Japan

For other uses, see Japan (disambiguation).

日本国 Nihon-koku/Nippon-koku Japan
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Kimi Ga Yo
Capital	Tokyo
Largest city	Tokyo*
Official languages	Japanese
Government	Constitutional monarchy
Formation
• Water (%)	0.8%
Population
• 2005 estimate	127,417,244 (10th)
GDP (PPP)	2005 estimate
• Total	$3.867 trillion (3rd)
• Per capita	$30,400 (12th)
GDP (nominal)	2004 estimate
• Total	4.8 trillion (2nd)
HDI (2003)	0.943 very high (11th)
Currency	Yen (¥) (JPY)
Time zone	UTC+9 (JST)
• Summer (DST)	None
Calling code	81
ISO 3166 code	JP
Internet TLD	.jp
* Largest urban area. Yokohama is the largest incorporated city.

Japan is a country located on an archipelago in East Asia, surrounded by the Pacific Ocean, the Sea of Japan, the Philippine Sea, the East China Sea, and the Sea of Okhotsk surround the nation. Japan's nearest neighbors are Korea (North and South) to the west, Russia to the north, and the People's Republic of China and Taiwan to the southwest.

Over 3,000 islands make up the country. The largest and main islands are, from north to south, Hokkaidō, Honshū, Shikoku, and Kyūshū. Honshū ranks 7th in the world by area. The Ryukyu Islands, including Okinawa, are southwest of the main islands.

In the Japanese language, the name of the country is Nihon or Nippon. It is written in kanji as 日本, often translated into English as "Land of the Rising Sun." The English name "Japan," and similar names in European languages, are derived from old Chinese names for the country.

History

Main article: History of Japan

Pre-history

A Middle Jomon vessel (3000 to 2000 BC)

Archaeological research indicates that the earliest inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago migrated over land bridges from Northeast Asia about 30,000 years ago. Other evidence also suggests that some may have later come by sea from Southeast Asia during a period of migration toward the Pacific Ocean.

The first signs of civilization appeared around 10,000 BC with the Mesolithic to Neolithic Jomon culture. A characteristic of the period is the clay pottery, possibly the earliest in the world.

The start of the Yayoi period around 300 BC marked the influx of new practices such as rice farming, shamanism, and iron and bronze-making brought by migrants from Korea. These formed the basic elements of traditional Japanese culture, still seen today. The Yayoi people wove cloth, lived in permanent farming villages, constructed buildings of wood and stone, accumulated wealth through landownership and the storage of grain, and developed distinct social classes.

The ensuing Kofun era, beginning around 250 AD, saw the establishment of strong military states centered around powerful clans. The Yamato court, concentrated in the Asuka region, suppressed the clans and acquired agricultural lands, increasing their power. Based upon the Chinese model, they developed a central administration and an imperial court system (the Ritsuryo state) and society was organized into occupation groups: farmers, fishermen, weavers, potters, artisans, armorers, and ritual specialists.

Classical era

The Great Buddha at Todaiji, Nara, originally cast in 752

The Japanese began writing their own histories in the 5th and 6th centuries, when the Chinese writing system, Buddhism, advanced pottery, ceremonial burial, and other aspects of culture were introduced by aristocrats, artisans, scholars, and monks from Baekje. The Kojiki (The Record of Ancient Matters, 712) and Nihonshoki (Chronicles of Japan, 720) are the culmination of the early historical writings. Though Japan first appeared in written history as the nation of "Wa" in 57, these chronicles tell a much different, more legendary history of Japan, deriving the people of Japan from the gods themselves, tracing the foundation to the ancestral Emperor Jinmu in the 7th century BC.

Through the Taika Reform Edicts of 645, Japanese intensified the adoption of Chinese cultural practices and reorganized the government in accordance with the Chinese administrative structure. This paved the way for the dominance of Confucian philosophy in Japan until the 19th century.

The Nara period of the 8th century marked the first strong Japanese state, centered around an imperial court, in the city of Heijo-kyo (now Nara). The imperial court later moved briefly to Nagaoka, and later Heian-kyo (now Kyoto), starting a "golden age" of classical Japanese culture called the Heian period which lasted for nearly four centuries and was characterized by the regency regime of the Fujiwara clan.

Medieval era

Japan's medieval era was characterized by the emergence of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai. In the year 1185, general Minamoto no Yoritomo established a base of power in Kamakura. After Yoritomo's death, another warrior clan, the Hojo, came to rule as regents for the shoguns. The shogunate managed to repel Mongol invasions from Mongol-occupied Korea in 1274 and 1281, with assistance from a storm that the Japanese interpreted as divine intervention, and named kamikaze. The Kamakura shogunate lasted another fifty years. Its successor, the Ashikaga shogunate, was much weaker, and Japan soon fell into warring factions. The "Warring States" or Sengoku period ensued.

A group of Portuguese Nanban foreigners, 17th century

During the 16th century, traders and missionaries from Portugal reached Japan for the first time, initiating the Nanban ("southern barbarian") period of active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West (and even China). During the last quarter of this century, Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu established increasingly strong control over the warring states of Japan. Toyotomi reunified the country, and following his death, Tokugawa seized power by defeating his enemies at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, establishing his capital in Edo (now Tokyo) and founding the Tokugawa shogunate.

The Tokugawa shogunate pursued a policy of isolation. This period of isolation lasted for two and a half centuries, a time of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period, considered to be the height of Japan's medieval culture.

Modern era

In 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry of the United States Navy forced the opening of Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa. The Boshin War of 1867 to 1868 led to the resignation of the shogunate, and the Meiji Restoration established a government centered on the emperor.

Japan adopted numerous Western institutions during the Meiji period, including a modern government, legal system, and military. These reforms helped transform the Empire of Japan into a world power, defeating China in the First Sino-Japanese War and Russia in the Russo-Japanese War. By 1910, Japan controlled Korea, Taiwan, and the southern half of Sakhalin. World War I enabled Japan, which fought on the side of the victorious Allies, to expand its influence in Asia, and its territorial holdings in the Pacific.

The Empire of Japan encompassed most of East and Southeast Asia at its height, in 1942

A brief period of "Taisho democracy" following World War I was followed by a period of Japanese expansionism. During this period, Japan invaded China, occupying Manchuria and then China proper, starting the Second Sino-Japanese War, which lasted until the end of World War II. Japan joined Germany and Italy to form the Axis alliance. In 1941, Japan attacked the US naval base in Pearl Harbor as well as British and Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia, bringing itself and the United States into World War II. After a long campaign in the Pacific Ocean, Japan lost its initial territorial gains. Following the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Japanese government agreed to an unconditional surrender to the Allies on August 15, 1945 (V-J Day).

Japan was occupied by US forces under General Douglas MacArthur from 1945 to 1952, and a number of social and political reforms were imposed upon the country. In 1947, Japan adopted a new pacifist constitution, seeking international cooperation and emphasizing human rights and democratic practices. US forces still retain important bases in Japan, especially in Okinawa.

After the occupation, Japan achieved spectacular growth to become one of the largest economies in the world. Despite a major stock market crash in 1990, from which the country is recovering gradually, Japan remains a global economic and cultural power today.

Government and politics

Main article: Government of Japan

The Parliament

The Parliament sits in joint session.

The Constitution of Japan states that the nation's "highest organ of state power" is its bicameral parliament, the National Diet. The Diet consists of a House of Representatives (Lower House or Shūgi-in) containing 480 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and a House of Councillors (Upper House or Sangi-in) of 242 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal adult (over 20 years old) suffrage, with a secret ballot for all elective offices.

The Cabinet is composed of a Prime Minister and ministers of state, and is responsible to the Diet. The Prime Minister must be a member of the Diet, and is designated by his colleagues. The Prime Minister has the power to appoint and remove ministers, a majority of whom must be Diet members. The liberal conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has been in power since 1955, except for a short-lived coalition government formed from its opposition parties in 1993; the largest opposition party is the liberal-socialist Democratic Party of Japan.

The Imperial Household

The Imperial Palace in Tokyo is the primary residence of the emperor

The Imperial Household of Japan is headed by the Emperor of Japan. The Constitution of Japan defines the emperor to be "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people". He performs ceremonial duties and holds no real power; not even emergency reserve powers. Sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people by the constitution. Though his official status is disputed, on diplomatic occasions the emperor tends to behave (with widespread public support, it should be noted) as though he were a head of state. In academic studies, Japan is generally considered a constitutional monarchy, based largely upon the British system. As of 2006 Japan is the only country in the world which is headed by an emperor.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Japan

Japan is a member state of the United Nations and a non-permanent member of the Security Council; it is currently one of the "G4 nations" seeking permanent membership.

Japan's current constitution prohibits the use of military forces to wage war against other countries. However, the government maintains "Self-Defense Forces" which include air, land and sea components. Japan's deployment of non-combat troops to Iraq marked the first overseas use of its military since World War II.

As an economic power, Japan is a member of the G8 and APEC, and has developed relations with ASEAN as a member of "ASEAN plus three" and the East Asia Summit. It is a major donor in international aid and development efforts, donating 0.19% of its Gross National Income in 2004. [1]

Japan currently has territorial disputes with Russia over the Kuril Islands, with South Korea over the Liancourt Rocks, with China and Taiwan over the Senkaku Islands, and with China over the Okinotori islands. These disputes are in part about the control of marine and natural resources, such as possible reserves of crude oil and natural gas.

In recent years, Japan has been heavily criticized by the PRC and South Korea for perceived whitewashing of Japanese war crimes through history textbooks and official visits to Yasukuni Shrine. Japan also has an ongoing dispute with North Korea over its abduction of Japanese citizens and nuclear weapons program.

Geography

Map of Japan

Map of Japan

Main article: Geography of Japan

Japan, a country of islands, extends along the eastern or Pacific coast of Asia. The main islands, running from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu (or the mainland), Shikoku, and Kyushu. Naha in the Ryukyu archipelago is over 600 km to the southwest of Kyushu. In addition, about 3,000 smaller islands may be counted in the full extent of the archipelago.

Japan is the 18th most densely populated country in the world. About 73% of the country is mountainous, and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use, due to the generally steep elevations, climate, and risk of landslides caused by earthquakes, soft ground, and heavy rain. This has resulted in an extremely high population density in the habitable zones that are mainly located in coastal areas.

Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire, at the juncture of three tectonic plates, gives Japan frequent low-intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis, occur several times each century. The most recent major quakes include the 2004 Chuetsu Earthquake and the Great Hanshin Earthquake of 1995. Hot springs are numerous, and have been developed as resorts.

Climate

Japan is a temperate region with four seasons-five, if the rainy season is included. Japan's average temperature for the summer time is 30°C, or 86°F, and for the winter, it is 4.7°C, or 40°F. The great length from north to south gives the country a climate that varies from the far north, with its very cold winters, to the subtropical far south. Seasonal winds and the waters of the Kuroshio Current also affect the climate.

Japan's main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the stationary rain front responsible for this gradually works its way north until it dissipates in northern Japan before reaching Hokkaido in late July. In most of Honshu, the rainy season begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain.

Japan's varied geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones:

• Hokkaido: The northernmost zone has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snow banks in the winter.
• Sea of Japan: On Honshu's west coast, the northwest wind in the wintertime brings heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures, due to the Föhn wind phenomenon.
• Central Highlands: A typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night. Precipitation is light.
• Seto Inland Sea: The mountains of the Chugoku and Shikoku regions shelter the region from the seasonal winds, bringing mild weather throughout the year.
• Pacific Ocean: The east coast experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers due to the southeast seasonal wind.
• Southwest Islands: The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. Typhoons are common.

Ecoregions

Main article: Ecoregions of Japan

Japan is home to nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryukyu and Bonin islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.

Subdivisions

Japan is divided into 47 prefectures, which are commonly grouped into regions. Honshu, by far the largest and most populated island, is typically divided into five (or more) regions. The other major islands constitute one region each. From north to south, the regions are:

Region	Prefectures
Hokkaidō	Hokkaidō
Tōhoku	Akita, Aomori, Fukushima, Iwate, Miyagi, Yamagata
Kantō	Chiba, Ibaraki, Kanagawa, Saitama, Tochigi, Tōkyō
Chubu	Aichi, Fukui, Gifu, Ishikawa, Nagano, Niigata, Shizuoka, Toyama, Yamanashi
Kinki	Hyōgo, Kyōto, Mie, Nara, Ōsaka, Shiga, Wakayama
Chūgoku	Hiroshima, Okayama, Shimane, Tottori, Yamaguchi
Shikoku	Ehime, Kagawa, Kōchi, Tokushima
Kyūshū	Fukuoka, Kagoshima, Kumamoto, Miyazaki, Nagasaki, Oita, Saga
Okinawa	Okinawa

The prefectures are further subdivided into cities, towns and villages. Major cities are divided into wards, and the central portion of Tokyo is divided into 23 special wards.

Economy

File:Wfm kansai closeup.jpg

Japan's construction industry has been aided by huge civil works projects. One of the most well known is Kansai International Airport, built on an artificial island at a total cost of $30 billion.

Main article: Economy of Japan

Japan is a major economic global power. Government-industry cooperation, aid from the United States following World War II, a strong work ethic, mastery of high technology, emphasis on education, and a comparatively small defense allocation have helped Japan advance with extraordinary speed to become the second largest economy in the world, after the U.S. For three decades, overall real economic growth had been spectacular: a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s, and a 4% average in the 1980s. Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s largely due to the after-effects of over-investment during the late 1980s and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth have met with little success and were further hampered in 2000 to 2001 by the slowing of the US and Asia economies.

However, the economy saw signs of strong recovery in 2005. GDP growth for the year was 2.8%, with a fourth quarter expansion of 5.5%, surpassing the growth rate of the US and European Union during the same period. Unlike previous recovery trends, domestic consumption has been the dominant factor in leading the growth. Hence, the Japanese government predicts that recovery will continue in 2006. In March 2006 the core Consumer Price Index (CPI) showed a positive growth for the first time in 8 years.

Distinguishing characteristics of the Japanese economy include the cooperation of manufacturers, suppliers, distributors, and banks in closely-knit groups called keiretsu; the powerful enterprise unions and shuntō; cozy relations with government bureaucrats, and the guarantee of lifetime employment (shushin koyo) in big corporations and highly unionized blue-collar factories. Recently, Japanese companies have begun to abandon some of these norms in an attempt to increase profitability.

The current government of Junichiro Koizumi has enacted or attempted to pass (sometimes with failure) major privatization and foreign-investment laws intended to help stimulate Japan's dormant economy. Although the effectiveness of these laws is still ambiguous, the economy has begun to respond, but Japan's aging population is expected to place further strain on growth in the near future.

Agricultural sector

Main article: Agriculture, forestry, and fishing in Japan

Japan uses a system of terrace farming to build in a small area due to lack of available land. Japanese agriculture has one of the world's highest levels of productivity per unit area. Japan's small agricultural sector, however, is also highly subsidized and protected, with government regulations that favor small-scale cultivation instead of large-scale agriculture as practiced in North America. Imported rice, the most protected crop, is subject to tariffs of 490% and restricted to a quota of only 3% of the total rice market. Although Japan is usually self-sufficient in rice (except for its use in making rice crackers and processed foods), the country must import about 50% of its requirements of other grain and fodder crops, and relies on imports for most of its supply of meat. Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch, prompting some claims that Japan's fishing is leading to depletion in fish stocks such as tuna. Japan has also sparked controversy by supporting quasi-commercial whaling.

Industrial sector

Industry, one-fourth of Japan's GDP, depends heavily on imported raw materials and fuels. Internationally, Japan is best known for its automotive, optics, and electronics industries, as the home of big manufacturers such as Toyota, Yamaha, Honda, Nissan, Mitsubishi, Mazda, Sony, Matsushita, Toshiba, Suzuki and Hitachi, as well as household names like Nintendo and Nikon Corporation. Japan also holds a large market share in high-technology industries such as semiconductors, industrial chemicals, machine tools, and (in recent years) aerospace. Construction has long been one of Japan's largest industries, with the help of multi-billion-dollar government contracts in the civil sector. Robotics constitutes a key long-term economic strength.

Service sector

Japan's service sector accounts for about three-fourths of its total economic output. Banking, insurance, real estate, retailing, transportation, and telecommunications are all major industries. The Koizumi government is attempting to privatize Japan Post, one of the country's largest providers of savings and insurance services, by 2007.

See also: List of Japanese companies

Society

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Japan

Japanese society is ethnically and linguistically homogeneous, with small populations of primarily Ryukyuans (1.5 million), North and South Koreans (1 million), Chinese and Taiwanese (0.5 million), Filipinos (0.5 million), and Brazilians — mostly of partial Japanese descent — (250,000), as well as the indigenous Ainu minority in Hokkaido. About 99% of the population speaks Japanese as their first language.

Japanese citizenship is conferred on an infant when a family member registers the infant's birth in the family registry held by a neighborhood ward office. Simply being born in Japan does not assure citizenship. Monolingual Japanese-speaking minorities often reside in Japan for generations under permanent residency status without acquiring citizenship in their country of birth. People of Japanese heritage returning from overseas have citizenship if their birth in a foreign country was registered in Japan on their behalf by a family member. Sometimes these returnees are not considered truly Japanese and suspected of being descendants of the Burakumin caste of feudal times.

The Japanese population is rapidly aging, the effect of a post-war baby boom followed by a decrease in births as the country modernized in the latter part of the 20th century (notable aspects including the shift from agricultural to urban lifestyles and the increasing tendency for women to remain in the workplace). Japan has the highest life expectancy in the world (85.2 years for women and 78.3 years for men in 2002 [2]). By 2007, over 20% of the population will be over the age of 65. The changes in the demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in the workforce population and increases in the cost of social securities like the public pension plan.

The population started declining in 2005, as the 1.067 million births were exceeded by the 1.077 million deaths. Assuming current birth and death rates, the 2005 population of 128 million would decline to 100 million in 2050, and to 64 million in 2100. The main problem will be the financial crisis that comes from having a higher and higher dependency ratio (nonworking young and old compared to working ages.) Demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem.[3]. Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a possible solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population. Immigration, however, is not publicly popular as recent increased crime rates are often attributed to foreigners living in Japan.

Religion

The Toshodaiji Buddhist temple, part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Nara.

Main article: [[:Religion in Japan and Japanese mythology]]

The Japanese people's concern towards religion is mostly related to mythology, traditions, and neighborhood activities rather than the source of morality or the guideline for one's life, for which sometimes Confucianism, or even Taoism, tends to serve as the basis for the moral code. When asked to identify their religion, most would profess to believe in either Shintoism (54%) or Buddhism (40%), for simple reasons like their family has belonged to some sect of Buddhism or to avoid contention with religious foreigners. Nonetheless, most of the people are not atheists, and the tendency is often identified with syncretism, secularism, and even irreligion. This results in a variety of practices such as parents and children celebrating Shinto rituals, students praying before exams, couples holding a wedding at a Christian church and funerals being held at Buddhist temples. A minority profess to Christianity (0.7%) and other religions (4.7%) like shamanism, Islam, and Hinduism. Also, since the mid-19th century, many religious sects called Shinkoshukyo, and later shinshukyo, emerged.

Education

Main article: Education in Japan

Compulsory education was introduced into Japan in 1872 as one result of the Meiji Restoration. Since 1947, compulsory education consists of elementary school and middle school, which lasts for 9 years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior high school, and 96% of high school graduates attend a university, junior college, trade school, or other post-secondary institution.

Language

Main article: Japanese Language

Japanese language is an agglutinative language that belongs in the Altaic language family. It is distinguished by a system of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary which indicate the relative status of speaker and listener.

Modern Japanese is written with a mix of Chinese characters (kanji) and a modified syllabary (kana), also originally based on Chinese characters. Japanese texts may also include rōmaji (letters from the Latin alphabet) as well as various special symbols. Written Japanese has been heavily influenced by Chinese although the latter belongs to a different language family. Much vocabulary also has been imported from Chinese, or created on Chinese models.

The oldest surviving book written in Japan is the Kojiki (712). It was written in a mixture of Chinese, used both ideographically, phonetically, and otherwise to create Japanese meanings. The oldest surviving Japanese book written in hiragana is the Tosa Diary (935) by Ki no Tsurayuki. Japanese literature reached a high point during the 11th century with the the Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki Shikibu. Many other Japanese literary works were also written by women.

Culture

A Japanese traditional dancer

Main article: Culture of Japan

Japanese culture has evolved greatly over the years, from the country's original Jomon culture to its contemporary hybrid culture, which combines a number of influences from Asia, Europe, and America.

Historically, China and Korea have been the most influential starting with the development of the Yayoi culture from around 300 BC and culminating with the introduction of rice farming, ceremonial burial, pottery, painting, writing, poetry, etiquette, the Chinese writing system, and Mahayana Buddhism by the 7th century AD. In the pre-modern era, Japan developed a distinct culture, in its arts: (ikebana, origami, ukiyo-e), crafts (dolls, lacquerware, pottery), performances (bunraku, dance, kabuki, noh, rakugo), traditions (games, onsen, sento, tea ceremony, architecture, gardens, swords), and cuisine.

From the mid-19th century onward, Western influence prevailed, with American influence becoming especially predominant following the end of World War II. This influence is apparent in Japan's contemporary popular culture, which combines Asian, European, and, 1950-onward, American influences. Both within the country and abroad, its people have achieved international acclaim in fashion, films, literature, television, video games, and music. Also, the Japanese are the largest spenders of money on luxury goods in the world. Today, Japan is a major exporter of such culture, which has gained popularity around the world, particularly in the other countries of East Asia. Especially notable contributions of modern Japan to the rest of the world come from the technology sector, such as that of cell phones, camcorders, and mp3 players. This category also includes some of the highest caliber video games and game consoles. The unique art and thematic styles present in animation (anime) and graphic novels (manga) have also presented a unique addition to the world's entertainment field. Japanese culture has attracted many devotees in Europe and North America as well.

See also: Japanese clothing, Etiquette of Japan, Japanese festivals, Japanese New Year, Japanese sports, Tourism in Japan, Japanese media, and Japanese traditional dance

References

• S. N. Eisenstadt, Japanese Civilization: A Comparative View, University of Chicago 1995. (ISBN 0226195589)
• Japan a Profile of Nation, Kodansha International, 1999. (ISBN 4770023847)

Further reading

• The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Japan, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993 (ISBN 0521403529)
• De Mente, The Japanese Have a Word For It, McGraw-Hill, 1997 (ISBN 0844283169)
• Henshall, A History of Japan, Palgrave Macmillan, 2001 (ISBN 0312233701)
• Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, Belknap, 2000 (ISBN 0674003349)
• Japan At A Glance, Kodansha, 1998 (ISBN 4770020805)
• Johnson, Japan: Who Governs?, W.W. Norton, 1996 (ISBN 0393314502)
• Lonely Planet Japan, Lonely Planet Publications, 2003 (ISBN 1740591623)
• Reischauer, Japan: The Story of a Nation, McGraw-Hill, 1989 (ISBN 0075570742)
• Sugimoto et al., An Introduction to Japanese Society, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003 (ISBN 0521529255)
• Totman, A History of Modern Japan, 2d ed., Blackwell, 2005 (ISBN 1405123591)
• Van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power, Vintage, 1990 (ISBN 0679728023)

Miscellaneous topics

• Samurai - Japanese warrior
• Bushido - The way of warrior - Japanese spirit
• Kendo - Japanese martial art - the way of sword
• Communications in Japan
• Ethnic issues in Japan
• Human rights in Japan

• Military of Japan
• Japanese war crimes
• Japanese calendar
• Japanese mobile phone culture
• Japanese fashion
• Japanese law

• Japanese Television and Radio
• Japanese miniaturization culture
• Japanese mythology
• Japanese nationalism
• Major power - Japan
• Japanese wolf (extinct)
• Law Concerning the National Flag and Anthem

• List of Japanese people
• List of Japan-related topics
• List of national parks of Japan
• Portal to Japan
• Transportation in Japan
• Japanese units of measurement
• Scout Association of Japan

External links

Official

• Courts.go.jp - Official site of the Japanese Supreme Court
• Kantei.go.jp - Official prime ministerial and cabinet site
• Kunaicho.go.jp - Official site of the Imperial family.
• Links to Ministries and other Organizations
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs - Detailed papers on Japan's foreign policy, education programs, culture and life.
• Sangi-in.go.jp - Official site of the House of Councillors
• Shugi-in.go.jp - Official site of the House of Representatives
• Stat.go.jp - Statistics Bureau Home Page (English)

Media

• NHK World Daily News
• Kyodo News (Wire Service, English)
• 3Yen (Daily news, English)

Other

• CIA World Factbook - Japan
• Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Japan
• electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies
• Guardian Unlimited - Special Report: Japan
• Library of Congress - Country Study: Japan data as of January 1994

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