.

Completing London's array of green spaces are two paid entrance gardens - the leader is the Royal Botanic Garden at Kew, whilst the royal residence of Hampton Court Palace also has a celebrated garden.

Monuments & architecture

Although not generally a tourist attraction, the Old Bailey is notable as London's central criminal court, where many famous trials have taken place. The Bank of England to the east marks the centre of the City of London. From an architectural point of view, the disused (but soon to be rejuvenated) Battersea Power Station in the southwest is a well-known landmark locally, whilst the Millennium Dome, next to the Thames in the east, is striking, as are the nearby skyscrapers around Canary Wharf.

Several notable monuments pay homage to people and events in the city. The Monument in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area whilst commemorating the Great Fire of London which originated nearby. Marble Arch and Wellington Arch at the north and south ends of Park Lane respectively have royal connections, as do the Albert Memorial and Royal Albert Hall in Kensington. Nelson's Column is nationally-recognised monument in Trafalgar Square, providing a focal point for the whole central area.

London's Chinatown, near Leicester Square.

London is notably low-rise in comparison to many other large cities, making tall buildings very noticeable (see Tall buildings in London). The cluster of skyscrapers around 1 Canada Square at Canary Wharf is visible from some distance away, as are a number of City buildings such as 30 St Mary Axe (the "Gherkin") and Tower 42 (the "Natwest Tower"). The BT Tower in Fitzrovia can also be seen from a distance. High-rise development is banned at certain sites if it would obstruct protected views of St Paul's Cathedral.

Finally, London contains a very wide variety of architecture thanks to its long history. Notable modern buildings include the Lloyd's building with services running along the outside of the building, City Hall with its distinctive ovular shape, and the British Library at St Pancras. Some railway termini are excellent examples of Victorian architecture, most notably St Pancras.