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Same-sex relationship

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A same-sex relationship is a relationship between persons of the same sex and can take many forms, from romantic and sexual, to non-romantic homosocially-close relationships. The term is primarily associated with gay relationships. Same-sex marriage refers to the institutionalized recognition of such relationships in the form of a marriage; civil unions may exist in countries where same-sex marriage does not.

File:Two males kissing.jpg
A same-sex couple kissing.

The term same-sex relationship is not strictly related to the sexual orientation of the participants. As people in the bisexual-polysexual-pansexual, queer, asexual and also heterosexual spectra may participate in same-sex relationships (particularly depending on the legal, social and scientific definition of sex, that often erases the birth gender assignment-diverging identities of binary and genderqueer/non-binary trans people and those of ethnic genders alike), some activists[1][2] claim that referring to a same-sex relationship as a "gay relationship" or a "lesbian relationship" is a form of bisexual erasure.

In history

The lives of many historical figures, including Socrates, Alexander the Great, Lord Byron, Edward II, Hadrian, Julius Caesar, Michelangelo, Donatello, Leonardo da Vinci, Oscar Wilde, Vita Sackville-West, Alfonsina Storni and Christopher Marlowe are believed to have included love and sexual relationships with people of their own sex. Terms such as gay or bisexual have often been applied to them; some, such as Michel Foucault, regard this as risking the anachronistic introduction of a contemporary construction of sexuality foreign to their times,[3] though others challenge this.[4]

Forms

Same-sex relationships can be grouped into three categories:[5][6]

Association Annotations See also
Egalitarian Features two partners belonging to the same generation and adhering to the same gender role of their natural gender (irrespective of their preferred sexual role(s)). This type of same-sex relationship is prevalent in post-modern Western societies. Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures, Gender binary, Same-gender loving
Gender-structured Entails each partner assuming an opposite gender role. One partner is cisgender, while the other is androgynous or possibly transgender, and thus the couple outwardly bears some resemblance to a (heteronormative) heterosexual couple. This is exemplified by traditional relations between men in the Middle East, Central and South Asia, non-postmodern Latin America and Southern Europe,[7] as well as Two-Spirit or shamanic gender-changing practices seen in native societies. In North America, this is best represented by the butch–femme dichotomy. Two-Spirit, Hijra and Travesti
Age-structured Involves partners of different ages, usually one adolescent and the other adult. This type of relationship is exemplified bythe institution of pederasty among the Classical Greeks or those engaged in by novice samurai with more experienced warriors; southern Chinese, and Congolese,[7][8] male youth marriage rites; traditional sex - involving masculinity training in parts of the South Pacific, and pre-colonial Central Africa;[9] and ongoing Central Asian and Middle Eastern practices. Shudo, Pederasty, Baccha, Twink

Often, one form of same-sex relationship predominates in a society, although others are likely to co-exist. Historian Rictor Norton has pointed out[10] that in ancient Greece, egalitarian relationships co-existed (albeit less privileged) with the institution of pederasty, and fascination with adolescents can also be found in modern sexuality, both opposite-sex and same-sex. Egalitarian same-sex relationships are the principal form present in the Western world, while age- and gender-structured same-sex relationships are less common (though they are still significant and coexist with the postmodern egalitarian form in Latin America, where male heterosexuals and "butch" i.e. macho, active/insertive bisexuals and pansexuals can even share a single identity).[11] As a byproduct of growing Western cultural dominance, this form is spreading from Western culture to non-Western societies although there are still defined differences between the various cultures.

In militaries

A few ancient and medieval societies, such as Greece and Japan, fostered erotic love bonds between experienced warriors and their apprentices.[citation needed] It was believed that a man and youth who were in love with each other would fight harder and with greater morale. A classic example of a military force built upon this belief is the Sacred Band of Thebes. However, other ancient and medieval cultures such as the Saxons and Vikings did not engage in this practice openly; therefore, these examples should not be regarded as a general rule for ancient cultures.

The adoption of Christianity by the Roman Emperor Constantine in the fourth century and subsequent predominance of Christianity led to a diminished emphasis on erotic love among military forces. By the time of the Crusades, the military of Europe was asserting that carnal relations between males were sinful and therefore had no place in an army that served their perception of God's will. One reason that the Knights Templar, a prominent military order.

Examples in art and literature

Further information: Homoeroticism, Lesbian literature, Gay literature
Young men sipping tea, reading poetry, and having sex
Individual panel from a hand scroll on same-sex themes, paint on silk; China, Qing dynasty (c. 18th–19th); Kinsey Institute, Bloomington, Indiana

The record of same-sex love has been preserved through literature and art. Male homoerotic sensibilities are visible in the foundations of art in the West, to the extent that those roots can be traced back to the ancient Greeks. Plato's Symposium also gives readers commentary on the subject, at one point considering the claim that male-male love is superior to male-female love.

The European tradition of homoeroticism was continued in the works of artists and writers such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Shakespeare. Since the Renaissance, both male and female homoeroticism has remained a common, if subtle and hidden, theme in the visual arts of the West.

In Iranian (Persian) societies homoeroticism was present in the work of such writers as Abu Nuwas and Omar Khayyam. A large corpus of literature, numbering in the hundreds of works, fostered the shudo tradition in Japan, together with a widespread tradition of homoerotic shunga art.[12]

In the Chinese literary tradition, works such as Bian er Zhai and Jin Ping Mei survived the many purges to record the homoerotic climate of their time. Today, the Japanese anime subgenre yaoi centers on gay youths. Japan is unusual in that the culture's male homoerotic art has typically been the work of female artists addressing a female audience, mirroring the case of lesbian eroticism in western art.

In the twentieth century, entertainers such as Noël Coward, Madonna, k.d. lang, and David Bowie have brought homoeroticism into the field of western popular music. It is through these and other modern songwriters and poets that female homoerotic work by women, rather than erotic art by men with lesbian themes, has had its greatest cultural impact in the West since the ancient Greek poet Sappho.[citation needed]

In the 1990s, a number of American television comedies began to feature themes on same-sex relationships and characters who expressed same-sex attractions. The 1997 coming-out of comedian Ellen DeGeneres on her show Ellen was front-page news in America and brought the show its highest ratings. However, public interest in the show swiftly declined after this, and the show was cancelled after one more season. Immediately afterward, Will & Grace, which ran from 1998 to 2006 on NBC, became the most successful series to date focusing on male-male sexual relationships. Showtime's Queer as Folk, running from 2000 to 2005, was noted for its somewhat frank depiction of gay life, as well as its vivid sex scenes, containing the first simulated explicit sex scene between two men shown on American television.

Playwrights have penned such popular homoerotic works as Tennessee Williams's Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and Tony Kushner's Angels in America. Same-sex relationships have also been a frequent theme in Broadway musicals, such as A Chorus Line and Rent. In 2005, the film Brokeback Mountain was a financial and critical success internationally. Unlike most same-sex couples in film, both the film's lovers were traditionally masculine and married. The movie's success was considered a milestone in the public acceptance of the American gay rights movement.

Same-sex relationships in video games were first made available as an option to players in the 1998 game Fallout 2.[13] Beginning in the 2000s, this option was increasingly included in leading role-playing game franchises, pioneered among others by the Bioware series Mass Effect and Dragon Age.[14]

Platonic

Other forms of same-sex relationships (which may or may not include romantic aspects or sexuality) include romantic friendships, bromances and other forms of closely bonded same-sex relationships.

Same-sex couples

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State protections and prohibitions regarding (romantic or sexual) same-sex couples vary by jurisdiction. In some locations, same-sex couples are extended full marriage rights just as opposite-sex couples, and in other locations they may be extended limited protections or none at all. Policy also varies regarding the adoption of children by same-sex couples.

In their essential psychological respects, these relationships were regarded as equivalent to opposite-sex relationships in a brief amici curiae of the American Psychological Association, California Psychological Association, American Psychiatric Association, National Association of Social Workers, and National Association of Social Workers, California Chapter.[15]

State recognition

Further information: Same-sex marriage, Civil union, Domestic partnership
Two men marrying in Amsterdam within the first month that marriage was opened to same-sex couples in the Netherlands (2001).

Government recognition of same-sex marriage is available in eighteen countries (Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark,[nb 1] France, Iceland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,[nb 2] New Zealand,[nb 3] Norway, Portugal, Spain, South Africa, Sweden, the United Kingdom,[nb 4] the United States[nb 5] and Uruguay) and several sub-national jurisdictions allow same-sex couples to marry. Same-sex marriage has been legalized but not yet in effect in Finland, Ireland and Slovenia. Bills legalizing same-sex marriage have been proposed, are pending, or have passed at least one legislative house in Austria, Australia, Chile, Colombia, Germany, Hungary, Nepal, Switzerland and Taiwan, as well as in the legislatures of several sub-national jurisdictions (Jersey, Norfolk Island and most states of Mexico). Other countries, including the majority of European nations, Chile, Colombia and Ecuador, have enacted laws allowing civil unions or domestic partnerships, designed to give gay couples similar rights as married couples concerning legal issues such as inheritance and immigration.

Same-sex couples can legally marry in all US states and receive both state-level and federal benefits.[16] Also, several states offer civil unions or domestic partnerships, granting all or part of the state-level rights and responsibilities of marriage. Though more than 30 states have constitutional restrictions on marriage, all states must recognize same-sex marriages following the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in Obergefell v. Hodges. All the laws restricting marriage to one man and one woman are therefore unconstitutional and unenforceable.

As parents

Male same-sex couple with child.
Main article: LGBT parenting

LGBT parenting is when lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people are parents to one or more children, either as biological or non-biological parents. Same-sex male couples face options which include: "foster care, variations of domestic and international adoption, diverse forms of surrogacy (whether "traditional" or gestational), and kinship arrangements, wherein they might coparent with a woman or women with whom they are intimately but not sexually involved."[17][18][19][20][21] LGBT parents can also include single people who are parenting; to a lesser extent, the term sometimes refers to families with LGBT children.

In the 2000 U.S. Census, 33 percent of female same-sex couple households and 22 percent of male same-sex couple households reported at least one child under eighteen living in their home.[22] The 2008 general social survey shows that LGBT parents raising children showed 49% were lesbian and bisexual women and 19% were bisexual or gay men. In the United States from 2007 to 2011 the negative public attitude condemning same sex parenting dropped from 50% to 35%.[23] Some children do not know they have an LGBT parent; coming out issues vary and some parents may never come out to their children.[24][25] LGBT parenting in general, and adoption by LGBT couples may be controversial in some countries. In January 2008, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that same-sex couples have the right to adopt a child.[26][27] In the U.S., LGBT people can legally adopt in all states.[28]

There is ample evidence to show that children raised by same-gender parents fare as well as those raised by heterosexual parents. More than 25 years of research have documented that there is no relationship between parents' sexual orientation and any measure of a child's emotional, psychosocial, and behavioral adjustment. This data has demonstrated no risk to children as a result of growing up in a family with one or more gay parents.[29] No research supports the widely held conviction that the gender of parents matters for child well-being.[30] It is well-established that both men and women have the capacity to be good parents, and that having parents of both genders does not enhance adjustment. The methodologies used in the major studies of same-sex parenting meet the standards for research in the field of developmental psychology and psychology generally. They constitute the type of research that members of the respective professions consider reliable.[31] If gay, lesbian, or bisexual parents were inherently less capable than otherwise comparable heterosexual parents, their children would evidence problems regardless of the type of sample. This pattern clearly has not been observed. Given the consistent failures in this research literature to disprove the null hypothesis, the burden of empirical proof is on those who argue that the children of sexual minority parents fare worse than the children of heterosexual parents.[32]

Professor Judith Stacey, of New York University, stated: “Rarely is there as much consensus in any area of social science as in the case of gay parenting, which is why the American Academy of Pediatrics and all of the major professional organizations with expertise in child welfare have issued reports and resolutions in support of gay and lesbian parental rights”.[33] These organizations include the American Academy of Pediatrics,[29] the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,[34] the American Psychiatric Association,[35] the American Psychological Association,[36] the American Psychoanalytic Association,[37] the National Association of Social Workers,[15] the Child Welfare League of America,[38] the North American Council on Adoptable Children,[39] and Canadian Psychological Association (CPA). CPA is concerned that some persons and institutions are mis-interpreting the findings of psychological research to support their positions, when their positions are more accurately based on other systems of belief or values.[40]

Same-sex sexuality

Types of relationships vary from one couple to the next. As in heterosexual relationships, some same-sex relationships are meant to be temporary, casual, or anonymous sex. Other relationships are more permanent, being in committed relationship with one another and not having sexual relationships with anyone else. Some are open relationships, and while committed to each other, allow themselves and their partner to have relationships with others.[citation needed] Other couples may be in secret, whether because of family upbringing, religion, pressure from friends/family, and other reasons.

The names of legal same-sex relationships vary depending on the laws of the land. Same-sex relationships may be legally recognized in the form of marriage, civil unions, domestic partnerships, or registered partnerships.

Sexual orientation

Individuals may or may not express their sexual orientation in their behaviors.[41] People in a same-sex relationship may identify as homosexual, bisexual, or even occasionally heterosexual.[42][43]

Equally, not all people with a bisexual or homosexual orientation seek same-sex relationships. According to a 1990 study of The Social Organization of Sexuality, out of 131 women and 108 men who self-reported same-sex attraction, only 43 men (40%) and 42 women (32%) had participated in gay sex.[44] In comparison, a survey by the Family Pride Coalition showed that 50% of gay men had fathered children[45] and 75% of lesbians had children,[46] and even more have had straight sex without having children.

Laws against

Worldwide laws regarding same-sex intercourse, unions and expression
Same-sex intercourse illegal. Penalties:
  Death
  Prison; death not enforced
  Death under militias
  Prison, with arrests or detention
  Prison, not enforced1
Same-sex intercourse legal. Recognition of unions:
  Marriage
  Extraterritorial marriage2
  Civil unions
  Limited domestic
  Limited foreign
  Optional certification
  None
  Restrictions of expression, not enforced
  Restrictions of association with arrests or detention

1No imprisonment in the past three years or moratorium on law.
2Marriage not available locally. Some jurisdictions may perform other types of partnerships.

A sodomy law is a law that defines certain sexual acts as sex crimes. The precise sexual acts meant by the term sodomy are rarely spelled out in the law, but is typically understood by courts to include any sexual act which does not lead to procreation. Furthermore, Sodomy has many synonyms: buggery, crime against nature, unnatural act, deviant sexual intercourse. It also has a range of similar euphemisms.[47] While in theory this may include heterosexual oral sex, anal sex, masturbation, and bestiality, in practice such laws are primarily enforced against sex between men (particularly anal sex).[48]

In the United States, the Supreme Court invalidated all sodomy laws in Lawrence v. Texas in 2003. 47 out of 50 states had repealed any specifically anti-homosexual-conduct laws at the time.

Some other countries criminalize homosexual acts. In some Muslim nations (such as Iran) and African countries it remains a capital crime. In a highly publicized case, two male teenagers, Mahmoud Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni, were hanged in Iran in 2005 reportedly because they had been caught having sex with each other.[49]

Men who have sex with men (MSM)

Main article: Men who have sex with men

Men who have sex with men (MSM) refers to men who engage in sexual activity with other men, regardless of how they identify themselves; many choose not to accept social identities of gay or bisexual.[50][51][52][53][54] The term was created in the 1990s by epidemiologists in order to study the spread of disease among men who have sex with men, regardless of identity.[51] As a risk category, MSM are not limited to small, self-identified, and visible sub-populations. MSM and gay refer to different things: behaviors and social identities. MSM refers to sexual activities between men, regardless of how they identify whereas gay can include those activities but is more broadly seen as a cultural identity. MSM is often used in medical literature and social research to describe such men as a group for clinical study without considering issues of self-identification.

As with any sexual relationship, people may begin with various forms of foreplay such as fondling, caressing, and kissing, and may or may not experiment with other practices, as they see fit. Sex between males can include mutual masturbation, frot, intercrural sex, oral sex and anal sex.

Women who have sex with women (WSW)

Main article: Women who have sex with women

Women who have sex with women (WSW) is a term used to identify women who have sex with other women, but may or may not self-identify as lesbian or bisexual. Sex between two females can include tribadism and frottage, mutual masturbation, cunnilingus, and the use of sex toys for vaginal, anal, or oral penetration or clitoral stimulation. As with any sexual relationship, people may begin with various forms of foreplay such as fondling, caressing, and kissing, and may or may not experiment with other practices, as they see fit.

Religious perspectives

Main article: Religion and homosexuality
According to John Boswell's controversial thesis, saints Sergius and Bacchus may have been united in a pact called Adelphopoiesis, or "brother-making"

Religions have had differing views about love and sexual relations between people of the same sex. A large proportion of the Abrahamic sects view sexual relationships outside of a heterosexual marriage, including sex between same-sex partners, negatively, though there are groups within each faith that disagree with orthodox positions and challenge their doctrinal authority. Opposition to homosexual behavior ranges from quietly discouraging displays and activities to those who explicitly forbid same-sex sexual practices among adherents and actively oppose social acceptance of homosexual relationships. Support of homosexual behavior is reflected in the acceptance of sexually heterodox individuals in all functions of the church, and sanctification of same-sex unions.

Some churches have changed their doctrine to accommodate same-sex relationships. Reform Judaism, the largest branch of Judaism outside Israel has begun to facilitate religious same-sex marriages for adherents in their synagogues. Jewish Theological Seminary, considered to be the flagship institution of Conservative Judaism, decided in March 2007 to begin accepting applicants in same-sex relationships, after scholars who guide the movement lifted the ban on ordaining people in same-sex relationships.[55] In 2005, the United Church of Christ became the largest Christian denomination in the United States to formally endorse same-sex marriage.

On the other hand, the Anglican Communion encountered discord that caused a rift between the African (except Southern Africa) and Asian Anglican churches on the one hand and North American churches on the other when American and Canadian churches openly ordained clergy in same-sex relations and began blessing same-sex unions. Other churches such as the Methodist Church had experienced trials of clergy in same-sex relations who some claimed were a violation of religious principles resulting in mixed verdicts dependent on geography.

Some religious groups have even promoted boycotts of corporations whose policies support same-sex relations. In early 2005, the American Family Association threatened a boycott of Ford products to protest Ford's perceived support of "the homosexual agenda and homosexual marriage".[56]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Excluding the Faroe Islands. In Greenland, a law providing for same-sex marriage is expected to go into effect on 1 October 2015.
  2. ^ May be registered in Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten, but performed only in the Netherlands proper.
  3. ^ Excluding Tokelau, Niue and the Cook Islands.
  4. ^ Excluding Northern Ireland, the Crown Dependencies and most British Overseas Territories (Same-sex marriage is legal in the Pitcairn Islands).
  5. ^ Excluding most Native American tribes. (Same-sex marriage is legal in 24 of them). Application to American Samoa unclear.

References

  1. ^ Besen, Wayne (January 30, 2012). "Cynthia Nixon Did Not Choose to be Gay". Truth Wins Out. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
  2. ^ "Cynthia Nixon: Technically, I'm a Bisexual Who Has Chosen To Be In A Gay Relationship". towleroad.com. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
  3. ^ Foucault, Michel (1986). The History of Sexuality. Pantheon Books. ISBN 0-394-41775-5.
  4. ^ Thomas K. Hubbard, Review of David M. Halperin, How to Do the History of Homosexuality. in Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2003.09.22
  5. ^ Murray, Stephen (2002). Gilbert Herdt (ed.) (ed.). Homosexualities. Worlds of Desire: The Chicago Series on Sexuality, Gender, and Culture. University of Chicago Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-226-55194-6. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
  6. ^ Sandfort (ed.), Theo, ed. (2000). "Queering Anthropology". Lesbian and Gay Studies: An Introductory, Interdisciplinary Approach. London/NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-7619-5418-X. {{cite book}}: |editor-last= has generic name (help)
  7. ^ a b Template:Pt icon Prof. Dr. Luiz Mott, Federal University of Pelotas – Ethno-history of homosexuality in Latin America
  8. ^ Template:Pt icon Prof. Dr. Luiz Mott, Federal University of Maranhão – 'Feiticeiros' or "male witches" from Angola in Portuguese America
  9. ^ Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (December, 1970). Sexual Inversion among the Azande. American Anthropologist, New Series, 72(6), 1428–1434.
  10. ^ Intergenerational and Egalitarian Models,
  11. ^ Cardoso F. L. (2005). "Cultural Universals and Differences in Male Homosexuality: The Case of a Brazilian Fishing Village". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 34 (1): 103–109. doi:10.1007/s105080051004x.
  12. ^ Gregory M. Pflugfelder, Cartographies of Desire, passim
  13. ^ Steltenpohl, Crystal. "GLBT History in Video Games: 1990s". Gaming Bus. Retrieved 9 May 2013.
  14. ^ LeJacq, Yannick. "A Brief History Of Gay Marriage In Video Games". Kotaku. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
  15. ^ a b Case No. S147999 in the Supreme Court of the State of California, In re Marriage Cases Judicial Council Coordination Proceeding No. 4365, Application for leave to file brief amici curiae in support of the parties challenging the marriage exclusion, and brief amici curiae of the American Psychological Association, California Psychological Association, American Psychiatric Association, National Association of Social Workers, and National Association of Social Workers, California Chapter in support of the parties challenging the marriage exclusion
  16. ^ "Treasury and IRS Announce That All Legal Same-Sex Marriages Will Be Recognized For Federal Tax Purposes; Ruling Provides Certainty, Benefits and Protections Under Federal Tax Law for Same-Sex Married Couples". Retrieved 21 May 2014.
  17. ^ Berkowitz, D & Marsiglio, W (2007). Gay Men: Negotiating Procreative, Father, and Family Identities. Journal of Marriage and Family 69 (May 2007): 366–381
  18. ^ Butler, Katy (March 7, 2006). "Many Couples Must Negotiate Terms of 'Brokeback' Marriages". New York Times.
  19. ^ The Married Lesbian
  20. ^ Büntzly G (1993). "Gay fathers in straight marriages". J Homosex. 24 (3–4): 107–14. doi:10.1300/J082v24n03_07. PMID 8505530.
  21. ^ Bozett, Frederick W. (1987-08-19). "The Heterosexually Married Gay and Lesbian Parent". Gay and Lesbian Parents. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-275-92541-3.
  22. ^ APA Policy Statement on Sexual Orientation, Parents & Children, American Psychological Association, July 28 & 30, 2004. Retrieved on 2007-04-06.
  23. ^ Massey, Sean G; Merriwether A.M.; Garcia J.R. (26 February 2013). "Modern Prejudice and Same-sex Parenting: Shift Judgement in Positive and Negative Parenting Situations". Journal of GLBT Family Studies. 9 (2): 129–151. doi:10.1080/1550428X.2013.765257. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  24. ^ Dunne EJ (1987). "Helping gay fathers come out to their children". J Homosex. 14 (1–2): 213–22. doi:10.1300/J082v14n01_16. PMID 3655343.
  25. ^ Buxton AP (March 2005). "A Family Matter: When a Spouse Comes Out as Gay, Lesbian, or Bisexual". Journal of GLBT Family Studies. 1 (2): 49–70. doi:10.1300/J461v01n02_04.
  26. ^ EMRK is for the LGBT adoption
  27. ^ Euronews: Gleichgeschlechtliche Adoptiveltern - Gerichtshof rügt Frankreich (german)
  28. ^ "Adoption Laws: State by State". Human Rights Campaign. Retrieved 2008-07-09.; Arkansas became to last state to permit adoption by same-sex couple when the Arkansas Supreme Court unanimously found the measure banning such adoptions unconstitutional in 2011. Metroweekly: Chris Geidner, "Arkansas High Court Strikes Down State's 2008 Adoption Ban," April 7, 2011, accessed April 7, 2011
  29. ^ a b Pawelski JG, Perrin EC, Foy JM, et al. (July 2006). "The effects of marriage, civil union, and domestic partnership laws on the health and well-being of children". Pediatrics. 118 (1): 349–64. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1279. PMID 16818585.
  30. ^ Stacey, Judith; Biblarz, Timothy J (April 2001). "(How) Does the Sexual Orientation of Parent's Matter?". American Sociological Review. 66 (2): 159–183. doi:10.2307/2657413.
  31. ^ Michael Lamb, Ph.D.: Affidavit - United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts (2009)
  32. ^ Herek GM (September 2006). "Legal recognition of same-sex relationships in the United States: a social science perspective" (PDF). The American Psychologist. 61 (6): 607–21. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.61.6.607. PMID 16953748.
  33. ^ cited in Cooper & Cates, 2006, p. 36; citation available on http://www.psychology.org.au/Assets/Files/LGBT-Families-Lit-Review.pdf
  34. ^ Children with Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Parents
  35. ^ Adoption and Co-parenting of Children by Same-sex Couples
  36. ^ Sexual Orientation, Parents, & Children
  37. ^ Position Statement on Gay and Lesbian Parenting
  38. ^ Position Statement on Parenting of Children by Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Adults
  39. ^ NACAC Position Statements
  40. ^ Marriage of Same-Sex Couples – 2006 Position Statement Canadian Psychological Association
  41. ^ "Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality". APAHelpCenter.org. Retrieved 2007-09-07.
  42. ^ When Gay guise happens to straight marriage
  43. ^ See Gay for pay
  44. ^ Laumann, Edward O. (1994). The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States. University of Chicago Press. p. 299. ISBN 0-226-47020-2.
  45. ^ Hentges, Rochelle (October 4, 2006). "How to tell if your husband is gay". Pittsburgh Tribune-Review.
  46. ^ Sheri & Bob Stritof. "Straight Spouses -- What to Do and What Not to Do If Your Spouse is Gay". Retrieved 2008-01-31.
  47. ^ Weeks, Jeff (January 1981). Sex, Politics and Society: The Regulation of Sexuality Since 1800. London: Longman Publishing Group. ISBN 0-582-48334-4.
  48. ^ Sullivan, Andrew (2003-04-03). "We're all sodomists now". Benny Labamba. Retrieved 2006-12-04.
  49. ^ Fathi, Nazila (2005-07-29). "Rights Advocates Condemn Iran for Executing 2 Young Men". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-09-07.
  50. ^ "MSM in Africa: highly stigmatized, vulnerable and in need of urgent HIV prevention".
  51. ^ a b "UNAIDS: Men who have sex with men" (asp). UNAIDS. Retrieved 2008-07-24.
  52. ^ Greenwood, Cseneca; Mario Ruberte (9 April 2004). "African American Community and HIV (Slide 14 mentions TG women)" (ppt). East Bay AIDS Education and Training Center. Retrieved 2008-07-24.
  53. ^ Operario D, Burton J, Underhill K, Sevelius J (January 2008). "Men who have sex with transgender women: challenges to category-based HIV prevention". AIDS Behav. 12 (1): 18–26. doi:10.1007/s10461-007-9303-y. PMID 17705095.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  54. ^ Operario D, Burton J (April 2000). "HIV-related tuberculosis in a transgender network--Baltimore, Maryland, and New York City area, 1998-2000". MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 49 (15): 317–20. PMID 10858008.
  55. ^ "Conservative Jewish Seminary To Allow Gays". CBS News. 2007-03-27. Retrieved 2007-05-04.
  56. ^ "Family group to boycott Ford for its gay support.(American Family Association (AFA))(Brief Article)." PR Week (US) (June 6, 2005): 02. General Reference Center Gold. Thomson Gale. Newport News Public Library System. 7 April 2007.
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