Libyan civil war (2011)

2011 Libyan uprising
Part of 2010–11 Middle East and North Africa protests
Cities controlled by pro-Gaddafi forces Cities controlled by anti-Gaddafi forces Ongoing fighting/Unclear situation (situation as of 13 March)
Date 15 February 2011 (2011-02-15) – present Location Libya Status Ongoing
Belligerents
Anti-Gaddafi forces National Transitional Council NCLO Libyan People's ArmyLibyan Islamic Fighting Group Defecting units of the Libyan Armed Forces Defecting units of the Libyan Police Defecting Tribes Limited/Alleged: Egypt (Unit 777) Qatar Tunisia (Volunteers)	Government of Muammar Gaddafi Loyalist units of the Libyan Armed Forces Loyalist units of the Libyan Police Loyalist paramilitaries Foreign mercenaries Limited/Alleged: Belarus Syria Zimbabwe
Commanders and leaders
Mustafa Abdul Jalil Abdul Fatah Younis Omar El-Hariri	Muammar al-Gaddafi Saif al-Islam al-Gaddafi Khamis al-Gaddafi Al-Mu'tasim-Billah al-Gaddafi Al-Saadi al-Gaddafi Saif al-Arab al-Gaddafi Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr
Strength
Unknown (numbers disputed) 5,000 volunteers (3 March; anti-Gaddafi claim)	10,000–12,000 (Al Jazeera estimate)
Casualties and losses
Opposition fighters Eastern front (by 9 March) Killed: 400 Missing: 700 Wounded: 2,000 Western front (Misurata only) Killed: 54 Missing: 122 Wounded: 578	Pro-Gaddafi Forces Killed: 111 soldiers (by February 20) Mercenaries Killed: 50 (by February 19)
1,000 killed (United Nations) 3,000 killed (IFHR) 6,000 killed (LHRL) 10,000 killed (ICC)

The 2011 Libyan uprising began as a series of protests and confrontations occurring in the North African state of Libya against Muammar Gaddafi's 42-year rule. The protesters are calling for his ousting and democratic elections.

The protests began on 15 February 2011 and escalated into a widespread uprising by the end of February, with fighting verging at the brink of civil war as of 6 March 2011. Inspiration for the unrest is attributed to the uprisings in Tunisia and Egypt, connecting it with the wider 2010–11 Middle East and North Africa protests. By the end of February, Gaddafi had lost control of a significant part of the country, including the major cities of Misurata and Benghazi. The Libyan opposition had formed a National Transitional Council and free press had begun to operate in Cyrenaica. Social media had played an important role in organizing the opposition.

Gaddafi remains in control of Tripoli, Sirt, Zliten, and Sabha, as well as several other towns. Gaddafi controls the well-armed Khamis Brigade, among other loyalist military and police units, and some believe a small number of foreign mercenaries. Some of Gaddafi's officials, as well as a number of current and retired military personnel, have sided with the protesters and requested outside help in bringing an end to massacres of non-combatants.

Most nations have strongly condemned Gaddafi's use of force against civilians. Canada, the United States, Japan, Australia, the United Kingdom, France, and Jordan have all imposed sanctions on Gaddafi. The United Nations Security Council has passed a resolution freezing the assets of Gaddafi and 10 members of his inner circle. The resolution also imposed a travel ban and referred Libya to the International Criminal Court for investigation. Options for outside intervention have been discussed by European and US governments and rebel leaders, including a possible no-fly zone and humanitarian aid. However, a few state leaders in Latin America have expressed support for Gaddafi's government for which they were criticized by other world leaders. The European Union's arms trafficking watchdog has stated that during the crisis Gaddafi has received military shipments from Belarus.

On March 10, France recognized the National Transitional Council as the official government of Libya. Gaddafi has attributed the protests against him on "rats" and "cockroaches" who have been influenced by "hallucinogenic drugs" put in drinks and pills, "Al-Qaeda", as well as alcohol. He also has variously claimed that the protests against his rule are "a colonialist plot" by foreign countries to "control oil" and "enslave" Libyan people. Gaddafi has asserted that he will chase down the protesters "house by house" and they will be executed.

Background

History

Main article: History of Libya under Gaddafi

Muammar Gaddafi has ruled Libya as de facto autocrat since overthrowing the monarchy in 1969. Following the retirement of Fidel Castro in 2008 and the death of Omar Bongo in 2009, Gaddafi is the world's longest-ruling non-royal head of state. WikiLeaks' disclosure of confidential US diplomatic cables has revealed US diplomats there speaking of Gaddafi's "mastery of tactical maneuvering". While placing relatives and loyal members of his tribe in central military and government positions, he has skilfully marginalized supporters and rivals, thus maintaining a delicate balance of powers, stability and economic developments. This extends even to his own children, as he changes affections to avoid the rise of a clear successor and rival. Petroleum revenues contribute up to 58% of Libya's GDP. Governments with "resource curse" revenue have a lower need for taxes from other industries and consequently are less willing to develop their middle class. To calm down opposition, such governments can use the income from natural resources to offer services to the population, or to specific government supporters. The government of Libya can utilize these techniques by using the national oil resources. Libya's oil wealth was spread over a relatively small population of six million, with 21% general unemployment, the highest in the region, according to the latest census figures.

Libya's purchasing power parity (PPP) GDP per capita in 2010 was US $14,878; its human development index in 2010 was 0.755; and its literacy rate in 2009 was 87%. These numbers were lower in Egypt and Tunisia. Indeed, Libyan citizens are considered to be well educated and to have a high standard of living. Its corruption perception index in 2010 was 2.2, which was worse than that of Egypt and Tunisia, two neighboring countries who faced uprising before Libya. This specific situation creates a wider contrast between good education, high demand for democracy, and the government's practices (perceived corruption, political system, supply of democracy).

A significant portion of the population of Libya is under the age of 15.

Much of the country's income from oil, which soared in the 1970s, was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring militancy and terror around the world.

Once a breadbasket of the ancient world, the eastern parts of the country become impoverished under Gaddafi's economic theories.

Repressive system

Further information: Human rights in Libya

Libya is the most censored country in the Middle East and North Africa, according to the Freedom of the Press Index.

Gaddafi's Revolutionary committees resemble similar systems in “real socialist” countries of the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, and reportedly 10 to 20 percent of Libyans work in surveillance for these committees, a proportion of informants on par with Saddam Hussein's Iraq or Kim Jong-il's North Korea. The surveillance takes place in government, in factories, and in the education sector.

Engaging in political conversations with foreigners is a crime punishable by three years of prison in most cases. In any case, Gaddafi removed foreign languages from school curriculum for a decade. One protester in 2011 described the situation as: "None of us can speak English or French. He kept us ignorant and blindfolded".

Gaddafi has paid for murders of his critics around the world. As of 2004, Libya still provides bounties for critics, including 1 million dollars for Ashur Shamis, a Libyan-British journalist.

The regime has often executed opposition activists publicly and the executions are rebroadcast on state television channels.

Early developments

Abu Salim prison is a high-security prison in Tripoli which human rights activists and other observers often describe as "notorious". Amnesty International has called for an independent inquiry into deaths that occurred there in 1996, an incident which Amnesty International and other news media refer to as the Abu Salim prison massacre. Human Rights Watch believes that 1,270 prisoners were killed, and calls it a "site of egregious human rights violations."

On 24 January 2011, Libya blocked access to YouTube after it featured videos of demonstrations in the Libyan city of Benghazi by families of detainees who were killed in Abu Salim prison in 1996, and videos of family members of Gaddafi at parties. The blocking was criticized by Human Rights Watch.

Between 13 and 16 January, upset at delays in the building of housing units and over political corruption, protesters in Darnah, Benghazi, Bani Walid and other cities broke into and occupied housing that the government was building. By 27 January, the government had responded to the housing unrest with a US $24 billion investment fund to provide housing and development.

The former Libyan flag used by the Kingdom of Libya. It, or modified versions of it, has been used by many protesters as an opposition flag.

In late January, Jamal al-Hajji, a writer, political commentator and accountant, "call[ed] on the internet for demonstrations to be held in support of greater freedoms in Libya" inspired by the Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings. He was arrested on 1 February by plain-clothes police officers, and charged on 3 February with injuring someone with his car. Amnesty International claimed that because al-Hajji had previously been imprisoned for his non-violent political opinions, the real reason for the present arrest appeared to be his call for demonstrations.

In early February, Gaddafi had met with "political activists, journalists, and media figures" and "warned" them that they would be "held responsible" if they participated "in any way in disturbing the peace or creating chaos in Libya".

Timeline of events

Main article: Timeline of 2011 Libyan uprising

15–21 February

Opposition protests outside the White House, Washington, DC on 19 February

In the evening of 15 February approximately 200 people began demonstrating in front of the police headquarters in Benghazi following the arrest of human rights activist Fathi Terbil. They were joined by others later who totaled between 500 to 600 protesters. The protest was broken up violently by police, causing as many as 40 injuries among the protesters.

The main military encampment in Benghazi, al-Katiba, was battled over for three days, the turning point coming when one protester packed his car with explosives and rammed it into the walls of the base.

The Guardian reported on February 18 that 50 of Gaddafi's mercenaries were captured and executed by opposition forces in the city of Al Bayda.

A Libyan army officer who subsequently surrendered to the rebels has told of the killing of 10 soldiers in the city of Benghazi who had refused to open fire on those marching against the regime, by Gaddafi loyalists, before they were forced to flee.

On 23 February, the BBC reported that, during the preceding week (February 13–9), these battles between protests and government loyalists led to Benghazi falling into opposition hands as well as resulted in "300 protesters and 120 members of the government forces [being] killed".

Al Jazeera English reported that a decisive moment was the Sunday, February 19 defection to the protesters' side of longtime Gaddafi regime loyalist and special forces commander Abdel Fattah Younes, who had troops from his unit attack Katiba with machine guns and truck-mounted anti-aircraft guns, with two tanks under Younes's command soon being added to the opposition's side. Similar protests and conflicts with police continued throughout the country through 19 February.

The Libyan government began hiring African mercenaries, mostly from Chad, to support its own forces. It was reported that [[d:Special:EntityPage/QTHEY WERE PAID FOR 5,000 (DINARS) AND THE LATEST MODEL CARS JUST TO GET RID OF DEMONSTRATORS| (QTHEY WERE PAID FOR 5,000 (DINARS) AND THE LATEST MODEL CARS JUST TO GET RID OF DEMONSTRATORS)]]. The conflict continued to escalate; on 19 February witnesses in Libya reported helicopters firing into crowds of anti-government protesters. On 20 February, the United States Department of State, through the American Embassy, issued a travel warning to US citizens due to the continuing unrest in the country. On 21 February in Benghazi, protesters took control of the streets, and looted weapons from the main security headquarters. Demonstrators also lowered the Libyan flag from above the main courthouse and replaced it with the flag of the country's old monarchy. Libyan Air Force warplanes and attack helicopters launched airstrikes on protesters, reportedly targeting a funeral procession and a group of protesters trying to reach a military base. Two senior air force pilots flew their Dassault Mirage F1 fighter jets to Malta and requested political asylum after defying orders to bomb protesters.

22–28 February

A girl in Benghazi holding a paper: "Tribes of Libya are one group" on February 23

Demonstrators inside al Fadeel battalion compound, al Berka, Benghazi

A government revolutionary committee office after it was torched by demonstrators, near the center of Benghazi.

On 22 February, Eyewitnesses reported that Gaddafi flew African mercenaries into Tripoli, and Gaddafi blamed foreign powers and hallucinogens being forced on the protesters for the unrest. On 23 February, former justice minister Mustafa Abud Al-Jeleil alleged that Gaddafi personally ordered the 1988 Lockerbie bombing. Benghazi, the second largest city in Libya, was reported to be "alive with celebration". Also on 23 February, reports began to emerge describing the situation as civil war or revolution,. On 24 February protesters assumed complete control of Tobruk, where soldiers and residents celebrated by waving the former Libyan flag used between 1951 and 1969, firing guns into the air and honking horns. Army units in Tobruk and throughout eastern Libya sided with protesters, with some soldiers and officers participating in demonstrations.

On 26 February, former justice minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil led the creation of an interim government claiming control of the country. On 26 February, the regime began arming its civilian supporters and sent armed patrols to maintain control in the capital. The US Government called publicly for Gaddafi to step down, marking an escalation of its rhetoric against his regime. On 27 February, Al Jazeera and Reuters reported that Ali Aujali, Libya's ambassador to the United States, had declared his support for the interim government in Benghazi. Al Zawiyah, just 30 miles (48 km) from Tripoli, was taken by the protesters.

On 28 February, Gaddafi gave an interview in which he claimed there was no unrest in Libya. (QALL MY PEOPLE LOVE ME,) Gaddafi told journalists from ABC News, the BBC and Britain's Sunday Times. He also described the pressure from foreign leaders as (QBETRAYAL) and laughed at suggestions that he should leave the country. Susan Rice, the US ambassador to the United Nations, said the interview indicated Gaddafi is (QDELUSIONAL) and (QUNFIT) to lead Libya. The New York Times reported US military assets in the Mediterranean and Red Seas were being repositioned to facilitate possible military intervention in Libya, British Prime Minister David Cameron proposed a no-fly zone that would prevent Gaddafi from airlifting mercenaries and using his military planes against civilians. Top US State Department officials also suggested a no-fly zone could be imposed to prevent Gaddafi from flying in mercenaries or using aircraft to attack opposition forces or civilians.

1–4 March

On 1 March, Australian Minister for Defence Stephen Smith confirmed that his government was considering military options against Gaddafi, saying that international intervention to enforce a no-fly zone was probable. Smith asserted that "no one is expecting" Gaddafi to leave power voluntarily. Al Jazeera reported that Misurata was once again under attack, this time from a combined armor and air assault. According to a witness quoted by the Qatar-based news agency, Gaddafi's forces were using heavy weaponry against protesters and rebels in the city, while the anti-Gaddafi forces were fighting back with small arms. Abdul Fatah Younis, Gaddafi's former interior minister and the leader of a growing rebel force, told Al Jazeera that if Gaddafi could not be dislodged from Tripoli, he would welcome foreign intervention in the form of targeted airstrikes, though he said a land invasion was unwanted and offered the use of Libyan military airbases only in case of emergency to foreign aircraft. Al Jazeera also reported that anti-Gaddafi forces had repulsed a six-hour offensive by government forces attempting to seize Zawiya, securing the city for the opposition. Other members of the council demanded that the United Nations call for airstrikes on major military assets of the regime. One senior official told The New York Times, (QIF HE FALLS WITH NO INTERVENTION, I'D BE HAPPY, BUT IF HE'S GOING TO COMMIT A MASSACRE, MY PRIORITY IS TO SAVE MY PEOPLE.)

On 2 March, Al Jazeera reported that rebels based in eastern Libya were preparing to march on Tripoli with over 5,000 volunteers trained to use weapons in recent days by defected and retired soldiers and officers. The United States Navy and United States Marine Corps increased their offshore presence, intending to place more pressure on Gaddafi to step down. The United Nations expressed concern over the border situation with Tunisia, where Secretary-General of the United Nations Ban Ki-moon said thousands attempting to flee the unrest in Libya combined with a lack of resources for handling the mass emigration threatened to trigger a humanitarian crisis. At about 9h AM Libyan time, four large explosions went off in close succession in central Tripoli. According to reports from international media, security forces and Gaddafi supporters prevented journalists and onlookers from approaching after the blasts, which they described as originating from an oil tanker truck.

Around midday, Arab media reported that forces loyal to Gaddafi seized the town of Marsa Brega Seaport in Cyrenaica, killing 14, and were launching a counterattack against anti-Gaddafi forces in eastern Libya. Almost as soon, reports broke on Twitter that the opposition had fought back against two jets bombing positions near Ajdabiya and a column of at least 100 vehicles transporting pro-Gaddafi troops, reportedly shooting down one warplane, and the opposition retook control of Brega. During a lengthy televised speech by Gaddafi in which he insisted no attacks had been launched against rebels, who he again claimed were al-Qaeda operatives, reports came in of another airstrike against rebel positions near Brega, where Al Jazeera reported 250–300 pro-Gaddafi fighters were routed by revolutionary forces. At least 14 rebels and 2-10 loyalists were killed in the Battle of Brega.

The Telegraph reported that US officials, speaking on condition of anonymity, claimed British SAS forces would likely be mobilized to seize mustard gas and sarin stockpiled by Gaddafi's forces in the Libyan desert. Gaddafi delivered a nearly three-hour speech to mark the 34th anniversary of the establishment of the jamahiriya in which he again blamed al-Qaeda for unrest. He also insisted there were no demonstrations in Libya and claimed he had ordered a full retreat from towns attacked by al-Qaeda, despite saying he held no power in the Libyan government and describing the jamahiriya as a [[d:Special:EntityPage/QDEMOCRACY… WITHOUT ELECTIONS… [CONTROLLED BY] …THE AUTHORITY OF THE PEOPLE| (QDEMOCRACY… WITHOUT ELECTIONS… [CONTROLLED BY] …THE AUTHORITY OF THE PEOPLE)]]. By the later part of the day, the news agency afrol reported that local protesters in the southwestern oasis town of Ghadames, on the border with Tunisia and Algeria, apparently took control of the settlement, though some reports suggested parts of the town and its environs are being disputed by pro-Gaddafi elements. At a summit in Cairo, the Arab League rejected direct military intervention as an option in Libya, but suggested it could establish a no-fly zone over the country, possibly in conjunction with the African Union.

On 3 March, an opposition website posted a "distress call" purportedly from "the people of Brega" warning that mercenaries had reinforced forces loyal to Gaddafi at Hrawah, midway between Ra's Lanuf and Brega, and calling for immediate reinforcements in case Gaddafi's fighters attacked Brega again. The government of the Netherlands said three Dutch marines were captured by pro-Gaddafi forces after landing near Sirt as part of a rescue operation to evacuate Dutch workers trapped in the country. Dutch and Libyan authorities are reportedly in negotiations over the marines' fate, with the Netherlands seeking the immediate release of the captured servicemen into Dutch custody. At least two of the workers the marines were attempting to evacuate have left the country, The Guardian reported. In the eastern Mediterranean, US warships passed through the Suez Canal on their way to waters off Libya. Forces loyal to Gaddafi again marched on opposition positions in coastal Cyrenaica, hitting Brega and Ajdabiya again from the air while advancing overland, although the strength and aggressiveness of the loyalist ground forces is unclear. U.S. President Barack Obama reiterated his administration's demands that Gaddafi leave power and go into voluntarily exile in a televised news conference.

On 4 March, protesters planned to march in force in Tripoli despite reports of violence, arrests, and kidnappings directed at activists by security forces loyal to Gaddafi. Time magazine reported Pro-Gaddafi forces firing at least five canisters of tear gas at approximately 1,500 of the marching protesters.

On the same day, government troops attacked once again the city of Zawiya. The attack was opened with a prolonged artillery barrage and then troops attacked on both sides of the city. In the first hours of the fighting the rebel commander, colonel Hussein Darbouk, was killed. In the evening, the rebels were pushed back to the central square in Zawiyah, where about 2,000 of them were preparing to make a last stand. During the night, pro-Gaddafi forces withdrew to the outside of the city, according to local witnesses. At the same time, opposition forces from Marsa Brega laid siege on the port town of Ra's Lanuf. They managed to capture its airport and later advanced and captured the military base. During the battle, loyalist forces hit rebels with airstrikes and heavy weaponry. Rebel casualties stood at 16 dead and 31 wounded, with loyalist forces losing 2-25 dead.

5–8 March

Opposition protesters take part in a rally in Benghazi

By 5 March, rebel forces had captured the town of Ras Lanuf, reportedly after a large number of defections in pro-Gaddafi forces. A Libyan Air Force jet was also shot down by rebels, killing the pilot. They began converging on the city of Sirt, Gaddafi's hometown and stronghold, stricken by protests since a tribe in the region defected to the opposition. The town of Bin Jawad, along the road from the east to Sirt, was captured by rebel forces as well. Gaddafi's forces attacked Zawiyah, briefly re-occupying the city centre and executing a number of captured rebels, according to eyewitnesses. Opposition forces counterattacked, and destroyed two Libyan Army tanks with RPGs, forcing pro-Gaddafi forces into retreat once again. The National Transitional Council established by the opposition declared itself Libya's sole representative government, marking the first time it actively sought international recognition. French Foreign Minister Alain Juppé announced that his government was petitioning the United Nations Security Council to impose a no-fly zone over Libya in conjunction with the United Kingdom.

Protesters atop a tank during anti-Gaddafi rallies in Benghazi

On 6 March, The Sunday Times, a British newspaper, reported that eight British SAS troops were captured by opposition forces on the previous day and were being held in Benghazi, but the UK government refused to confirm or deny the report. It admitted, however, to having a small diplomatic presence in Benghazi. Meanwhile, an opposition official said rebels were "surrounding" Sirt and had "sufficient forces" to capture the city. Possibly contradicting an earlier news report that Ghadmis had fallen to the opposition, US media reported a witness said the border town was under police control, though it was unclear whether the police in Ghadmis were still loyal to Gaddafi. Shortly before dawn, heavy gunfire and honking of car horns was reported in central Tripoli. Officials with Gaddafi's government claimed his forces were celebrating the reported fall of Zawiyah, Misurata, and Tobruk to the Libyan military, though the opposition and journalists reporting from those areas said they remained in rebel hands. Libyan warplanes targeted opposition forces trying to capture Sirt later in the morning, though the effectiveness of the airstrikes was unclear, and a witness fighting for the opposition reported heavy fighting in Bin Jawad as Gaddafi loyalists apparently launched a counterattack against the town. Al Jazeera reported that opposition forces were massing for a decisive battle at the town of Wadi-al-Ahmar, which could determine control of Sirt itself. At least some advancing rebels withdrew toward Ra's Lanuf under helicopter attack, Al Jazeera and Reuters reported, and Libyan warplanes again bombed positions near both Ra's Lanuf and Zawiyah. Bin Jawad was retaken by loyalist forces as the rebels retreated, but Al Jazeera reported opposition forces pushed west after shooting down an attack helicopter and reasserted control over the hamlet, though heavy fighting was ongoing in the area. Al Arabiya and other agencies reported that forces loyal to Gaddafi began shelling the city of Misurata, the largest opposition stronghold in Tripolitania, around midday. Zawiyah was attacked for a third time from both the ground and the air, but rebels again repulsed the attack. They also retained control of Misurata, cutting off and surrounding loyalist forces as they entered the city. The Britons, six SAS soldiers and two MI6 agents, who were held in Benghazi were released by the end of the day. They departed Libya on the HMS Cumberland. Britain's Foreign Secretary admitted that the SAS troops detained by Libyan rebels were part of a "bungled" British Special Forces operation. The group Libya Relief reported that the National Transitional Council has just 8–10 days' worth of fuel and food supplies left, according to Al Jazeera.

On 7 March, Gaddafi briefly appeared at a rally in Tripoli's Green Square, but he did not address his supporters. An article by Robert Fisk, the Middle East correspondent for British newspaper The Independent, alleged that the US government has secretly contacted Saudi Arabia asking the House of Saud to supply anti-tank and surface-to-air weapons (purchased from the US) to the Libyan rebels in Benghazi. Fisk's article claimed the Saudi government has not yet communicated either assent or refusal, but said if the Saudis do send weapons to Benghazi, they could arrive within 48 hours. Al Jazeera reported that loyalist forces appeared to have advanced eastward overnight, with fighting ongoing between Brega and Ra's Lanuf and beyond toward Bin Jawad. Reuters said many residents of Ra's Lanuf, which remains in opposition hands, had evacuated the town after anti-Gaddafi forces concluded it was likely to face renewed bombing during the day. On 7 March, at least two airtrikes by the Libyan Air Force were carried out on rebel positions near Ra's Lanuf. The Arabic-language newspaper Asharq al-Awsat reported that Gaddafi sent an envoy to Benghazi to negotiate possible terms for exile, but this report has not been corroborated by other sources. Al Jazeera reported rebel forces had captured 10 loyalist soldiers outside the opposition-held desert town of Zintan, including an army colonel. It was initially suggested that Gaddafi's forces had taken control of Zawiyah after bombarding the city for hours, but more recent reports suggested that the government in Tripoli could not exert any control over Zawiyah despite its forces surrounding the city, because its residents are so fiercely anti-Gaddafi.

On 8 March, the Libyan Army halted the advance of opposition forces on Tripoli with heavy rocket fire. Meanwhile, pro-Gaddafi forces continued their siege on Az Zawiyah, shelling neighborhoods with tank and artillery fire. Libyan forces were pushing towards the city's central square, where rebels had set up their camp. The elite Khamis Brigade was believed to be leading the assault. According to an eyewitness who slipped out of the city and an advisor to the Libyan Foreign Ministry, government forces had re-captured the square. A resident of Sabratha claimed that refugees from Zawiyah had told him that fighting continued, with rebel forces regaining the square, and with both sides launching hit-and-run attacks.

Al Jazeera reported that the National Transitional Council rejected an offer presented by Jadallah Azzuz at-Talhi, a former prime minister, for Gaddafi and his family to be allowed to go into exile without facing trial. Under the terms of the proposal, as reported, a committee of the General People's Congress would have assumed control of Libya once Gaddafi left the country. The rebels allegedly said any option that would give Gaddafi an "honourable" exit was unacceptable. Libyan state television denied that any such deal had been offered. Rebels in a mountainous part of western Libya sent Al Jazeera what appears to be video footage of soldiers being bound and shot for refusing to follow orders from loyalist commanders, which the Qatar-based news agency promptly made public. In an interview with Al Arabiya, Saadi Gaddafi, one of Muammar Gaddafi's sons, warned that the government in Tripoli had yet to unleash its full military might against the rebels and said Libya could become "another Somalia" if the situation deteriorated into "civil war". Abroad, the Japanese government placed economic sanctions on Libya in line with UN resolutions aimed at punishing the Gaddafi regime. Despite reportedly rejecting Gaddafi's supposed deal to step down in exchange for protection, Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil said the National Transitional Council was issuing an ultimatum to the jamahiriya's longtime leader demanding that he step down within 72 hours. If Gaddafi leaves the country by late 11 March and orders a halt to alleged state-sponsored violence, the Libyan Republic will not prosecute him or members of his regime for what Jeleil called "the crimes of oppression, persecution, starvation and massacres", he said.

9–12 March

File:Libya Brega rebel fighters 10 March 2011 - VOA Ittner.jpg

Rebels outside Brega, 10 March 2011

US Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton said the US supports a no-fly zone, but it will not lead an effort to impose one. Clinton, who said responsibility for the no-fly zone should derive from the Libyan people, requested broad support from the international community and rapped the UN for its apparent inaction on the proposal. Prime Minister David Cameron said that Britain was seeking international support for any measures to be taken against the Libyan leadership, including a no-fly zone, which he originally proposed on 28 February.

In Az Zawiyah, 30 miles west of Tripoli, loyalist forces launched an offensive in the fifth day of fighting and gained control of the outskirts of the city while rebels held onto the city center. The heavy fighting shut down one of Libya's major refineries in Zawiya. Eyewitnesses reported to MSNBC that pro-Gaddafi forces were closing in on the main square of Zawiya with tanks and that civilians in the city were pinned down in their homes by sniper fire. It was also reported that a Libyan Major had flown to Cairo for talks with the interim government of Egypt. Loyalist forces engaged in the siege of Ras Lanouf struck an oil pipeline and oil storage facility. Activists in London calling themselves Topple the Tyrants occupied the mansion of Gaddafi's son, saying they would stay "until this property can be returned to the Libyan people."

As the possibility of a no-fly zone got closer, the Libyan Air Force stepped up airstrikes on rebels. Enforcing the no-fly zone might be a problem for NATO members, especially the USA, because this would draw air assets that are used for the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. The rebels attempted to move against Bin Jawad once more; however, after firing off around 50 rockets and making some advances, they were hit by artillery and air strikes and retreated to Ra's Lanuf. The Libyan state TV reported that Gaddafi offered a half million-dinar bounty (approximately US$410,900) for the capture of top rebel leader Mustafa Abdel Jalil. On 10 March, rebel forces in Ras Lan’uf deployed heavy weaponry, including rocket launchers and tanks to the front lines just west of the city, but were forced back by heavy shelling. Loyalist forces then launched heavy barrages of tank, artillery, and naval gunboat fire against Ras Lan'uf. Rebels returned fire with rocket launchers. Within hours, hundreds of rebels in cars and trucks with mounted machine guns fled eastward out of the city, leaving only rebel military units behind to defend the city. Doctors and hospital staff, along with wounded, were hastily evacuated from the hospital. Rebel forces had lost 4 dead, 35 wounded, and 65 missing in the fighting.

UPI reported that Egypt had quietly been assisting the anti-Gaddafi rebels, with special forces providing weapons, training, and helping with organisation. The Guardian has reported Britain has been pressing for a European Union emergency summit declaration calling for Colonel Muammar Gaddafi to step down, as pressure grows on the international community to impose a no-fly zone in Libyan airspace. In a joint letter with Germany, the British foreign secretary, William Hague, said the upheaval in the EU's "southern neighbourhood" presented Europe with a challenge and an opportunity on a scale matching the revolutions of 1989.

On 10 March, Zawiyah was retaken by loyalist forces. Reporters from the London Times and the ITV network reported from the square in Zawiyah where they confirmed it was under government control and clean-up operations were underway. At the same time, on the eastern front, after beating back the rebels from Bin Jawad, loyalist forces began to move into Ra's Lanuf and opposition forces were in retreat from the city along with some of the civilian population.

The same day, France became the first nation to recognize the National Transitional Council as the sole Representative of Libya, through the office of the French President Nicolas Sarkozy, a day after Euro-MPs clamoured for the EU to recognize the rebels. An Élysée source also announced that France plans to send an ambassador to Benghazi. Nations who recognize the Council as the government of Libya may not have to go through the process of obtaining UN security council's approval to establish a no-fly zone if the Council requests one, as this could count as a "friendly request". Following France, Portugal also recognized the National Transitional Council. Portugal has not made the type of categorical declaration made by France. Portugal's foreign minister Luis Amado said, however, (QTHE GADDAFI REGIME IS OVER, ITS LEGITIMACY IS OVER).

Guardian News correspondent Ghaith Abdul-Ahad was reported missing in Zawiya, along with Andrei Netto of the Brazilian newspaper Estadão. Both were later reported to be in Libyan custody.

On the morning of 11 March, the first loyalist ground troops entered Ra's Lanuf with 150 soldiers, backed up by three tanks, and managed to get to the city centre. At the same time, four transport boats came in from the sea and unloaded 40–50 soldiers each on the beach near the Fadeel hotel. They were engaged by hard-core rebel remnants, who had not retreated from Ra's Lanuf the previous day. Government troops captured the residential area, but the rebels continued to hold out in the oil port facilities for a few hours before they too retreated from Ra's Lanuf east of the city. The town had fallen. However, in the afternoon, the rebels regrouped, mounted a counteroffensive and managed to expel the loyalist forces from the eastern part of the town (which includes the oil port and refinery). Government soldiers still held the western part of the city and a stalemate soon developed with fighting going back and forth.

The same day, rebels claimed they were still in control in Zawiya. However, just a few hours later, a pro-Gaddafi rally, arranged by the government, was held in the center of the city, witnessed by 100 foreign journalists, confirming the city was retaken.

The Guardian reported that AVAAZ.org established an online signable petition calling for a no-fly zone to be placed on Libya by the UN, and has over 854,000 signatures so far.

In the morning of the same day, the Dutch helicopter crew captured 12 days earlier by pro-Gaddafi troops was released and handed over to the Greek military, but the Gaddafi regime would hold on to the Royal Netherlands Navy helicopter.

On 11 March, the Transitional National Council urgently called for western powers not only to impose a no-fly zone, but also to commence immediate air strikes.

On March 12, rebels fighting in Ras Lanuf retreated in the afternoon to the town of Uqayla west of Marsa Brega. Later during the day, the government took foreign journalists to the city for confirmation of the town's fall.

The Secretary of the Arab League Amr Moussa has called for a no-fly zone to be put in place after previously resisting the idea. The Arab League, which is to meet on 12 March, will not allow Libyan diplomats from Gaddafi's government to join despite Gaddafi's government's request to attend. Reports regarding the Arab League meeting indicate that every country has chosen to back a no-fly zone, with the exception of Sudan which has reportedly not come out for or against a no-fly zone, and of Syria, Algeria, and Yemen. The Arab League also announced it now recognizes the National Transitional Council as the government of Libya.

Al Jazeera cameraman, Ali Hassan al-Jaber is reported to be the first journalist killed in Libya since the start of the uprising.

In what appears to be a change in rhetoric from United States Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, Gates says that the USA could easily impose a no fly zone if President Barack Obama orders one.

13 March

Before dawn on March 13, loyalist forces, advancing eastward from Ra’s Lanuf, had taken the town of Uqayla and the village of Bisher, and headed toward Brega. Loyalist forces launched airstrikes on Brega, and shelled the town with tanks, artillery, and naval vessels. Shortly afterward, government forces announced that they had retaken Brega.Rebel forces in Brega started a retreat for Ajdabiya.

Al Jazeera broadcasts recording of Ali Atiyya, a Colonel of the Libyan Air Force at the Mitiga military airport, near Tripoli, announcing he has defected and joined the revolution.

Shukri Ghanem, Chairman of Libya's National Oil Corporation, asked Italian oil giant Eni SpA for help with firefighting at the Ras Lanuf Refinery. Shukri Ghanem, who reportedly "fled" February 17, is worried the fire will spread.

The United Nations requested that both sides in the conflict allow UN teams access to all areas of the country so that the teams can assess the impact of the violence on civilians.

Amnesty International condemned the killing of Al-Jazeera journalist, Ali Hassan al-Jaber‎ the day before.

Protest movement's situation

Social activism

Libyan boy scouts helping in the social services in Benghazi during the 2011 Libyan uprising

In Tobruk, volunteers turned a former headquarters of the regime into a center for helping protesters. Volunteers guard the port, local banks and oil terminals to keep the oil flowing. Teachers and engineers have set up a committee to collect weapons. For many Libyans, the revolution was a watershed moment in their lives.

After years of censorship, free speech is practiced for the first time. An opposition-controlled newspaper called Libya has appeared in Benghazi, as well as opposition-controlled radio stations.

The movement opposes tribalism and defected soldiers wear vests bearing slogans such as "No to tribalism, no to factionalism".

Libyans have entered abandoned torture chambers and found devices that have been used against opposition members in the past.

Official organization

Many protest movement leaders have called for return to the 1952 constitution and transition to multiparty democracy. Military units who have joined the rebellion and many volunteers have formed an army to defend against Gaddafi's attacks and help liberate the capital Tripoli from his rule.

The National Transitional Council (Arabic: المجلس الوطني الانتقالي) was a body established by opposition forces on 27 February in an effort to consolidate the anti-Gaddafi forces. The main objectives of the group do not include forming an interim government, but instead to coordinate resistance efforts between the different towns held in rebel control, and to give a political "face" to the opposition to present to the world. The council refers to the Libyan state as the Libyan Republic and it now has a website.

Gaddafi's former Justice Minister said in February that the new government will prepare for elections and they could be held in three months.

Calls for international intervention

The Benghazi-based opposition government has called for a no-fly zone and airstrikes against the Gaddafi regime.

A doctor at the general hospital in the city of Ajdabiyal said "we need medicine, we need food supplies and we need the international powers to stop his bombings so every day we do not face this".

Gaddafi's situation

Gaddafi's views

Gaddafi has attributed the protests against his rule on "rats" and "cockroaches" who have been influenced by hallucinogenic drugs put in drinks and pills. He specifically refers to substances in milk, coffee and Nescafe. He claims that Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda are distributing these hallucinogenic drugs. He also blames alcohol. Gaddafi has also claimed that the protests against his rule are a "colonialist plot" by foreign countries to control oil and "enslave" Libyan people. He has asserted that he will chase down the protesters and cleanse the country "house by house," and that his opponents will be executed.

Gaddafi's son Seif al-Islam Gaddafi has stated that family will "fight to the last man and woman and bullet”. He denied wrongdoing by government forces. "We are not killing our fellow citizens. We are not dropping bombs on them. We and our loyal army have shown unprecedented tolerance towards our own people, who are already armed with tanks and heavy artillery. But even despite that we do not touch innocent civilians." He said that the largest demonstration the opposition had made was of a few thousand people in Bengazi, and that the opposition was made up of terrorists who publicly executed soldiers of the Libyan army on "dozens of videos" on the Internet. He said that "Libya does not use mercenaries, period", and that half of Libya's population are blacks, some of whom were being falsely labeled as mercenaries. He accused opposition members, whom he called "armed bandits, who are sitting in the tanks", of being "eager to divide the country into two parts — the East and the West."

Gaddafi still has extensive stockpiles of mustard gas. The regime was supposed to destroy its stockpiles of 23 tons, but failed to dispose of 9.5 tons. The international Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons granted it an extension to destroy the rest before May 2011. Gaddafi reportedly said that he "could use mustard gas, but won't massacre his people". Former justice minister Mustafa Abdel Galil warned that Gaddafi has biological and chemical weapons, and will not hesitate to use them.

Gaddafi has stated that "those who don't love me do not deserve to live".

Arms traffic to Gaddafi

Russia has billions of dollars worth of arms deals with Gaddafi and government officials were also late to condemn the massacres of civilians. The EU's arms trafficking watchdog organization has observed flights between Tripoli and Belarus. It has been concluded that Belarus is currently arming Gaddafi. Some of the planes have visited a military base in Baranovichi, Belarus, which has a dedicated military base that only handles stockpiled weaponry and military equipment. Gaddafi's sons have attended Belarusian-Russian military exercises before.

Indiscriminate killings and terror against civilians

Eyewitnesses have reported mercenaries taking over ambulances to kill injured protesters.

It was reported that after the fall of Bin Jawad to Gaddafi's forces, mercenaries publicly raped, mutilated, and executed captured fighters.

Gaddafi's forces tend to use civilian clothes in violation of the Geneva Convention.

Executions of unwilling soldiers

Soldiers who have refused to take part in the killings have been reportedly executed. Several incidents have been documented on videos leaking out of the country.

Replacement of unwilling soldiers with mercenaries

Soon after Gaddafi started to fight against civilians evidence surfaced that Libyan military units have refused to shoot protesters and Gaddafi had hired foreign mercenaries to do the job. Gaddafi's ambassador to India confirmed that defection of military units had indeed led to such a decision. Video footage of this started to leak out of the country.

Nigerians reported advertisements for mercenaries in Nigerian newspapers in the early days of the conflict. One group of mercenaries from Niger, who had been recruited from the streets with promises of money, included a soldier of just 13 years of age. On 18 February, it was reported that armed forces with military members from Chad were operating in Benghazi, having been "paid with 5,000 (Dinars) and provided with the latest car models to 'get rid' of Libyan citizen-demonstrators." On 21 February, a lawyer working in Benghazi said that a local security committee formed by native civilians had taken control of the city and had arrested 36 mercenaries from Chad, Niger and Sudan who were allegedly hired by Gaddafi's body guards to fight in the city. On 22 February, there were reports of mercenaries from Chad, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Niger, Mali, Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco, and possibly even Asia and Eastern Europe, fighting in Al Bayda. Mercenaries allegedly killed 150 people in the city of Al Bayda. Various other reports told of Chadians operating in Southern Libya, Benghazi and Tripoli. Mercenaries from Chad, Mali and Niger were reportedly working in the rest of eastern Libya. On 23 February, Gaddafi reportedly deployed mercenaries from nearby countries such as Mali, Niger and Chad with some mercenaries from Chad and Niger reportedly in Bengazi and other eastern cities. On 24 February, the Aruba School in the coastal town of Shehat became the prison for almost 200 suspected pro-Gaddafi mercenaries. They are reportedly part of Libya's Khamees' battalion, the well-equipped 32nd brigade led by Khamis Gaddafi.

Gaddafi's former Chief of Protocol Nouri Al Misrahi stated in an interview with the Al Jazeera that Nigerien, Malian, Chadian and Kenyan mercenaries are among foreign soldiers helping fight the uprising on behalf of Gaddafi. On 25 February, speculation that members of the Zimbabwe National Army were covertly fighting in Libya grew as Zimbabwe’s Defence Minister Emmerson Mnangagwa avoided giving a straight answer to a question posed in Parliament about it. On the same day, the Foreign Ministry of Chad denied allegations that mercenaries were fighting for Gaddafi, although he admitted it was possible that individuals had joined such groups. In some cases misidentifications have been reported. Peter Bouckaert reported one case of captured soldiers in Al-Bayda who seemed to be from southern Libya. Libya has a significant black population that could be mistaken for mercenaries but are actually serving in the regular army. Also, many Chadian soldiers who fought for Gaddafi in past conflicts with Chad were given Libyan citizenship.

The Telegraph studied the case of a 16 year old captured Chadian child soldier in Al-Bayda. The boy, who had previously been a shepherd in Chad, had went to a border town to look for work. At a bus stop a Libyan man had offered him a job and a free flight to Tripoli, but in the end he had been airlifted to shoot opposition members in Eastern Libya. Othman Fadil Othman, the Gaddafi official who had hired the boy in Chad was captured along the boy in the airport and he claimed he didn't know either that they were sent to shoot opposition members. However, according to the Telegraph, "It seemed more likely that Mr Othman was trying to save his skin than tell the truth. A beefy, confident man of 30, with three wives and several children back home – he told us with a smirk – he spent a career as a party organiser in Gaddafi's bizarre Soviet-style dictatorship, telling people what to do. He worked for the youth wing headed by the dictator's son Saeef. Mr Othman still couldn't quite bring himself to condemn the colonel. It was painfully obvious that he was hopelessly unsuited for Gaddafi's attempt to terrorise his own people into submission. Like nearly all the captives Mr Othman had no military training. Unleashing thugs and mercenaries like him had backfired disastrously."

Non-aligned Yugoslavia and its successor Balkan countries have had long and friendly relations with Libya since Tito's era, with cooperation ranging from civil engineering to military trade. In the beginning of conflict, there appeared some rumors in tabloid press that there are mercenaries from the Balkans and Serbia in particular fighting with (or training) Gaddafi's forces, Serbian Ministry of Defence denied that any of its active or retired personnel were participating in the events in Libya, calling the allegations "total stupidity". Serbia, together with Russia and Western countries that have traided heavily in military equipment, has stopped all military trade with Libya in accordance with UN resolution 1970; in fact Serbian Otpor organization has helped Arabs topple leaders in Egypt and Tunisia .

Other methods of suppressing protests

Gaddafi currently offers a car, money and weapons for gangs of three people accompanied by one Gaddafi's official to drive around Tripoli to deter opposition activities.

The population of some cities are loyal to Gaddafi, one example is his hometown of Sirt which has been well developed. Control over Tripoli comes in large part from several elite security brigades, which were well-supplied with arms and training while the regular army was somewhat neglected in order to guard against potential coups. Southwestern Libya contains a large population of sub-Saharan Africans, primarily Chadian refugees who Gaddafi settled there in the 1970s–1980s. Gaddafi has also been recruiting soldiers from among the Tuareg people in southwestern Libya, although the tribe as a whole have announced their support for the protesters.

Internationally, several Latin American nations including Venezuela and Cuba have released statements of supports for Gaddafi due to shared social revolutionary backgrounds and alliances. Gaddafi has also been hiring mercenaries from neighboring African states; he had spent decades cultivating influence to create a pan-African union. He had influence with rebel groups in neighboring Chad, where many of his mercenaries reportedly originate. However, it appears that many of the mercenaries were untrained peasants who were offered jobs, only to be flown into a war zone and asked to fight or else be killed.

The government recruits Libyans abroad. Libyans studying in the US have received phone calls from the Libyan embassy urging them to take part in pro-Gaddafi demonstrations or lose government-funded scholarships. Gaddafi has a history of financing rallies in the US, including paying reportedly $2000 to every attendant in a pro-Gaddafi rally when he visited the United Nations in 2009.

Censorship

International journalists were banned by the Libyan authorities from reporting from Libya except by invitation of the Gaddafi government, and Lebanese officials have complained that Libya jammed the broadcasts of Lebanese television reporting on the crackdown. Additionally, reports suggest that the Internet is widely disrupted. On 13 February, Gaddafi warned against the use of Facebook, and security organisations arrested several prominent internet activists and bloggers. The novelist Idris al-Mesmari was arrested hours after giving an interview with Al Jazeera about the police reaction to protests in Benghazi on 15 February. Rolling Internet censorship occurred mostly but not entirely at night; all Internet traffic was abruptly lost on February 18. Furthermore, some satellite phones were jammed. By 8 March, the government had allowed a large number of foreign reporters into Tripoli, however the journalists have complained of having their movements restricted and the government has complained of biased reporting.

BBC crew was beaten and then lined up against wall by Gaddafi's soldiers, who then shot next to a journalist's ear and laughed at them.

Government media campaign

Throughout the uprising, Gaddafi has been able to use the state owned television channel, Al-Jamahiriya, to appear as if he and his forces are in control and to craft a pro-government message. For example, channels that appeal to Libyan youth have broadcast Libyans reciting Gaddafi's historical accomplishments and patriotic songs. On 8 March, the state television broadcast what appeared to be Gaddafi loyalists celebrating in Martyrs' Square in Zawiyah; however, analysis determined that the footage was actually shot elsewhere, outside of Zawiyah. Analysts speculate that this effort at propaganda may not have much of an effect with a population that is accustomed to such tactics.

Deaths and injuries

Main article: Casualties of the 2011 Libyan uprising

Independent numbers of dead and injured in the conflict have still not been made available. However, some conservative estimates have put the death toll at 1,000. Still, the International Federation for Human Rights have stated that the death toll could be as high as 3,000 by March 2. At the same time the opposition claimed that 6,500 people had died. Among the dead, there have also been hundreds of members of both the rebel and government military forces. The numbers of injured have ranged from around 4,000 to 5,000. However till date today, no one from either the rebel camp nor the foriegn governments and NGO's supporting them, have been able to show even a single photograph to substantiate their claims of the mass bodies of people killed by the government forces, which would actually help the general public around the world to accept their claims.

Other humanitarian concerns

Medical supplies, fuel and food are running dangerously low in the country. On 25 February, the International Committee of the Red Cross has launched an emergency appeal for US$6,400,000 to meet the emergency needs of people affected by the violent unrest in the country. The Director General of the International Committee of the Red Cross reminded everyone taking part in the violence that health workers must be allowed to do their jobs safely.

Fleeing the violence of Tripoli by road, as many as 4,000 people have been crossing the Libya-Tunisia border daily during the first days of the uprising. Among those escaping the violence are foreign nationals including Egyptians, Tunisians, and Turks, as well as Libyans. Officials from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees confirmed allegations of discrimination against sub-Saharan Africans who were held in dangerous conditions in the no-man's-land between Tunisia and Libya. By 3 March, an estimated 200,000 refugees had fled Libya to either Tunisia or Egypt. A provisional refugee camp was set up at Ras Ajdir with a capacity for 10,000 was overflowing with an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 refugees. Many tens of thousands are still trapped on the Libyan side of the frontier. The situation is described as a logistical nightmare, with the World Health Organization warning of the risk of epidemics.

With a migrant population of about two million, countries that border Libya, especially Egypt and Tunisia, have been receiving a flow of migrants and nationals escaping the violence. Migrants workers as well as Libyan nationals have been finding their way to the border cities of Sallum in Egypt and Ras Ajdir in Tunisia creating a humanitarian crisis. According to the International Organization for Migration (IOM) as of 7 March 2011, 115,399 migrants arrived in Tunisia (19,184 of them Tunisians, 47,631 Egyptians and the rest from various nationalities), 101,609 in Egypt (of which 65,509 were Egyptian), 2,205 in Niger (1,865 Nigeriens) and 5,448 in Algeria

Domestic responses

Further information: List of officials who protested or resigned during the 2011 Libyan protests

A map showing the ethnic and part of the tribal composition of Libya

Several officials resigned from their positions after 20 February in large part due to protests against the army's (QEXCESSIVE USE OF FORCE,) including justice minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil as well as Interior Minister and Major General, Abdul Fatah Younis whereas Oil Minister Shukri Ghanem was reported to have fled the country. Citing (QGRAVE VIOLATIONS OF HUMAN RIGHTS), Gaddafi's cousin and close aid, Ahmad Qadhaf al-Dam, announced his defection from the government when he arrived in Egypt on 24 February.

Several members of the diplomatic corps also resigned. Amongst these were the ambassadors to the Arab League, Bangladesh, the People's Republic of China, the European Union and Belgium, India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Sweden and the United States. The deputy ambassador to the United Nations Ibrahim Omar Al Dabashi did not resign but distanced himself from the Libyan government's actions. The ambassador to the United States Ali Aujali together with the embassy staff also distanced himself from the government, "condemned" the violence and urged the international community (QTO STOP THE KILLINGS.) The ambassador to the United Kingdom denied reports that he had resigned.

Two Libyan Air Force pilots and a naval vessel fled to Malta, reportedly claiming to have refused orders to bomb protesters in Benghazi.

Islamic leaders and clerics in Libya, notably the Network of Free Ulema – Libya urged all Muslims to rebel against Gaddafi. The Warfalla, Tuareg and Magarha tribes have announced their support of the protesters. The Zuwayya tribe, based in eastern Libya, have threatened to cut off oil exports from fields in their part of the country if Libyan security forces continued attacking demonstrators.

Youssef Sawani, a senior aide to Muammer Gaddafi's son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, resigned from his post "to express dismay against violence".

On 28 February, Muammar Gaddafi has reportedly appointed the head of Libya's foreign intelligence service to speak to the leadership of the anti-government protesters in the east of the country.

A young Benghazian carrying King Idris' photo. Support of the royal Senussi dynasty has traditionally been strong in Cyrenaica.

The claimant to the Libyan throne, Muhammad as-Senussi, sent his condolences "for the heroes who have laid down their lives, killed by the brutal forces of Gaddafi" and called on the international community "to halt all support for the dictator with immediate effect." Muhammad said that the protesters would be "victorious in the end" and calls for international support to end the violence. On 24 February 2011, Muhammad gave an interview to Al Jazeera English where he called upon the international community to help remove Gaddafi from power and stop the ongoing "massacre". Muhammad has dismissed talk of a civil war saying "The Libyan people and the tribes have proven they are united". Questioned about what shape a new government could take, and whether the 1951 royal constitution could be revived Muhammad said that such questions are "premature and are issues that are to be decided by the Libyan people," adding that for now the priority is to stop the "killing of innocent people." On whether he desires to return to Libya he says "The Senussi family considers itself as in the service of the Libyan people." When asked about reestablishing the monarchy he has stated that he "is a servant to Libyan people, and they decide what they want". The White House says it will not specify which indivuals and groups it is working and reaching out with, when asked if the White House supports Muhammad as-Senussi's calls for international support. In an interview with Asharq Al-Awsat he states that it is too early to answer if the monarchy in Libya could be restored and if he will be active in Libyan poltics. He also says the main objective is to end the violence on the streets in Libya. On 3 March, it was announced that he planned to return to Libya. On 4 March he called the West to use airstrikes against Gaddafi after his contacts in Libya told him they need airstrikes. He also argued that a no-fly zone would be insufficient but later calls for the no-fly zone. He later stated that international community needs "less talk and more action" to stop the violence. He asks for a no-fly zone over Libya but does not support foreign ground troops.

In an interview with Adnkronos, Idris al-Senussi, a pretender to the Libyan throne, announced he was ready to return to the country once change had been initiated. On 21 February 2011, Idris made an appearance on Piers Morgan Tonight to discuss the uprising. On 24 February, his brother Hashem called on Gaddafi "to have mercy" on the demonstrators, just as he did with members of the former Royal Family in 1969 when he allowed them to leave the country unharmed after the coup that overthrew the monarchy. On 3 March it was reported that Prince Al Senussi Zouber Al Senussi has fled Libya with his family and is seeking asylum in Totebo, Sweden.

International reactions

Main article: International reactions to the 2011 Libyan uprising

Condemnation and sanctions

Many states and supranational bodies have condemned Gaddafi's use of military and mercenaries against Libyan civilians. However, Daniel Ortega, Fidel Castro and Hugo Chavez have all expressed support for Gaddafi. Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi initially said he did not want to disturb Gaddafi, but two days later the called the attacks on protesters unacceptable.

After an emergency meeting on 22 February, the Arab League suspended Libya from taking part in council meetings and issued a statement condemning the (QCRIMES AGAINST THE CURRENT PEACEFUL POPULAR PROTESTS AND DEMONSTRATIONS IN SEVERAL LIBYAN CITIES.) Libya was suspended from the United Nations Human Rights Council by a unanimous vote of the United Nations General Assembly, citing the Gaddafi government's use of violence against protesters. On 26 February, the United Nations Security Council voted unanimously in to impose strict sanctions, including targeted travel bans, against Gaddafi's government, as well as to refer Gaddafi and other members of his regime to the International Criminal Court for investigation into allegations of brutality against civilians, which could constitute crimes against humanity in violation of international law. Interpol issued a security alert concerning the "possible movement of dangerous individuals and assets" based on the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970, listing Gaddafi himself and 15 members of his clan or his regime. A number of governments, including Britain, Canada, Switzerland, the United States, Germany and Australia have taken action to freeze assets of Gaddafi and his associates. The GCC issued a joint statement on 8 March, calling on the United Nations Security Council to impose an air embargo on Libya to protect civilians.

Evacuations

During the uprising many countries evacuated their citizens. A number of international oil companies have decided to withdraw their employees from Libya to ensure their safety, including Gazprom, Shell, Sinopec, Suncor, Pertamina, and BP. Other companies that decided to evacuate their employees include Siemens and Russian Railways. China set up its largest evacuation operation ever with over 30,000 Chinese nationals evacuated within a 9-day emergency operation. China also managed to evacuate an additional group of 2,100 citizens from 12 other countries.

On 25 February, 500 passengers, mostly Americans, sailed into Malta after a rough eight-hour journey from Tripoli and two-day wait for the seas to calm down. The United Kingdom deployed aircrafts and the frigate HMS Cumberland to assist in the evacuation of their citizens and other nationals. China's frigate Xuzhou of the People's Liberation Army Navy was ordered to guard the Chinese evacuation efforts. Ireland dispatched two Irish Air Corps planes to evacuate Irish citizens from Libya, but these returned on 24 February without passengers after Libyan security officials prevented them from evacuating passengers. The Irish Department of Foreign Affairs assisted over 115 Irish nationals in leaving Libya. An Irish Air Corps Learjet later flew seven Irish evacuees from Malta to Casement Aerodrome. On the evening of 25 February, the United Kingdom and Germany launched a joint evacuation operation, involving two Royal Air Force transport planes with British Special Forces on board and two Luftwaffe Transall C-160 transport planes, with elite Fallschirmjäger on board. The planes evacuated 22 Germans and about 100 other Europeans, mostly British oil workers from the airport at Nafurah to Crete. On 26 February, the Indian government launched Operation Safe Homecoming to evacuate its citizens out of Libya. It involves ships of the Indian Navy, two charted ships, aircraft of the Indian Air Force, Air India, Jet Airways and Kingfisher Airlines. These operations are expected to continue until March 12. On 27 February, two Royal Air Force C-130 Hercules aircraft again with British Special Forces evacuated approximately 100 foreign nationals, mainly oil workers, to Malta from the desert south of Benghazi, one of which was shot at and suffered some damage, but no one was injured. On the afternoon of 27 February, a Lynx helicopter from the Royal Netherlands Navy frigate HNLMS Tromp attempted to evacuate a Dutch civilian and another European from the coastal city of Sirt. The attempt failed and the helicopter and its crew of three Dutch navy soldiers were apprehended by Libyan forces loyal to Gaddafi, while the two civilians were handed over to the Dutch embassy in Tripoli. The Libyan state television showed a video of the Dutch soldiers and the helicopter and announced that the soldiers are accused of "breaching international law" since they had infiltrated Libyan airspace without clearance. After negotiations with the Gaddafi regime the crew was released on 11 March and flown to Athens by the Greek military. However, the regime held on to the crew's helicopter. On 1 March, the South Korean Navy destroyer ROKS Choi Young arrived of the coast of Tripoli to evacuate South Korean citizens from Libya. By this point, 12,000 had been evacuated from Libya to Malta, 3,000 of them by airplane to Luqa airport and the rest by ferries to Floriana, Valletta, Marsa and Pietà, Malta. On 2 March 2011, the Royal Navy destroyer HMS York docked in the port of Benghazi, evacuated 43 nationals, and delivered medical supplies and other humanitarian aid donated by the Swedish government. On the same day, the Canadian Navy frigate HMCS Charlottetown left its home port of Halifax to aid in the evacuation of Canadian citizens and to provide humanitarian relief operations in conjunction with an US Navy carrier strike group, led by the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier USS Enterprise.

Mediation proposals

There have been several peace mediation prospects during the crisis. There was some speculation that Tony Blair, who had dealings with Gaddafi in the last few years, would mediate the crisis, Blair instead tried to downplay his dealings with Libyan regime and turned his back on Gaddafi. The South African government also floated the idea of an African Union-led mediation effort to prevent "civil war".

Another initiative came from Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez. Though Gaddafi accepted in principle a proposal by Chávez to negotiate a settlement between the opposition and the Libyan government, Saif al-Islam, later voiced some skepticism to the proposal. On news of Gaddafi in principle accepting the Chávez's proposal for international mediation, there was a worldwide decrease in oil and gold prices. The proposal is also under consideration by the Arab League, according to Chairman Amr Moussa. The Libyan opposition was cold to the proposal, saying that while they are willing to save lives, any deal would have to involve Gaddafi stepping down, while the US and French governments dismissed any initiative that would allow Gaddafi to remain in power.

Financial markets

Further information: Economy of Libya

Regional financial stock-market indices fell on 20 February on concern of spreading instability. Global stock markets fell the next day. On 22 February, crude oil and bonds climbed while Asian stocks fell on concern for stability in OPEC-member state Libya. US stock-market futures also dropped on the first working day following the aerial bombardments of protesters. On 27 February, Saudi Arabia's Tadawul stock market index fell to a six-month low along with other regional Arab markets due to the clashes in Libya that caused a price increase in oil and amid fears that a recovery from the global economic crisis would slow. The following day Asian stock also declined because of the unrest.

No-fly zone

Main article: Proposed Libyan no-fly zone

Prime Minister David Cameron of the United Kingdom proposed the idea of a no-fly zone to prevent Gaddafi from airlifting mercenaries and using his military aeroplanes and armoured helicopters against civilians. Italy said it would support a no-fly zone if it was backed by the United Nations. U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert M. Gates was cautious on this option, warning the US Congress that a no-fly zone would have to begin with an attack on Libya's air defenses. This proposal was rejected by Russia and China. On 7 March, US Ambassador to NATO Ivo Daalder announced that NATO decided to step up surveillance missions to 24 hours a day. On the same day it was reported that one UN diplomat confirmed to AFP on condition of anonymity that France and Britain were drawing up a resolution on the no-fly zone and it go before the United Nations Security Council as early as this week.

Because of the sensitive nature of military action by the US against an Arab nation, it is possible that the US is looking for a joint NATO/Arab enforcement of the no-fly zone. Egypt, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates are possible partners. Since the UAE is the only country without internal unrest and depends on the US for protection against Iran it is a likely candidate for enforcing the no-fly zone. On Saturday 12 March the foreign ministers of the Arab League agreed on asking the United Nations to impose a no-fly zone over Libya. This brings a joint NATO/Arab enforced fly-zone closer to establishing.

Relations with the rebels

On March 4 one SIS officer and seven SAS soldiers arrived by a helicopter to Benghazi. However, they were quickly surrounded by the local militia who demanded to know who they were and what they were doing. They claimed that they were unarmed but their weapons were discovered and they were detained. Then Richard Northern, the British ambassador to Libya, was purportedly recorded having a conversation with one of the rebel leaders to try and solve the situation (this tape was played on Libyan state television). On March 6 the British were released but their weapons were confiscated. The British left Libya by the frigate HMS Cumberland, which docked briefly in Benghazi before setting sail to Malta.

On 7 March, Robert Fisk of The Independent reported that the US government had asked Saudi Arabia if it could supply weapons to the rebels in Benghazi. The Saudis have been told that the opponents of Gaddafi need anti-tank rockets, mortars and surface-to-air missiles. However, on 8 March the US State Department denied the reports and that the United States would arm opposition groups without explicit international authorization. It maintained that United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970, which imposed international sanctions on Libya including an arms embargo, applied to both the Gaddafi regime and the rebel groups.

U.S. global security consultancy Stratfor reported that Egypt's special operations force Unit 777 and Tunisian volunteers were in Libya fighting for the rebels.

On 10 March, France became the first nation to recognize the National Transitional Council as the sole Representative of Libya. A source also announced that France plans to send an ambassador to Benghazi. Portugal, who hosted the Libyan emissary Wednesday night and also heads the United Nation's Security Council sanctions committee, also recognized the National Transitional Council. Portugal's foreign minister Luis Amado said, (QTHE GADDAFI REGIME IS OVER, ITS LEGITIMACY IS OVER).

Both the European Union and the Arab League have both agreed to begin dealing with the National Transitional Council, though it is unclear whether this constitutes full diplomatic recognition in either instance. Similarly, although the United Kingdom advocated alongside France for EU recognition of the interim government in Benghazi, it is unclear whether London has itself transferred recognition to the council.

International aid

On 2 March, the Royal Navy destroyer HMS York had arrived in Benghazi carrying medical supplies and other humanitarian aid donated by the Swedish government. The medical supplies, a donation to the Benghazi Medical Centre, were supposed to have been flown direct to Benghazi airport but when the airport was closed down, they were diverted to Malta. They were transferred from the airport to the frigate at short notice by the Armed Forces of Malta. On 8 March, a convoy of trucks from the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP) had entered Libya and was due to arrive in the eastern port city of Benghazi on the same day, the WFP said in a statement. A convoy carrying seventy metric tonnes of high-energy date bars crossed the Egyptian border overnight on its way to the eastern port. On 7 March, U.N. aid coordinator Valerie Amos stated that fighting across Libya meant that more than a million people fleeing or inside the country needed humanitarian aid.

See also

• 2011 Egyptian revolution
• International reactions to the 2011 Libyan uprising
• Jasmine Revolution
• List of conflicts in the Maghreb

Further reading

• Pargeter, Alison (2006). "Libya: Reforming the impossible?". Review of African Political Economy. 33 (108): 219–35. doi:10.1080/03056240600842685.
• Sadikia, Larbi (2010). "Wither Arab 'Republicanism'? The Rise of Family Rule and the 'End of Democratization' in Egypt, Libya and Yemen". Mediterranean Politics. 15 (1): 99–107. doi:10.1080/13629391003644827.

External links

Collected news coverage

• "In depth", Libya Uprising, Qatar: Al Jazeera English
• "Live blog", Live Blog, Qatar: Al Jazeera English
• "Topic", Libya revolt, UK: BBC News
• "Topic", Libya in crisis, UK: The Guardian
• "Topic", Libya - The Protests (2011), US: The New York Times
• "Topic", Libya, UK: Reuters
• "Topic", Libya 2011, Russia: RIA Novosti
• "Topic", Libya, Germany: Der Spiegel

Articles

• "A call to defend Libya's unity, sovereignty, and independence from imperialist aggression", Free Arab Voice.
• "Libya 2007–2010 data, 23 indicators related to peace, democracy and other aspects", Vision of Humanity.
• Clark, Campbell; Chase, Steven (1 March 2011). "Canada girds for substantial military role in North Africa". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 3 March 2011.