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==History==
==History==
The ''Vajrasūchi Upanishad'' survives into the modern era in several versions. Manuscripts of the text were discovered and collected during the colonial times, and by early 19th-century eight copies of the manuscripts from North India and five copies from South India were known.{{Sfn| Schrader|1908|pp=267–269}} Most versions were in Sanskrit in [[Devanagari]] script and two in [[Telugu language]], in [[palm-leaf manuscript]] form, with some in damaged condition.{{Sfn| Schrader|1908|pp=267–269}}<ref name="aufrechtfsm2">Theodor Aufrecht (1892), {{Google books|ziwYAAAAYAAJ|Florentine Sanskrit Manuscripts|page=PA2}}, University of Bonn, Germany, page 2 see entry 8</ref><ref name=vediclittn555>Vedic Literature, Volume 1, {{Google books|2YIoAAAAYAAJ|A Descriptive Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts|page=PA555}}, Government of Tamil Nadu, Madras, India, page 555</ref> There are differences in the text between these manuscripts,{{Refn|group=note|the number of lines slightly vary, as well as the wording in a few questions of the Upanishad, and there are variations in the colophons.{{Sfn|Schrader|1908|pp=267–269}}<ref name=vediclittn553/>}} but the focus and central message is the same.<ref name="vediclittn553">Vedic Literature, Volume 1, {{Google books|2YIoAAAAYAAJ|A Descriptive Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts|page=PA553}}, Government of Tamil Nadu, Madras, India, pages 553–556</ref>{{Sfn|Schrader|1908|pp=267–269}}

[[File:Vajrasuchi Upanishad sample verses 1-3, Samaveda, Sanskrit, Devanagari script, 1728 CE manuscript.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|The opening lines of the ''Vajrasuchi Upanishad'' (Sanskrit, Devanagari script).]]
[[File:Vajrasuchi Upanishad sample verses 1-3, Samaveda, Sanskrit, Devanagari script, 1728 CE manuscript.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|The opening lines of the ''Vajrasuchi Upanishad'' (Sanskrit, Devanagari script).]]
The date as well as the author of ''Vajrasūchi Upanishad'' is unclear. The Upanishad is attributed to [[Adi Shankara|Sankaracharya]] in the manuscripts discovered by early 1800s.<ref name=mmwvajrasuciup/><ref name=aufrechtfsm2/> Sankaracharya, also known as Adi Shankara, was an [[Advaita Vedanta]] scholar, but given the Indian tradition of dedicating and attributing texts to revered historical scholars, there is uncertainty whether texts attributed to Adi Shankara were actually composed by him or in the 8th-century he likely lived in.<ref>Paul Hacker, Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedanta (Editor: Wilhelm Halbfass), State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2582-4}}, pages 30–31</ref><ref>M Piantelly, Sankara e la Renascita del Brahmanesimo, Indian Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 4, No. 3 (Apr. 1977), pages 429–435</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Pande |first=G.C. |year=2011 |title=Life and Thought of Śaṅkarācārya |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1104-1 |pages=99–112; Quote (page 104): Different catalogues ascribe nearly four hundred works of different kinds to Sankara and it is generally agreed among modern scholars that most of them are apocryphal}}</ref>
The date as well as the author of ''Vajrasūchi Upanishad'' is unclear. The Upanishad is attributed to [[Adi Shankara|Sankaracharya]] in the manuscripts discovered by early 1800s.<ref name=mmwvajrasuciup/><ref name="aufrechtfsm2">Theodor Aufrecht (1892), {{Google books|ziwYAAAAYAAJ|Florentine Sanskrit Manuscripts|page=PA2}}, University of Bonn, Germany, page 2 see entry 8</ref> Sankaracharya, also known as Adi Shankara, was an [[Advaita Vedanta]] scholar, but given the Indian tradition of dedicating and attributing texts to revered historical scholars, there is uncertainty whether texts attributed to Adi Shankara were actually composed by him or in the 8th-century he likely lived in.<ref>Paul Hacker, Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedanta (Editor: Wilhelm Halbfass), State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2582-4}}, pages 30–31</ref><ref>M Piantelly, Sankara e la Renascita del Brahmanesimo, Indian Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 4, No. 3 (Apr. 1977), pages 429–435</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Pande |first=G.C. |year=2011 |title=Life and Thought of Śaṅkarācārya |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1104-1 |pages=99–112; Quote (page 104): Different catalogues ascribe nearly four hundred works of different kinds to Sankara and it is generally agreed among modern scholars that most of them are apocryphal}}</ref>


This text is also sometimes titled as ''vajrasūchika Upanishad'', ''Vajra suchika Upanishad'', ''vajrasūchi Upanishad'', ''Vajrasucy Upanishad'' and ''Vajrasucyupanishad''.<ref name="mmwvajrasuciup" /><ref name="vediclittn553" /><ref name="aufrechtfsm2" /> In the Telugu language [[anthology]] of 108 Upanishads of the [[Muktika]] canon, narrated by [[Rama]] to [[Hanuman]], it is listed at number 36.{{Sfn|Deussen|1997|pp=556–557}}
This text is also sometimes titled as ''vajrasūchika Upanishad'', ''Vajra suchika Upanishad'', ''vajrasūchi Upanishad'', ''Vajrasucy Upanishad'' and ''Vajrasucyupanishad''.<ref name="mmwvajrasuciup" /><ref name="vediclittn553">Vedic Literature, Volume 1, {{Google books|2YIoAAAAYAAJ|A Descriptive Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts|page=PA553}}, Government of Tamil Nadu, Madras, India, pages 553–556</ref><ref name="aufrechtfsm2" /> In the Telugu language [[anthology]] of 108 Upanishads of the [[Muktika]] canon, narrated by [[Rama]] to [[Hanuman]], it is listed at number 36.{{Sfn|Deussen|1997|pp=556–557}}


=== The Vajrasūcī of pseudo-Aśvaghoṣa ===
=== The Vajrasūcī of pseudo-Aśvaghoṣa ===

Revision as of 06:51, 29 January 2024

Vajrasuchi Upanishad
The text challenges caste, class divisions
Devanagariवज्रसूची
IASTVajrasūcī
Title meansdiamond-pointed needle[1]
TypeSamanya[2]
Linked VedaSamaveda[3]
Chapters1
Verses9
PhilosophyVedanta[3]
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The Vajrasuchi Upanishad (Sanskrit: वज्रसूची उपनिषत्, IAST: Vajrasūcī Upaniṣad) is an important Sanskrit text and an Upanishad of Hinduism. It is classified as one of the 22 Samanya (general) Upanishads, and identified as a Vedanta text.[3][2] It is attached to the Samaveda.[3]

The text discusses the four varnas also called 'caste'.[4] It is notable for being a systematic philosophical work against the division of human beings,[5] and for asserting that any human being can achieve the highest spiritual state of existence.[6][7][8]

Etymology

The Sanskrit word Vajrasūchi means "diamond pointed needle".[1] The term Upaniṣad means it is knowledge text that belongs to the corpus of Vedanta literature collection presenting the philosophical concepts of Hinduism and considered the highest purpose of its scripture, the Vedas.[citation needed]

History

The opening lines of the Vajrasuchi Upanishad (Sanskrit, Devanagari script).

The date as well as the author of Vajrasūchi Upanishad is unclear. The Upanishad is attributed to Sankaracharya in the manuscripts discovered by early 1800s.[1][9] Sankaracharya, also known as Adi Shankara, was an Advaita Vedanta scholar, but given the Indian tradition of dedicating and attributing texts to revered historical scholars, there is uncertainty whether texts attributed to Adi Shankara were actually composed by him or in the 8th-century he likely lived in.[10][11][12]

This text is also sometimes titled as vajrasūchika Upanishad, Vajra suchika Upanishad, vajrasūchi Upanishad, Vajrasucy Upanishad and Vajrasucyupanishad.[1][13][9] In the Telugu language anthology of 108 Upanishads of the Muktika canon, narrated by Rama to Hanuman, it is listed at number 36.[14]

The Vajrasūcī of pseudo-Aśvaghoṣa

After the discovery of palm-leaf manuscripts of the Vajrasuchi Upanishad manuscript, a Buddhist text attributed to 2nd-century CE Asvaghosa[1] was published from Nepal with the same title Vajrasuchi, which is similar in its message as the Vajrasuchi Upanishad. It was published in 1839 by Hodgson, Wilkinson and Sūbajī Bāpū.[15][1] This added to the complications in dating and in determining the author of the text. However, the authenticity of the Buddhist text, and whether its author was Asvaghosa is considered seriously doubtful, according to many scholars,[16] and most recently by Patrick Olivelle.[17] Schrader stated in 1908 that the Vajrasuchi attributed to Asvaghosa, "though seemingly an independent work, in fact is nothing but a Buddhist commentary on or elaboration of the first part of Vajrasucyupanisad, with many quotations from Sruti and Smriti".[18]

Contents

The text is structured as a single chapter in a prose form.[19] It opens with verse 1 asserting that it describes the "Vajrasuchi doctrine", which destroys ignorance, condemns those who are ignorant and exalts those with the divine knowledge.[20][21] The verse 2 of the text presents a series of questions, the possible answers analyzed in verses 3 through 8, the verse 9 presents its view, and then an epilogue concludes the Upanishad.

What is varna (class, caste)?

The Brahmana, the Kshatriya,
the Vaishya and the Shudra,
are the four varnas.
What is meant by Brahmana?
Is it his individual soul?
Is it his body?
Is it based on his birth?
Is it his knowledge?
Is it his deeds?
Is it his rites?

—Vajrasucika Upanishad, Verse 2
(Abridged)[19][20][21]

Question on the four varnas

The text asserts, in verse 2, that there are four varnas: the Brahmin, the Kshatriya, the Vaishya and the Shudra.[22][21] The Brahmin, states the text, is declared by Smriti to be chief.[20] But what does this mean, is this social division justified by Jiva (life, soul), Deha (body), Jati (birth), Jnana (knowledge), Karma (deeds), Dharmic (virtues or performer of rites)?[23][20][21]

Answers

The Jiva does not make anyone a Brahmana, states the text,[19] because with rebirth the Jiva migrates from one body to another, this Jiva remains the same individuality while the body changes.[20][21] Thus, it is not Jiva which can determine whether one is a Brahmana, asserts verse 3.[20][21]

The Deha or body does not make anyone a Brahmana, according to the text,[19] because every human being's body is the same, constituted of the same five elements, everyone ages, everyone dies, people from all classes show various combinations of dharma (virtue) and adharma (vice) characteristics.[20][24] All color complexions similarly, asserts the text, are found is all castes and those who are outcaste.[20][24] Thus, states verse 4 of the Upanishad, it is not the body which can determine whether one is a Brahmana.[20]

Does Jati or birth make a Brahmana?[19][24] It is not so states the text, because sacred books tell of great Rishi (sages) born in various castes and diverse origins, such as Vyasa from a fisherman's daughter, Kaushika from Kusa grass, Valmiki from an ant hill, Gautama from the hare's posterior, Vasistha from a celestial nymph, Jambuka from a Jackal and Agastya from a mud-based vessel.[25][24] Regardless of their birth origins, they achieved greatness.[20][24] Therefore, asserts verse 5 of the Upanishad, it is not the birth which can determine whether one is a Brahmana.[20][24]

Jnana or knowledge too does not make a Brahmana, asserts the text.[19][24] It is not so because among Kshtriyas and others, there are many who have seen the Highest Reality and Truth, and therefore Brahmin knowledge is not what makes the Brahmana.[25][24]

Karma or deeds do not make a Brahmana, continues the text,[19][26] because all living beings perform the same deeds, past and future embodiments are common, and everyone is impelled by past. Thus, asserts the text in verse 7, deeds do not make the Brahmana.[25][26]

The text in verse 8 states that Dharmic action is not the essence of the Brahmana either.[19][26] Many Kshatriyas give away gold, such virtuous actions and anyone performing religious rituals is not what makes a Brahmana.[25][26]

Brahmana: the Vajrasuchi doctrine

Who indeed then is Brahmana, rhetorically repeats the verse 9 of the text.[27] Whoever he may be, answers the Upanishad, he is the one who has directly realized his Atman (innermost self, soul).[25] He is the one who understands that his soul is without a second, is devoid of class, is devoid of actions, is devoid of faults. He knows that the Atman is truth, is knowledge, is bliss and is eternity.[25][26] He is the one who knows that the same soul in him is in everyone, is in all things, pervading within and without, something that can be felt but not reasoned.[25][26] He is the one who is free from malice, who fulfills his nature, is not driven by cravings for worldly objects or desire or delusions. He is the one who lives a life untouched by spite, ostentation, pride or the need to impress others.[19][26][25]

Epilogue

The Upanishad closes by stating that this doctrine is the opinion of the Srutis (scriptures), the Smritis, the Itihasas and the Puranas.[28] There is no other way to attain the state of Brahmana, states Vajrasuchi Upanishad, other than meditating on the non-dual Brahman (ultimate reality and truth), with the Atman as the Satcitananda – truth-consciousness-bliss.[29][30] Thus ends the Upanishad.[29]

Buddhist Vajrasuchi and Hindu Vajrasuchi Upanishad

The relationship between the Vajrasuchi text of Buddhism and Vajrasuchi Upanishad of Hinduism has long been of interest to scholars.[16] This interest began with Brian Houghton Hodgson – a colonial official based in Nepal who was loaned a Sanskrit text titled Vajra Suchi in 1829, by a Buddhist friend of his, whose contents turned out to be similar to the vajrasūchi Upanishad. In 1835, Hodgson published a translation.[31] The first line of the Hodgson translation mentioned "Ashu Ghosa" and invoked "Manja Ghosa" as the Guru of the World. The details of the caste system, its antiquity and "shrewd and argumentative attack" by a Buddhist, in the words of Hodgson, gained wide interest among 19th-century scholars.[16] The scholarship that followed, surmised that "Ashu Ghosa" is possibly the famous Buddhist scholar Asvaghosa, who lived around the 2nd century CE.[32] It is widely known that Ashwagosh was the philosopher guide of king Kanishka.

Reception

Mariola Offredi – a professor of literature at the University of Venice, states that among all pre-colonial Sanskrit texts, the vajrasūchi Upanishad is a "sustained philosophical attack against the division of human beings into four social classes determined by birth".[5] While many other Hindu texts such as Bhagavad Gita and Puranas question and critique varna and social divisions, adds Offredi, these discussions are at their thematic margins; only in vajrasūchi Upanishad do we find the questioning and philosophical rejection of varna to be the central message.[5]

Ashwani Peetush – a professor of philosophy at the Wilfrid Laurier University, states the Vajrasuchi Upanishad is a significant text because it assumes and asserts that any human being can achieve the highest spiritual state of existence.[7]

The Vajrasuchi was studied and referred to by social reformers in the 19th century, states Rosalind O'Hanlon, to assert that "the whole of human kind is of one caste", that it is character not birth that distinguishes people.[33]

Scanned manuscripts

  • MS Cambridge, University Library, Add.1421. URL
  • MS Jammu, Raghunatha Temple Library, 953gha. The upaniṣad. URL

Editions

  • Aśvaghoṣa, B. H. Hodgson, Lancelot Wilkinson, and Sūbajī Bāpū. The Wujra Soochi or Refulation [Sic] of the Arguments Upon Which the Brahmanical Institution of Caste Is Founded. 1839. Scan at Archive.org
  • Translation by Hodgson: "A Disputation Respecting Caste by a Buddhist, in the Form of a Series of Propositions Supposed to Be Put by a Saiva and Refuted by the Disputant" B. H. Hodgson. Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 3, No. 1 (1831), pp. 160-169 (10 pages). URL of JSTOR scan.
  • Aśvaghoṣa, and William Morton. Vajra Suchi the needle of Adamant; or the original divine institution of caste. Jaffna: The Jaffna Religious Tract Society, America Mission Pr, 1851. This tr. also appeared in 1843 (Worldcat).
  • Aśvaghoṣa, and Albrecht Weber. Die Vahrasuci des Asvaghosha, von A. Weber. Berlin, In Commission von F. Dummler, 1860. 205-264 p. Reprinted from the Abhandlungen der Konigl. Akademie der Wissenschaften Berlin, 1859. Scan at archive.org
  • Aśvaghoṣa, and Adam White. Játibhed viveksár: or Reflection on the institution of caste. To which is appended a Marathi version of the sanscrit commentary by Manju Ghoshon the upanishad called Vajra Suchi. [Bombay]: Printed and published by Messrs. Wassudeo Babaji & Co., booksellers, 1861.
  • Aśvaghoṣa. Vajrasūci = the Needle of the adamant or the original divine institution of Caste, examined and refuted. Mangalore: Basel Mission Book & Tract Depository, 1869.
  • Aśvaghoṣa, and Ramayan Prasad Dwivedi (ed. and comm.), Mahākavi-aśvaghoṣakṛta vajra-sūcī: samānoddharaṇa-pāṭhabhedasahita-saṭippaṇa-'Maṇimayī'-hindīvyākhyopetā bauddha-darśana-granthaḥ = Vajrasūcī of Aśvaghoṣa : A small tract of Buddhist philosophy : Edited with Hindi translation, parallel passages and a critical introduction with exhaustive appendices. Varanasi: Chaukhamba Amarabharati Prakashan, 1985. Scan at Archive.org.
  • Aśvaghoṣa, and Sujitkumar Mukhopadhyaya. The vajrasūchi of Asvaghosa: Sanskrit Text. Santiniketan: Sino-Indian Cultural Society, 1950. Scan at archive.org.
  • Kagawa, Takao. 1958. "The Comparative Study on Some Texts of vajrasūchi". Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies (I Bukkyogaku Kenkyu). 6, no. 1: 134–135. DOI https://doi.org/10.4259/ibk.6.134
  • Ācārya Aśvaghoṣa kṛta Vajrasūcī Upaniṣada ... anuvādaka Bhante Ga. Prajñānanda. Dillī, Gautama Book Centre, 1990. Scan at archive.org

See also

Notes

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Sir Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages, Oxford University Press (Reprinted: Motilal Banarsidass), ISBN 978-8120831056, Article on Vajrasuci, page 914
  2. ^ a b Aiyar 1914, p. vii.
  3. ^ a b c d Tinoco 1996, p. 87.
  4. ^ Mariola Offredi (1997), The banyan tree: essays on early literature in new Indo-Aryan languages, Volume 2, Manohar Publishers, OCLC 46731068, ISBN 9788173042775, pages 442–446
  5. ^ a b c Mariola Offredi (1997), The banyan tree: essays on early literature in new Indo-Aryan languages, Volume 2, Manohar Publishers, OCLC 46731068, ISBN 9788173042775, page 442
  6. ^ Aiyar 1914, pp. 111–112.
  7. ^ a b Ashwani Peetush (2011), Justice and Religion: Hinduism, in Encyclopedia of Global Justice, Springer Netherlands, ISBN 978-1402091599, pages 596–600
  8. ^ Radhakrishnan 1953, pp. 937–938.
  9. ^ a b Theodor Aufrecht (1892), Florentine Sanskrit Manuscripts, p. PA2, at Google Books, University of Bonn, Germany, page 2 see entry 8
  10. ^ Paul Hacker, Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedanta (Editor: Wilhelm Halbfass), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2582-4, pages 30–31
  11. ^ M Piantelly, Sankara e la Renascita del Brahmanesimo, Indian Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 4, No. 3 (Apr. 1977), pages 429–435
  12. ^ Pande, G.C. (2011). Life and Thought of Śaṅkarācārya. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 99–112, Quote (page 104): Different catalogues ascribe nearly four hundred works of different kinds to Sankara and it is generally agreed among modern scholars that most of them are apocryphal. ISBN 978-81-208-1104-1.
  13. ^ Vedic Literature, Volume 1, A Descriptive Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts, p. PA553, at Google Books, Government of Tamil Nadu, Madras, India, pages 553–556
  14. ^ Deussen 1997, pp. 556–557.
  15. ^ Aśvaghoṣa; Hodgson, B. H; Wilkinson, Lancelot; Sūbajī Bāpū (1839). The Wujra Soochi or refulation [sic] of the arguments upon which the Brahmanical institution of caste is founded. Bombay. OCLC 752435520.
  16. ^ a b c Winternitz 1920, pp. 254–255 (German version: pages 209–211).
  17. ^ Olivelle 2005, p. 24 with footnote 43.
  18. ^ Schrader 1908, pp. 270.
  19. ^ a b c d e f g h i Raghunandan 2010.
  20. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Aiyar 1914, p. 110.
  21. ^ a b c d e f Radhakrishnan 1953, p. 935.
  22. ^ Raghunandan 2010, p. Quote: ब्राह्मक्षत्रियवैष्यशूद्रा इति चत्वारो वर्णा.
  23. ^ Raghunandan 2010, p. Quote: किं जीवः किं देहः किं जातिः किं ज्ञानं किं कर्म किं धार्मिक इति.
  24. ^ a b c d e f g h Radhakrishnan 1953, p. 936.
  25. ^ a b c d e f g h Aiyar 1914, p. 111.
  26. ^ a b c d e f g Radhakrishnan 1953, p. 937.
  27. ^ Raghunandan 2010, p. Quote: तर्हि को वा ब्रह्मणो नाम.
  28. ^ Raghunandan 2010, p. Quote: शृतिस्मृतीतिहासपुराणाभ्यामभिप्रायः.
  29. ^ a b Radhakrishnan 1953, p. 938.
  30. ^ Aiyar 1914, p. 112.
  31. ^ Brian Houghton Hodgson (1835), [ Vajra Suchi by Asvaghosha], Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Transactions, Volume III, J. Murray and Parbury, Allen & Co. https://www.sacred-texts.com/journals/jras/tr03-08.htm
  32. ^ Dalal 2010, p. 35.
  33. ^ Rosalind O'Hanlon (2002), Caste, Conflict and Ideology, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521523080, page 227

Bibliography

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