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→Riots: restore aftermath. there needs to be a conclusion, right? what happened to the movement in the 1800s? did it suddenly disappear?
please see the talk page discussion, rm sentence fragment that makes no sense. Add some sources and sentences to 20th century section
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Sandra Freitag states that this ruling dramatically accelerated cow protection movement, because people believed that the state had selectively denied a religious right to them, while Muslims believed that the state had affirmed their right to sacrifice a cow on Bakri-Id festival.<ref name=Sandra/>{{rp|217-218}} Individuals and local groups began providing cow protection when the state refused to recognize what they considered sacred. According to Freitag, thousands of people would block roads, seize cows from butchers and take them to shelters.<ref name=Sandra/>{{rp|217-218}} In other cases, crowds "as large as 5,000 to 6,000 people" would march for hours to gather before Muslim landlords to pressure the landlord from proceeding ahead with cow slaughter on a Muslim festival. Some groups would hold mock trials of those accused of cow sacrifice or those who sold the cow for sacrifice, simulating the colonial era court procedures, then sentencing those they declared guilty.<ref name=Sandra/>{{rp|217-218}}
Sandra Freitag states that this ruling dramatically accelerated cow protection movement, because people believed that the state had selectively denied a religious right to them, while Muslims believed that the state had affirmed their right to sacrifice a cow on Bakri-Id festival.<ref name=Sandra/>{{rp|217-218}} Individuals and local groups began providing cow protection when the state refused to recognize what they considered sacred. According to Freitag, thousands of people would block roads, seize cows from butchers and take them to shelters.<ref name=Sandra/>{{rp|217-218}} In other cases, crowds "as large as 5,000 to 6,000 people" would march for hours to gather before Muslim landlords to pressure the landlord from proceeding ahead with cow slaughter on a Muslim festival. Some groups would hold mock trials of those accused of cow sacrifice or those who sold the cow for sacrifice, simulating the colonial era court procedures, then sentencing those they declared guilty.<ref name=Sandra/>{{rp|217-218}}


===Riots===
===Violence===
{{Further information|Violence related to cow protection in India}}
{{Further information|Violence related to cow protection in India}}
Cow protection has triggered riots and vigilantism since at least the 19th-century. According to Mark Doyle, the first cow protection societies on the Indian subcontinent were started by Kukas of [[Sikhism]].<ref >{{cite book|author=Mark Doyle|title=Communal Violence in the British Empire: Disturbing the Pax|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QK2tDAAAQBAJ|year=2016|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic Publishing|isbn=978-1-4742-6826-4|pages=249 note 16}}</ref> In 1871, states Peter van der Veer, Sikhs killed Muslim butchers of cows in [[Amritsar]] and [[Ludhiana]], and viewed cow protection as a "sign of the moral quality of the state".<ref name="Veer1994p90">{{cite book|author=Peter van der Veer|title=Religious Nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p29ArJ7j6zgC|year=1994|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-08256-4|pages=90–91}}</ref> According to Barbara Metcalf and Thomas Metcalf, Sikhs were agitating for the well-being of cows in the 1860s, and their ideas spread to Hindu reform movements.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Barbara D. Metcalf| author2=Thomas R. Metcalf|title= A Concise History of Modern India|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=c7UgAwAAQBAJ| year=2012|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 978-1-139-53705-6|pages=152–153}}</ref>
Cow protection has triggered riots and vigilantism since at least the 19th-century. According to Mark Doyle, the first cow protection societies on the Indian subcontinent were started by Kukas of [[Sikhism]].<ref >{{cite book|author=Mark Doyle|title=Communal Violence in the British Empire: Disturbing the Pax|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QK2tDAAAQBAJ|year=2016|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic Publishing|isbn=978-1-4742-6826-4|pages=249 note 16}}</ref> In 1871, states Peter van der Veer, Sikhs killed Muslim butchers of cows in [[Amritsar]] and [[Ludhiana]], and viewed cow protection as a "sign of the moral quality of the state".<ref name="Veer1994p90">{{cite book|author=Peter van der Veer|title=Religious Nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p29ArJ7j6zgC|year=1994|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-08256-4|pages=90–91}}</ref> According to Barbara Metcalf and Thomas Metcalf, Sikhs were agitating for the well-being of cows in the 1860s, and their ideas spread to Hindu reform movements.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Barbara D. Metcalf| author2=Thomas R. Metcalf|title= A Concise History of Modern India|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=c7UgAwAAQBAJ| year=2012|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 978-1-139-53705-6|pages=152–153}}</ref>


According to Judith Walsh, widespread cow protection-related riots occurred repeatedly in [[British India]] in the 1880s and 1890s. These were observed in regions of [[Punjab]], [[United Provinces of British India|United Provinces]], Bihar, [[Bengal]], [[Bombay Presidency]] and in parts of South [[Myanmar]] (Rangoon). The anti-Cow Killing riots of 1893 in Punjab started during the Muslim festival of Bakr-Id, and they caused the death of at least 100 people.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Yang | first=Anand A. | title=Sacred Symbol and Sacred Space in Rural India: Community Mobilization in the “Anti-Cow Killing” Riot of 1893 | journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History | publisher=Cambridge University Press | volume=22 | issue=04 | year=1980 | doi= 10.1017/s0010417500009555 | pages=576–596}}</ref><ref name=Judith>{{cite book|author=Judith E. Walsh|title=A Brief History of India|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iekF9X3OwwMC|year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0825-4|pages=161–162}}</ref> The 1893 cow killing riots the riot repeated in 1894, and they were the largest riots in British India after the 1857 revolt.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mark Doyle|title=Communal Violence in the British Empire: Disturbing the Pax|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QK2tDAAAQBAJ|year= 2016|publisher= Bloomsbury Academic Publishing|isbn=978-1-4742-6826-4|pages=157–161}}</ref> After some 45 separate cow-related communal riots in the 1890s, the violence associated with the movement ceased, according to Maria Misra, because many Indian were repelled by the bloodshed and they saw no chance of securing a legislative intervention.<ref name=Misra/>{{rp|69}}
According to Judith Walsh, widespread cow protection-related riots occurred repeatedly in [[British India]] in the 1880s and 1890s. These were observed in regions of [[Punjab]], [[United Provinces of British India|United Provinces]], Bihar, [[Bengal]], [[Bombay Presidency]] and in parts of South [[Myanmar]] (Rangoon). The anti-Cow Killing riots of 1893 in Punjab started during the Muslim festival of Bakr-Id, and they caused the death of at least 100 people.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Yang | first=Anand A. | title=Sacred Symbol and Sacred Space in Rural India: Community Mobilization in the “Anti-Cow Killing” Riot of 1893 | journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History | publisher=Cambridge University Press | volume=22 | issue=04 | year=1980 | doi= 10.1017/s0010417500009555 | pages=576–596}}</ref><ref name=Judith>{{cite book|author=Judith E. Walsh|title=A Brief History of India|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iekF9X3OwwMC|year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0825-4|pages=161–162}}</ref> The 1893 cow killing riots the riot repeated in 1894, and they were the largest riots in British India after the 1857 revolt.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mark Doyle|title=Communal Violence in the British Empire: Disturbing the Pax|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QK2tDAAAQBAJ|year= 2016|publisher= Bloomsbury Academic Publishing|isbn=978-1-4742-6826-4|pages=157–161}}</ref> After some 45 separate cow-related communal riots in the 1890s, the violence associated with the movement ceased, according to Maria Misra, because many Indian were repelled by the bloodshed and they saw no chance of securing a legislative intervention.<ref name=Misra/>{{rp|69}}

In 1893 there were riots in [[Azamgarh]] and [[Mau]], in eastern [[Uttar Pradesh]]. The Azamgarh riots were born out of administrative disputes regarding cow slaughter. Reportedly an inexperienced British officer (Henry Dupernex) ordered Muslims to register with the police, if they wished to slaughter cows for [[Eid al-Adha]]. Many of the Muslims interpreted the order as an invitation to sacrifice.<ref name=Groves>{{cite journal|title=Law, Religion and Public Order in Colonial India: Contextualising the 1887 Allahabad High Court Case on ‘Sacred’ Cows|journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies|author=Matthew Groves|pages=96-97}}</ref> In Mau, a local Muslim landowner insisted on slaughtering an animal for his daughter's wedding. However, a group of local Hindus gathered to object. They were joined by four thousand men from [[Ballia district]] and two thousand from [[Ghazipur district]]. The cow protectors attacked the Muslims and looted a bazaar in Mau. Estimates of casualties ranged from seven Muslims killed to a death toll of 200.<ref>{{cite book|title=Indian Nationalism and the Early Congress|author=John R. McLane|page=315}}</ref>

====Aftermath====
After the riots, the cow protection movements appeared to have gone in decline. Many Indians were repulsed by their aggression; they also doubted that the movement might prove effective in banning cow slaughter.<ref name=Misra/>{{rp|69}}

According to Shabnum Tejani, the response to the Bombay riots exposed the "fundamental antagonism between Hindus and Muslims".<ref name=Secularism/>{{rp|48}}
The response of Muslims to Hindu opinions, states Tejani, was equally stark.<ref>{{cite book|author=Shabnum Tejani|title=Indian Secularism: A Social and Intellectual History, 1890-1950|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6xtrPKa59j4C&pg=PA48|year=2008|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-22044-0|pages=47-49}}; Quote: "Opinion on the other side was equally stark."</ref> Muslim volunteers went around distributing pamphlets and raising community funds to defend Muslims arrested during cow-killing riots of 1890s.<ref name="Tejani2008p49"/> These stated that "Hindus have begun rebellion and had without rhyme or reason become enemies of our life and property, honour and reputation... we are forbidden to make sacrifices - Hindus interfere in our legitimate luxury".<ref name="Tejani2008p49"/> A ban on cow sacrifice, stated these Muslims, is a beginning not only of an end to their right to animal sacrifice, but "tomorrow from their even proclaiming the hour of prayer and the day after from praying altogether".<ref name="Tejani2008p49"/>


==History in Myanmar==
==History in Myanmar==
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==20th century==
==20th century==


In the 20th century, the movement to ban cow slaughter continued. Many leaders of the [[Indian National Congress]] supported it as did [[Mahatma Gandhi]].<ref name=Christophe/>{{rp|204}} However, the support was not universal. For example, in the 1950s, Jawaharlal Nehru opposed a national ban on cow slaughter.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ls38Az4-J64C&pg=PA160 |title=India and the Politics of Developing Countries: Essays in Memory of Myron Weiner|author = Steven Wilkinson| editor= Myron Weiner, Ashutosh Varshney and Gabriel Almond | year = 2004|publisher=SAGE Publications| isbn=9780761932871| page=160 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tLpRFbLSxvAC&pg=PA117 |title=Votes and Violence: Electoral Competition and Ethnic Riots in India|last=Wilkinson|first=Steven I.|year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press| isbn=9780521536059| pages=117 }}</ref>
In the 20th century, the movement to ban cow slaughter continued. Often such appeals. The [[Indian National Congress]] treated it as a legitimate cause. [[Mahatma Gandhi]] expressed veneration for the cow, but made it clear that this issue should not be used against Muslims.<ref name=Christophe/>{{rp|204}}

⚫
Cattle protection-related violence continued at numerous occasions, often over the Muslim festival of Bakri-Id, in the first half of the 20th century.<ref name="Thursby1975p80">{{cite book|author=Gene R. Thursby|title=Hindu-Muslim Relations in British India: A Study of Controversy, Conflict, and Communal Movements in Northern India 1923-1928|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abcfAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA80|year=1975|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-04380-2|pages=80–83}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Meena Menon|title=Riots and After in Mumbai: Chronicles of Truth and Reconciliation| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QRmJCwAAQBAJ |year= 2012|publisher= SAGE Publications|isbn= 978-81-321-1935-7|pages= 22–37, 55–58, 73–82}}</ref>


In the 1950s, the issue of cow slaughter was taken up by the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] (RSS). The issue was revived on a larger scale in the 1960s, by the ''sadhus'', who were supported by the RSS and [[Bharatiya Jana Sangh]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Globalization In India: Contents And Discontents|authors=Suman Gupta, Gupta / Basu / Chattarji|year=2010|page=52}}</ref>
In the 1950s, the issue of cow slaughter was taken up by the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] (RSS). The issue was revived on a larger scale in the 1960s, by the ''sadhus'', who were supported by the RSS and [[Bharatiya Jana Sangh]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Globalization In India: Contents And Discontents|authors=Suman Gupta, Gupta / Basu / Chattarji|year=2010|page=52}}</ref>

⚫
Cattle protection-related violence continued at numerous occasions, often over the Muslim festival of Bakri-Id, in the first half of the 20th century.<ref name="Thursby1975p80">{{cite book|author=Gene R. Thursby|title=Hindu-Muslim Relations in British India: A Study of Controversy, Conflict, and Communal Movements in Northern India 1923-1928|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abcfAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA80|year=1975|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-04380-2|pages=80–83}}</ref>


===1966===
===1966===
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== 21st century==
== 21st century==
In contemporary times, according to media reports, cattle theft for beef production in India has increased,<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/27/world/asia/cow-thefts-on-the-rise-in-india.html For New Breed of Rustlers, Nothing Is Sacred], Gardiner Harris (MAY 26, 2013), The New York Times</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Buncombe | first=Andrew | title=Nothing's sacred: the illegal trade in India's holy cows | website=The Independent | date=2012-06-01 | url=http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/nothings-sacred-the-illegal-trade-in-indias-holy-cows-7808483.html | access-date=2017-06-27}}</ref> as well as cow-protection groups and cow protection-related violence.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Raj|first1=Suhasini|title=Hindu Cow Vigilantes in Rajasthan, India, Beat Muslim to Death|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/05/world/asia/india-cow-mob-hindu-vigilantes.html|work=The New York Times|date=5 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Violent vigilante cow protection groups prompt condemnation from Indian PM Narendra Modi|url=http://nationalpost.com/g00/news/world/violent-vigilante-cow-protection-groups-prompt-condemnation-from-indian-pm-narendra-modi/}}</ref>

In the present day, '''Gau Raksha Dal'''<ref>{{cite web|author=payel majumdar |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/blink/know/bringing-the-cows-home/article8916051.ece |title=Bringing the cows home &#124; Business Line |publisher=Thehindubusinessline.com |date=2016-07-29 |accessdate=2016-12-27}}</ref> and cow vigilantes continue to spread the cow protection movement in [[India]], but some recognised organisations<ref>{{cite web|url=http://khabar.ndtv.com/video/show/badi-khabar/badi-khabar-beating-for-the-publicity-in-the-name-of-the-cow-425406 |title=बड़ी खबर : गाय के नाम पर पिटाई पब्लिसिटी के लिए? वीडियो - हिन्दी न्यूज़ वीडियो एनडीटीवी ख़बर |publisher=Khabar.ndtv.com |date=2016-07-28 |accessdate=2016-12-27}}</ref> are also working on this cause widely.<ref>Many controversies are involved in this movement.http://www.newsx.com/national/33423-two-gau-raksha-dal-volunteers-shot-in-gurgaon</ref> Pawan Pandit,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newslaundry.com/2016/07/19/go-for-gau-raksha-haryana-police-to-work-with-cow-vigilantes/ |title=Newslaundry |publisher=Newslaundry |date=2016-01-01 |accessdate=2016-12-27}}</ref> the chairman of [[Bhartiya Gau Raksha Dal]], is leading the cow protection movement currently.
In the present day, '''Gau Raksha Dal'''<ref>{{cite web|author=payel majumdar |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/blink/know/bringing-the-cows-home/article8916051.ece |title=Bringing the cows home &#124; Business Line |publisher=Thehindubusinessline.com |date=2016-07-29 |accessdate=2016-12-27}}</ref> and cow vigilantes continue to spread the cow protection movement in [[India]], but some recognised organisations<ref>{{cite web|url=http://khabar.ndtv.com/video/show/badi-khabar/badi-khabar-beating-for-the-publicity-in-the-name-of-the-cow-425406 |title=बड़ी खबर : गाय के नाम पर पिटाई पब्लिसिटी के लिए? वीडियो - हिन्दी न्यूज़ वीडियो एनडीटीवी ख़बर |publisher=Khabar.ndtv.com |date=2016-07-28 |accessdate=2016-12-27}}</ref> are also working on this cause widely.<ref>Many controversies are involved in this movement.http://www.newsx.com/national/33423-two-gau-raksha-dal-volunteers-shot-in-gurgaon</ref> Pawan Pandit,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newslaundry.com/2016/07/19/go-for-gau-raksha-haryana-police-to-work-with-cow-vigilantes/ |title=Newslaundry |publisher=Newslaundry |date=2016-01-01 |accessdate=2016-12-27}}</ref> the chairman of [[Bhartiya Gau Raksha Dal]], is leading the cow protection movement currently.


Revision as of 03:17, 2 July 2017

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The cow protection movement has been a religious and political movement aiming to protect the cows whose slaughter has been broadly opposed by Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs.[1][2][3] While the opposition to slaughter of animals including cows has ancient roots in Indian religions, the cow protection movement traces to the colonial era British India.[4] The earliest activism is traceable to Sikhs of Punjab who opposed cow slaughter in the 1860s.[5][6] The movement became popular in the 1880s and thereafter, attracting the support from the Arya Samaj founder Swami Dayananda Saraswati in the late 19th-century,[7] and from Mahatma Gandhi in early 20th-century.[8]

The cow protection movement gained broad support among the followers of Indian religions particularly the Hindus, but it was broadly opposed by Muslims. Numerous cow protection-related riots broke out in the 1880s and 1890s in British India.[9] The 1893 and 1894 cow killing riots started on the day of Bakri-id, a Muslim festival where animal sacrifices are a part of the celebration. Cow protection movement and related violence has been one of the sources of religious conflicts in India. Historical records suggest that both Hindus and Muslims have respectively viewed "cow protection" and "cow slaughter" as a religious freedom.[10]

The cow protection movement is most connected with India, but has been active since the colonial times in predominantly Buddhist countries such as Sri Lanka and Myanmar.[11][12][13]

Attitudes towards the cow

Hinduism

According to Nanditha Krishna, the cow veneration in ancient India "probably originated from the pastoral Aryans" in the Vedic era, whose religious texts called for non-violence towards all bipeds and quadrupeds, and often equated killing of a cow with the killing of a human being especially a Brahmin.[14] The hymn 10.87.16 of the Hindu scripture Rigveda (~1200–1500 BCE), states Nanditha Krishna, condemns all killings of men, cattle and horses, and prays to god Agni to punish those who kill.[15][16]

The iconography of popular Hindu deity Krishna often includes cows. He is revered in Vaishnavism.

According to Harris, the literature relating to cow veneration became common in 1st millennium CE, and by about 1000 CE vegetarianism, along with a taboo against beef, became a well accepted mainstream Hindu tradition.[17] This practice was inspired by the belief in Hinduism that a soul is present in all living beings, life in all its forms is interconnected, and non-violence towards all creatures is the highest ethical value.[17][18] Vegetarianism is a part of the Hindu culture. God Krishna, one of the incarnations (Avatar) of Vishnu, is associated with cows, adding to its endearment.[17][18]

Many ancient and medieval Hindu texts debate the rationale for a voluntary stop to cow slaughter and the pursuit of vegetarianism as a part of a general abstention from violence against others and all killing of animals.[19][20] Some significant debates between pro-non-vegetarianism and pro-vegetarianism, with mention of cattle meat as food, is found in several books of the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata, particularly its Book III, XII, XIII and XIV.[19] It is also found in the Ramayana.[20] These two epics are not only literary classics, but they have also been popular religious classics.[21]

The Mahabharata debate presents one meat-producing hunter who defends his profession as dharmic.[19] The hunter, in this ancient Sanskrit text, states that meat consumption should be okay because animal sacrifice was practiced in the Vedic age, that the flesh nourishes people, that man must eat to live and plants like animals are alive too, that the nature of life is such every life form eats the other, that no profession is totally non-violent because even agriculture destroys numerous living beings when the plough digs the land.[19] The hunter's arguments are, states Alsdorf, followed by stanzas that present support for restricted meat-eating on specific occasions.[19]

The pro-vegetarianism sections of these Hindu texts counter these views. One section acknowledges that the Vedas do mention sacrifice, but not killing the animal. The proponents of vegetarianism state that Vedic teachings explicitly teach against killing, its verses can be interpreted in many ways, that the correct interpretation is of the sacrifice as the interiorized spiritual sacrifice, one where it is an "offering of truth (satya) and self-restraint (damah)", with the proper sacrifice being one "with reverence as the sacrificial meal and Veda study as the herbal juices".[22][23] The sections that appeal for vegetarianism, including abstention from cow slaughter, state that life forms exist in different levels of development, some life forms have more developed sensory organs, that non-violence towards fellow man and animals who experience pain and suffering is an appropriate ethical value. It states that one's guiding principle should be conscientious atmaupamya (literally, "to-respect-others-as-oneself").[19]

According to Ludwig Alsdorf, "Indian vegetarianism is unequivocally based on ahimsa (non-violence)" as evidenced by ancient smritis and other ancient texts of Hinduism. He adds that the endearment and respect for cattle in Hinduism is more than a commitment to vegetarianism, it has become integral to its theology.[24] The respect for cattle is widespread but not universal. Some Hindus (Shaktism) practice animal sacrifice and eat meat including beef at certain festivals. According to Christopher Fuller, animal sacrifices have been rare among the Hindus outside a few eastern states and Himalayan regions of the Indian subcontinent.[24][25] To the majority of modern Indians, states Alsdorf, respect for cattle and disrespect for slaughter is a part of their ethos and there is "no ahimsa without renunciation of meat consumption".[24]

Jainism

Jainism is against violence to all living beings, including cattle. According to the Jaina sutras, humans must avoid all killing and slaughter because all living beings are fond of life, they suffer, they feel pain, they like to live, and long to live. All beings should help each other live and prosper, according to Jainism, not kill and slaughter each other.[26][27]

In the Jain tradition, neither monks nor laypersons should cause others or allow others to work in a slaughterhouse.[28]

Jains have led a historic campaign to ban the slaughter of cows and all other animals, particularly during their annual festival of Paryushana (also called Daslakshana by Digambara).[29] Historical records, for example, state that the Jain leaders lobbied Mughal emperors to ban slaughter of cow and other animals, during this 8 to 12 day period. In some cases, such as during the 16th century rule of Akbar, they were granted their request and an edict was issued by Akbar.[30][31]

Buddhism

The texts of Buddhism state ahimsa to be one of five ethical precepts, which requires a practicing Buddhist to "refrain from killing living beings".[32] Slaughtering cow has been a taboo, with some texts suggest taking care of a cow is a means of taking care of "all living beings". Cattle is seen as a form of reborn human beings in the endless rebirth cycles in samsara, protecting animal life and being kind to cattle and other animals is good karma.[32][33]

The Buddhist texts not only state that killing or eating meat is wrong, it urges Buddhist laypersons to not operate slaughterhouses, nor trade in meat.[34][35][36] Indian Buddhist texts encourage a plant-based diet.[18][17]

Sikhism

Amritdhari Sikhs, or those baptized with the Amrit, have been strict vegetarians, abstaining from all eggs and meat, including cattle meat.[37][38]

Sikhs who eat meat seek the Jhatka method of producing meat believing it to cause less suffering to the animal. Both initiated and uninitiated Sikhs are strictly prohibited from eating meat from animals slaughtered by halal method, known as Kutha meat, where the animal is killed by exsanguination (via throat-cutting).[39] According to Eleanor Nesbitt, the general issue of vegetarianism versus non-vegetarianism is controversial within Sikhism, and contemporary Sikhs disagree.[37] The uninitiated Sikhs too are not habitual meat-eaters by choice, and beef (cow meat) has been a traditional taboo.[37][40][41]

Christianity

There are no explicit food restrictions in Christianity. The diet rules, states Tanya MacLaurin, vary among Christian denominations, with some not advocating any restrictions.[42] According to David Grumett, Rachel Muers and other scholars, many Christian saints[43] and preachers of Christianity such as Charles Spurgeon, Ellen G. White, John Todd Ferrier, and William Cowherd practiced and encouraged a meat-free diet.[44] Devout Catholics and Orthodox Christians avoid meat on Fridays and particularly during Lent, states MacLaurin.[42]

Islam

According to the verses of the Quran, such as 16:5–8 and 23:21–23, God created cattle to benefit man and recommends Muslims to eat cattle meat, but forbids pork.[45] Chapter two (The Cow) of Quran permit cow slaughter with certain restrictions such as verse 2.68 states "a cow neither with calf nor immature; (she is) between the two conditions", "cow has never till a land or water the field" (verse 2.71), "cow should be bright yellow in color" (2.69).[46][47]

Also the cow has never till a land or water the field (2.71) and the cow should be bright yellow in color (2.69). Cattle slaughter had been and continued to be a religiously approved practice among the Muslim rulers and the followers of Islam, particularly on festive occasions such as the Bakri-Id.[45]

Muslims sacrifice cows during the Bakri-Id festival. Though goat slaughter is an available alternative for the Islamic festival, according to Peter van der Veer, Muslims have considered it "imperative not to bow down to Hindu encroachments on their 'ancient' right to sacrifice cows on Bakr-Id".[48]

History in India

There can be little doubt, states Peter van der Veer, "that protection of the cow already had a political significance before the [colonial era] British period".[6] The Mughal emperor Akbar banned the killing of cow.[49] After the collapse of the Mughal Empire, cow slaughter was a capital offense in many Hindu and Sikh ruled regions of the subcontinent. The East India Company continued the ban on cow slaughter in many domains. Henry Lawrence, after the British annexed Punjab, banned cattle slaughter in it in 1847, in order to win the popular Sikh support.[49] In the 1857 revolt, the Muslim emperor Bahadur Shah II threatened to blow any Muslim caught sacrificing a cattle during Bakr-Id.[49] The independence leader of India, Mahatma Gandhi, championed cow protection.[8][50][51]

Sikhism

According to Mark Doyle, the first cow protection societies on the Indian subcontinent were started by Kukas of Sikhism, a reformist group seeking to purify Sikhism.[52] The Sikh Kukas or Namdharis were agitating for cow protection after the British annexed Punjab. In 1871, states Peter van der Veer, Sikhs killed Muslim butchers of cows in Amritsar and Ludhiana, and viewed cow protection as a "sign of the moral quality of the state".[6] According to Barbara Metcalf and Thomas Metcalf, Sikhs were agitating for the well-being of cows in 1860s, and their ideas spread to Hindu reform movements.[5]

Cow protection has triggered riots and vigilantism since at least the 19th-century. According to Mark Doyle, the first cow protection societies on the Indian subcontinent were started by Kukas of Sikhism.[53] In 1871, states Peter van der Veer, Sikhs killed Muslim butchers of cows in Amritsar and Ludhiana, and viewed cow protection as a "sign of the moral quality of the state".[6] According to Barbara Metcalf and Thomas Metcalf, Sikhs were agitating for the well-being of cows in the 1860s, and their ideas spread to Hindu reform movements.[54]

Spread of the movement

In the 1870s, cow protection movements spread rapidly in the Punjab, the North-West provinces, Awadh and Rohilkhand. Arya Samaj had a tremendous role in skillfully converting this sentiment into a national movement.[55] Vijaypal Baghel has been dedicating to save cow and conducting a mass movement in the northern India.

The first Gaurakshini sabha (cow protection society) was established in the Punjab in 1882.[56] The movement spread rapidly all over North India and to Bengal, Bombay, Madras and other central provinces. The organisation rescued wandering cows and reclaimed them to groom them in places called gaushalas (cow refuges). Charitable networks developed all through North India to collect rice from individuals, pool the contributions, and re-sell them to fund the gaushalas. Signatures, up to 350,000 in some places, were collected to demand a ban on cow sacrifice.[57]

The cow protection societies petitioned that the cows are essential economic wealth because "these animals furnish bullocks for agriculture, manure for enriching the soil, and give milk to drink and feed the owner", states Tejani. Further, these societies stated that cow slaughter be banned in British India for public health and to prevent further famines and reduce price inflation in agriculture produce, and that such a policy would benefit Christians, Hindus and Muslims simultaneously.[58]: 47  By the late 1880s, bands of cow protection activists would seize cows on their way to slaughterhouses and cattle fairs and take them to cow shelters.[57][59]: 217  During the religious riots of 1890s, those who slaughter cows and eat beef were denounced in public meetings.[60]: 68 

Arya Samaj

Arya Samaj and its founder Dayananda Saraswati were one of the early supporters of the cow protection movement.[61][7]

Dayananda Saraswathi published the Gokarunanidhi (Ocean of mercy to the cow) in 1881. It strongly opposed cow slaughter.[62] According to Śekhara Bandyopādhyāẏa, during Dayananda’s time, cow protection movement was initially not overtly anti-Muslim, but gradually became a source of communal tension.[63] Many cow protection leaders also insisted that their cause was neither religious, nor motivated by prejudice.[58]: 48 

Religious antagonism

According to Shabnum Tejani, the cow dispute has been overwhelming interpreted as evidence of "fundamental antagonism between Hindus and Muslims".[58]: 48  The cow protection societies were careful in their public statements, states Tejani, but an "anti-Muslim sentiment" was a part of their movement. This is evidenced by the brochures and pamphlets they distributed in 1880s and 1890s to mobilize support for cow protection.[64][58]: 48  For example, a common theme were illustrations and posters of a "villainous Muslim stalking the god-fearing Brahman and his gentle cow"; often the Muslim was depicted with a long sword.[58]: 48  Dramas were staged that depicted Muslims secretly abducting cows and then sacrificing them at Bakr-Id. The movement even set up tribunals to prosecute Hindus who sold cows to Muslims or the British.[60]: 68 

The response of Muslims to Hindu opinions, states Tejani, was equally stark.[65] Muslim volunteers went around distributing pamphlets and raising community funds to defend Muslims arrested during cow-killing riots of 1890s.[10] These stated that "Hindus have begun rebellion and had without rhyme or reason become enemies of our life and property, honour and reputation... we are forbidden to make sacrifices - Hindus interfere in our legitimate luxury".[10] A ban on cow sacrifice, stated these Muslims, is a beginning not only of an end to their right to animal sacrifice, but "tomorrow from their even proclaiming the hour of prayer and the day after from praying altogether".[10]

Colonial era laws

The section 295 of Indian Penal Code, enacted as the British India's colonial state law, stated that "anyone who destroys, damages or defiles any place of worship or any object held sacred by a class of persons", either by intent or knowledge that such an action would cause insult to the religion of those persons, was to be arrested and punished by imprisonment.[59]: 217  In 1888, the High Court of the North Western Provinces (now part of Pakistan) declared that cow is not a "sacred object".[48][59]: 217 

Sandra Freitag states that this ruling dramatically accelerated cow protection movement, because people believed that the state had selectively denied a religious right to them, while Muslims believed that the state had affirmed their right to sacrifice a cow on Bakri-Id festival.[59]: 217–218  Individuals and local groups began providing cow protection when the state refused to recognize what they considered sacred. According to Freitag, thousands of people would block roads, seize cows from butchers and take them to shelters.[59]: 217–218  In other cases, crowds "as large as 5,000 to 6,000 people" would march for hours to gather before Muslim landlords to pressure the landlord from proceeding ahead with cow slaughter on a Muslim festival. Some groups would hold mock trials of those accused of cow sacrifice or those who sold the cow for sacrifice, simulating the colonial era court procedures, then sentencing those they declared guilty.[59]: 217–218 

Violence

Further information: Violence related to cow protection in India

Cow protection has triggered riots and vigilantism since at least the 19th-century. According to Mark Doyle, the first cow protection societies on the Indian subcontinent were started by Kukas of Sikhism.[66] In 1871, states Peter van der Veer, Sikhs killed Muslim butchers of cows in Amritsar and Ludhiana, and viewed cow protection as a "sign of the moral quality of the state".[6] According to Barbara Metcalf and Thomas Metcalf, Sikhs were agitating for the well-being of cows in the 1860s, and their ideas spread to Hindu reform movements.[67]

According to Judith Walsh, widespread cow protection-related riots occurred repeatedly in British India in the 1880s and 1890s. These were observed in regions of Punjab, United Provinces, Bihar, Bengal, Bombay Presidency and in parts of South Myanmar (Rangoon). The anti-Cow Killing riots of 1893 in Punjab started during the Muslim festival of Bakr-Id, and they caused the death of at least 100 people.[68][9] The 1893 cow killing riots the riot repeated in 1894, and they were the largest riots in British India after the 1857 revolt.[69] After some 45 separate cow-related communal riots in the 1890s, the violence associated with the movement ceased, according to Maria Misra, because many Indian were repelled by the bloodshed and they saw no chance of securing a legislative intervention.[60]: 69 

History in Myanmar

In predominantly Buddhist Myanmar, the Cattle Slaughter Act became the local law during the colonial era, and it restricted the killing of cattle.[70] Permission was needed in advance, and violators were subject to prison terms. In 1956, after Buddhism was declared a state religion in the post-colonial nation, the reach of this Act was expanded to "include the possession of any quantity of beef" states Hiroko Kawanami.[70] This law was opposed by the Muslims of Myanmar, who pressed that it is their religious right to make sacrifice offerings on Muslim festivals.[70]

The Buddhist monk community in Myanmar has supported its cow protection movement. The 19th-century Ledi Sayadaw, for example, has been an influential champion of cow protection. His work published in 1885, titled Nwa Metta Sa (or The Letter on Cows) urged social action to protect cows from slaughter.[71][72]

History in Sri Lanka

Cow is held in high regard and cow protection is an important part of Sinhala Buddhist culture of Sri Lanka.[73] The Buddhists of Sri Lanka have campaigned for laws to protect the cow with "halal abolitionist movement" and "anti-cow slaughter movement". The Sri Lankan Buddhists believe that halal form of ritual killing of cattle by Muslims, where the cattle's throat is cut and it bleeds to death, and slaughter in general, is against the Buddhist teaching of compassion towards animals.[11]

According to Mohammad Yusoff and Athambawa Sarjoon, the anti-Halal and anti-cattle slaughtering campaigns mark the "reemergence of majoritarian [Buddhist] ethno-religious anti-minority [Muslim] nationalist forces and their intensified anti-minority hatred and violence". These campaign, they state, are motivated by Buddhist ideology and have "had a severe impact on the religious practice and economic well-being of Muslims".[74]

20th century

In the 20th century, the movement to ban cow slaughter continued. Many leaders of the Indian National Congress supported it as did Mahatma Gandhi.[75]: 204  However, the support was not universal. For example, in the 1950s, Jawaharlal Nehru opposed a national ban on cow slaughter.[76][77]

Cattle protection-related violence continued at numerous occasions, often over the Muslim festival of Bakri-Id, in the first half of the 20th century.[78][79]

In the 1950s, the issue of cow slaughter was taken up by the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS). The issue was revived on a larger scale in the 1960s, by the sadhus, who were supported by the RSS and Bharatiya Jana Sangh.[80]

1966

See also: 1966 anti-cow slaughter agitation

In 1966, Hindu nationalists held large demonstrations in Delhi. The protests were led by Prabhudutt Brahmachari, M. S. Golwalkar, Seth Govind Das, Digvijay Nath and members from Ram Rajya Parishad, Vishva Hindu Parishad and RSS.[75]: 206–7  They demanded greater protection of the cow. The total estimates of the protests varied between 125,000 and 700,000. One of the leaders of the protest called for an attack the Lok Sabha, causing the sadhus to attempt to break the police cordon and commit acts of vandalism against public buildings. In the violence that ensued, eight people were killed, including one policeman.[75]: 206–7 

21st century

In contemporary times, according to media reports, cattle theft for beef production in India has increased,[81][82] as well as cow-protection groups and cow protection-related violence.[83][84]

In the present day, Gau Raksha Dal[85] and cow vigilantes continue to spread the cow protection movement in India, but some recognised organisations[86] are also working on this cause widely.[87] Pawan Pandit,[88] the chairman of Bhartiya Gau Raksha Dal, is leading the cow protection movement currently.

In contemporary times, according to media reports, cattle theft for beef production in India has increased,[89][90] as well as cow-protection groups and cow protection-related violence.[91][92]

See also

Related Indian topics:

Related International topics:

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  90. ^ Buncombe, Andrew (2012-06-01). "Nothing's sacred: the illegal trade in India's holy cows". The Independent. Retrieved 2017-06-27.
  91. ^ Raj, Suhasini (5 April 2017). "Hindu Cow Vigilantes in Rajasthan, India, Beat Muslim to Death". The New York Times.
  92. ^ "Violent vigilante cow protection groups prompt condemnation from Indian PM Narendra Modi".
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