European Canadians
Total population | |
---|---|
25,111,695 (2016 Census) 72.9% of the total Canadian population[1][nb 1] | |
Regions with significant populations | |
All areas of Canada less prevalent in the North | |
Languages | |
Canadian English · Canadian French Other European Languages Historically: Scottish Gaelic · Irish | |
Religion | |
Majority: Christianity: Protestantism · Roman Catholicism · Eastern Orthodoxy · Oriental Orthodoxy · Mormonism · Other Latter Day Saints · Nondenominational and Other Christians Minority: Islam · Judaism | |
Related ethnic groups | |
European diaspora, Europeans, European Americans, European Australians, European New Zealanders, British (English, Scottish, Welsh, Northern Irish), Irish, French, German, Italian, Dutch, Ukrainian, Polish, Portuguese |
European Canadians (French: les Canadiens Européens), also known as Euro-Canadians, are Canadians with ancestry from Europe.[2][3][4] They form the largest panethnic group within Canada with roughly 73 percent of the population.
European Canadians can further be classified into regional and ethnocultural subgroups. The census in Canada divides Canadians of European descent into four broad categories which, in alphabetical order, are: Eastern European Canadians, Northern European Canadians, Southern European Canadians and Western European Canadians.[1]
Subgroups
There are several subgroups of European Canadians.[5] Although approximately defined categories (due to imprecise, or ethnocultural, regionalization of the continent), the subgroups have been utilized widely in ethnic and cultural identification.[6] This is especially relevant in diaspora, as is the case with European people in Canada.[7] In alphabetical order, and as listed within the census in Canada,[1] some of these subgroups are:[8]
- Eastern European Canadians, including Belarusian Canadians, Bulgarian Canadians, Czech Canadians, Estonian Canadians, Hungarian Canadians, Latvian Canadians, Lithuanian Canadians, Moldovan Canadians, Polish Canadians, Romanian Canadians, Russian Canadians, Slovak Canadians and Ukrainian Canadians
- Northern European Canadians, including British Canadians (English Canadians, Irish Canadians, Scottish Canadians, and Welsh Canadians), Danish Canadians, Finnish Canadians, Icelandic Canadians, Norwegian Canadians, Swedish Canadians
- Southern European Canadians, including Albanian Canadians, Cypriot Canadians, Greek Canadians, Italian Canadians, Maltese Canadians, Portuguese Canadians, Spanish Canadians and Yugoslav Canadians (Bosnian Canadians, Croatian Canadians, Kosovar Canadians, Macedonian Canadians, Montenegrin Canadians, Serbian Canadians, and Slovenian Canadians)
- Western European Canadians, including Austrian Canadians, Bavarian Canadians, Belgian Canadians, Dutch Canadians, Flemish Canadians, French Canadians, Frisian Canadians, German Canadians, Luxembourger Canadians, Swiss Canadians
History
![]() | This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2020) |
Initial settlement
The French were the first Europeans to establish a continuous presence in what is now Canada. Hélène Desportes is considered the first white child born in New France. She was born circa 1620, to Pierre Desportes (born Lisieux, Normandie, France) and Françoise Langlois.[9]
20th century
Hundreds of thousands of European immigrants came through Pier 21 in Halifax, Nova Scotia in the 1900s.[10]
Diaspora
Substantial numbers of European Canadians of French extraction migrated to New England beginning in the late nineteenth century, taking jobs in the cotton mills there and forming a Catholic French-speaking immigrant community.[11] Notable francophone European-Canadian Americans included Beat novelist Jack Kerouac and best-selling novelist Grace Metalious. The community became a significant factor in the 1972 presidential election, when false allegations that Ed Muskie had made derogatory comments about French European-Canadian Americans caused his candidacy for president to implode.[12]
Many senior European-Canadians regularly winter in Florida, forming a migrant community. They have formed their own advocacy group, the Canadian Snowbirds Association.
Notable members of the European-Canadian diaspora in the United States have included Joni Mitchell, Lorne Michaels, Hal Foster, Todd McFarlane, Ted Cruz, Pamela Anderson, Paul Anka, Justin Bieber, Seth Rogen and William Shatner.
Demographics
Beginning with the first Canadian census in 1871, the European Canadian population as a percentage of the total Canadian population had a peak of 98.5 percent. Since then, their proportion of the total Canadian population has been decreasing gradually since the mid-20th century to the most recent census in 2016, however, Canadians who identify with European origins constitute 72.9 percent of the total Canadian population.[13][14][15] The actual decrease in the percentage of the population who are descended from Europeans is hard to quantify, however, as a significant part of the reduction may be an artifact caused by people of European descent identifying instead as Canadian on the census.
Elements of Aboriginal, French, British and more recent immigrant customs, languages and religions have combined to form the culture of Canada and thus a Canadian identity, without eradicating specific regional or cultural identities such as Aboriginal or Québecois. Canada has also been strongly influenced by its linguistic, geographic and economic neighbour, the United States.
In the 2016 census, the largest European ancestry groups originated from the British Isles (11,211,850 including 6,320,085 English, 4,799,005 Scottish and 4,627,000 Irish), France(4,680,820), Germany (3,322,405), Italy (1,587,965) and Ukraine (1,359,655).[16] However, the country's largest self-reported ethnic origin is "Canadian" (accounting for 11,135,965 of the population).[nb 2]
Year | Population | % of total population |
---|---|---|
1871[15][14][17] | 3,433,315 | 98.5% |
1881[18][17] | 4,146,900 | 95.9% |
1901[18][17] | 5,170,522 | 96.0% |
1911[18][17] | 7,005,583 | 94.4% |
1921[18][17] | 8,568,584 | 96.0% |
1931[15][17] | 10,134,313 | 97.7% |
1941[15][14] | 11,242,868 | 97.8% |
1951[15][14] | 13,582,574 | 96.8% |
1961[15][14] | 17,653,864 | 96.8% |
1966[15][14] | N/A | 96.8% |
1971[15][14] | 20,763,915 | 96.3% |
1981[19] | 22,402,000 | 93.0% |
1986 | N/A | N/A |
1991 | N/A | N/A |
1996[20] | 24,531,635 | 86.0% |
2001[21][22][nb 1] | 24,678,880 | 83.3% |
2006[23][nb 1] | 25,000,150 | 80.0% |
2011[24][nb 1] | 25,186,890 | 76.7% |
2016[25][nb 1] | 25,111,695 | 72.9% |
Province/territory | Population (2001)[21][22] | % of total ethnic population (2001) | Population (2006)[23] | % of total ethnic population (2006) | Population (2011)[24] | % of total ethnic population (2011) | Population (2016)[25] | % of total ethnic population (2016) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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8,944,190 | 79.3% | 9,041,200 | 75.2% | 9,070,795 | 71.7% | 8,982,180 | 67.8% |
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6,548,205 | 91.9% | 6,673,120 | 89.7% | 6,740,370 | 87.2% | 6,750,200 | 84.7% |
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2,862,405 | 74.0% | 2,869,450 | 70.4% | 2,911,568 | 67.3% | 2,908,420 | 63.8% |
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2,455,005 | 83.5% | 2,613,790 | 80.3% | 2,690,955 | 75.4% | 2,786,340 | 70.0% |
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866,545 | 78.5% | 849,025 | 74.9% | 824,820 | 70.2% | 800,540 | 64.5% |
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846,030 | 94.3% | 841,230 | 93.2% | 825,050 | 91.1% | 798,195 | 87.9% |
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805,380 | 83.6% | 778,060 | 81.2% | 787,745 | 78.1% | 779,665 | 72.8% |
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693,295 | 96.3% | 688,650 | 95.7% | 696,085 | 94.6% | 676,785 | 92.6% |
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485,450 | 95.6% | 471,430 | 94.2% | 464,540 | 91.6% | 454,710 | 88.8% |
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130,860 | 98.1% | 130,645 | 97.4% | 130,885 | 95.3% | 130,310 | 93.3% |
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20,955 | 73.5% | 21,395 | 70.9% | 23,595 | 70.8% | 23,915 | 68.1% |
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16,925 | 45.4% | 18,150 | 44.2% | 16,915 | 41.6% | 16,320 | 39.7% |
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3,735 | 14.0% | 3,990 | 13.6% | 3,820 | 12.1% | 4,115 | 11.6% |
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24,678,880 | 83.3% | 25,000,150 | 80.0% | 25,186,890 | 76.7% | 25,111,695 | 72.9% |
Ethnicity
Ethnicity | Population (1871)[18] | % of Canadian population (1871) | Population (1881)[18] | % of Canadian population (1881) | Population (1901)[18] | % of Canadian population (1901) | Population (1911)[18] | % of Canadian population (1911) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 10,947 | 0.2% | 42,535 | 0.6% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 2,994 | 0.1% | 9,593 | 0.1% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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29,662 | 0.9% | 30,412 | 0.7% | 33,845 | 0.6% | 54,986 | 0.8% |
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706,369 | 20.3% | 881,301 | 20.4% | 1,260,899 | 23.5% | 1,823,150 | 25.3% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 2,502 | 0.1% | 15,497 | 0.2% |
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1,082,940 | 31.1% | 1,298,929 | 30.0% | 1,649,371 | 30.7% | 2,054,890 | 28.5% |
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202,991 | 5.8% | 254,319 | 5.9% | 310,501 | 5.8% | 393,320 | 5.5% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 291 | 0.0% | 3,594 | 0.0% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 1,549 | 0.0% | 11,605 | 0.2% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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846,414 | 24.3% | 957,403 | 22.1% | 988,721 | 18.4% | 1,050,384 | 14.6% |
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1,035 | 0.0% | 1,849 | 0.0% | 10,834 | 0.2% | 45,411 | 0.6% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 6,285 | 0.1% | 33,365 | 0.5% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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607 | 0.0% | 1,227 | 0.1% | 19,825 | 0.4% | 43,142 | 0.6% |
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549,946 | 15.8% | 699,863 | 16.2% | 800,154 | 14.9% | 997,880 | 13.9% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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2,962 | 0.1% | 4,588 | 0.1% | 3,865 | 0.1% | 6,625 | 0.1% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
Ethnicity | Population (1921)[18] | % of Canadian population (1921) | Population (1941)[26][27] | % of Canadian population (1941) | Population (1951)[26][27] | % of Canadian population (1951) | Population (1961)[26][27] | % of Canadian population (1961) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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20,234 | 0.2% | 29,711 | 0.3% | 35,148 | 0.3% | 61,382 | 0.3% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | 42,912 | 0.4% | 63,959 | 0.4% | 73,061 | 0.4% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | 37,439 | 0.3% | 42,671 | 0.3% | 85,473 | 0.5% |
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117,506 | 1.2% | 212,863 | 1.8% | 264,267 | 1.9% | 429,679 | 2.4% |
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2,545,496 | 29.0% | 2,968,402 | 25.1% | 3,630,344 | 25.9% | 4,195,175 | 23.0% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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21,494 | 0.2% | 41,683 | 0.4% | 43,745 | 0.3% | 59,436 | 0.3% |
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2,452,751 | 27.9% | 3,483,038 | 29.5% | 4,319,167 | 30.8% | 5,540,346 | 30.4% |
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294,636 | 3.4% | 464,682 | 3.9% | 619,995 | 4.4% | 1,049,599 | 5.8% |
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5,740 | 0.1% | 11,692 | 0.1% | 13,966 | 0.1% | 56,475 | 0.3% |
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13,181 | 0.1% | 54,598 | 0.5% | 60,460 | 0.4% | 126,220 | 0.7% |
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N/A | N/A | 21,050 | 0.2% | 23,307 | 0.2% | 30,623 | 0.2% |
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1,107,817 | 12.6% | 1,267,702 | 10.7% | 1,439,635 | 10.3% | 1,753,351 | 9.6% |
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66,769 | 0.8% | 112,625 | 1.0% | 152,245 | 1.1% | 459,351 | 2.5% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | 7,789 | 0.1% | 16,224 | 0.1% | 27,629 | 0.2% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | 100,718 | 0.9% | 119,266 | 0.9% | 148,681 | 0.8% |
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53,403 | 0.6% | 167,485 | 1.4% | 219,845 | 1.6% | 323,517 | 1.8% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | 24,689 | 0.2% | 23,601 | 0.2% | 43,805 | 0.2% |
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100,064 | 1.1% | 83,708 | 0.7% | 91,279 | 0.6% | 119,168 | 0.7% |
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1,173,637 | 13.4% | 1,403,974 | 11.9% | 1,547,470 | 11.0% | 1,902,302 | 10.4% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | 85,396 | 0.7% | 97,780 | 0.7% | 121,757 | 0.7% |
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12,837 | 0.2% | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | 305,929 | 2.6% | 395,043 | 2.8% | 473,337 | 2.6% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 21,214 | 0.2% |
Ethnicity | Population (1991)[28] | % of Canadian population (1991) | Population (1996)[29][nb 2] | % of Canadian population (1996) | Population (2001)[30] | % of Canadian population (2001) | Population (2006)[31] | % of Canadian population (2006) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 14,935 | 0.1% | 22,395 | 0.1% |
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107,671 | 1.2% | 37,715 | 0.3% | 32,231 | 0.2% | 106,535 | 0.6% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 147,585 | 0.5% | 194,255 | 0.6% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 2,715 | 0.0% | 4,975 | 0.0% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 129,780 | 0.4% | 168,910 | 0.5% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 15,720 | 0.1% | 21,045 | 0.1% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 150,585 | 0.5% | 403,915 | 1.3% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 15,195 | 0.1% | 27,255 | 0.1% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 97,050 | 0.3% | 110,880 | 0.4% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 2,060 | 0.0% | 3,395 | 0.0% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 33,540 | 0.1% | 36,970 | 0.1% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 79,910 | 0.3% | 98,090 | 0.3% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 170,780 | 0.6% | 200,035 | 0.6% |
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961,600 | 3.4% | 916,215 | 3.1% | 923,310 | 3.1% | 1,035,965 | 3.3% |
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8,605,125 | 30.7% | 6,832,095 | 23.1% | 5,978,875 | 20.2% | 6,570,015 | 21.0% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 22,085 | 0.1% | 23,930 | 0.1% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 114,690 | 0.4% | 131,040 | 0.4% |
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8,369,210 | 29.9% | 5,597,845 | 18.9% | 4,668,410 | 15.8% | 4,941,210 | 15.8% |
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2,793,775 | 10.0% | 2,757,140 | 9.3% | 2,742,765 | 9.3% | 3,179,425 | 10.2% |
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191,475 | 0.7% | 203,345 | 0.7% | 215,105 | 0.7% | 242,685 | 0.8% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 267,255 | 0.9% | 315,510 | 1.0% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 75,090 | 0.3% | 88,875 | 0.3% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 3,822,660 | 12.9% | 4,354,155 | 13.9% |
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1,147,780 | 4.1% | 1,207,475 | 4.2% | 1,270,370 | 4.3% | 1,445,335 | 4.6% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 1,200 | 0.0% | 1,530 | 0.0% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 22,615 | 0.1% | 27,870 | 0.1% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 36,485 | 0.1% | 46,690 | 0.1% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 2,390 | 0.0% | 3,225 | 0.0% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 31,265 | 0.1% | 37,055 | 0.1% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 33,000 | 0.1% | 37,120 | 0.1% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 1,055 | 0.0% | 2,370 | 0.0% |
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286,240 | 1.0% | N/A | N/A | 363,760 | 1.2% | 432,515 | 1.4% |
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740,720 | 2.6% | 786,735 | 2.7% | 817,085 | 2.8% | 984,565 | 3.2% |
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292,185 | 1.0% | 335,110 | 1.1% | 357,690 | 1.2% | 410,850 | 1.3% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 131,830 | 0.4% | 192,170 | 0.6% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 337,960 | 1.1% | 500,600 | 1.6% |
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4,248,365 | 15.2% | 4,260,840 | 14.4% | 4,157,210 | 14.0% | 4,719,850 | 15.1% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 55,540 | 0.2% | 72,690 | 0.2% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 50,860 | 0.2% | 64,145 | 0.2% |
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N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 28,910 | 0.1% | 35,935 | 0.1% |
![]() |
158,915 | 0.6% | 204,360 | 0.7% | 213,105 | 0.7% | 325,730 | 1.0% |
![]() |
N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 282,760 | 1.0% | 334,765 | 1.1% |
![]() |
N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 110,795 | 0.4% | 137,775 | 0.4% |
![]() |
1,054,295 | 3.8% | 1,026,470 | 3.5% | 1,071,060 | 3.6% | 1,209,085 | 3.9% |
![]() |
N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 350,365 | 1.2% | 440,965 | 1.4% |
![]() |
21,404 | 0.2% | 68,587 | 0.4% | 65,505 | 0.2% | 65,305 | 0.2% |
Ethnicity | Population (2011)[32] | % of Canadian population (2011) | Population (2016)[16] | % of Canadian population (2016) |
---|---|---|---|---|
![]() |
28,270 | 0.1% | 36,185 | 0.1% |
![]() |
197,990 | 0.6% | 207,050 | 0.6% |
![]() |
5,570 | 0.0% | 6,965 | 0.0% |
![]() |
176,615 | 0.5% | 186,665 | 0.5% |
![]() |
22,920 | 0.1% | 26,740 | 0.1% |
![]() |
576,030 | 1.8% | 644,695 | 1.9% |
![]() |
30,485 | 0.1% | 34,565 | 0.1% |
![]() |
114,880 | 0.3% | 133,970 | 0.4% |
![]() |
4,815 | 0.0% | 5,650 | 0.0% |
![]() |
40,035 | 0.1% | 40,715 | 0.1% |
![]() |
94,805 | 0.3% | 104,580 | 0.3% |
![]() |
203,080 | 0.6% | 207,470 | 0.6% |
![]() |
1,067,245 | 3.2% | 1,111,655 | 3.2% |
![]() |
6,509,500 | 19.8% | 6,320,085 | 18.3% |
![]() |
23,180 | 0.1% | 24,530 | 0.1% |
![]() |
136,215 | 0.4% | 143,645 | 0.4% |
![]() |
5,065,690 | 15.4% | 4,670,595 | 13.6% |
![]() |
3,203,330 | 9.8% | 3,322,405 | 9.6% |
![]() |
252,960 | 0.8% | 271,410 | 0.8% |
![]() |
316,765 | 1.0% | 348,085 | 1.0% |
![]() |
94,205 | 0.3% | 101,795 | 0.3% |
![]() |
4,544,870 | 13.8% | 4,627,000 | 13.4% |
![]() |
1,488,425 | 4.5% | 1,587,970 | 4.6% |
![]() |
2,760 | 0.0% | 2,865 | 0.0% |
![]() |
27,355 | 0.1% | 30,725 | 0.1% |
![]() |
49,130 | 0.1% | 59,285 | 0.2% |
![]() |
3,790 | 0.0% | 3,915 | 0.0% |
![]() |
36,985 | 0.1% | 43,110 | 0.1% |
![]() |
38,780 | 0.1% | 41,920 | 0.1% |
![]() |
8,050 | 0.0% | 14,915 | 0.0% |
![]() |
2,970 | 0.0% | 4,160 | 0.0% |
![]() |
452,705 | 1.4% | 463,275 | 1.3% |
![]() |
1,010,705 | 3.1% | 1,106,585 | 3.2% |
![]() |
429,850 | 1.3% | 482,605 | 1.4% |
![]() |
204,625 | 0.6% | 238,050 | 0.7% |
![]() |
550,520 | 1.7% | 622,445 | 1.8% |
![]() |
4,714,970 | 14.4% | 4,799,005 | 13.9% |
![]() |
80,320 | 0.2% | 96,530 | 0.3% |
![]() |
66,545 | 0.2% | 72,285 | 0.2% |
![]() |
37,170 | 0.1% | 40,470 | 0.1% |
![]() |
368,305 | 1.1% | 396,460 | 1.2% |
![]() |
341,845 | 1.0% | 349,645 | 1.0% |
![]() |
146,830 | 0.4% | 155,120 | 0.5% |
![]() |
1,251,170 | 3.8% | 1,359,655 | 3.9% |
![]() |
458,705 | 1.4% | 474,805 | 1.4% |
![]() |
48,320 | 0.1% | 38,480 | 0.1% |
Language and immigration
In the 2016 census, the largest non-official European mother tongue languages were Spanish (458,850), German (384,035), Italian (375,635) and Portuguese (221,540) and Russian (188,255).[33][nb 3]
Language | Population (1991)[34] | % of non-official language mother tongue speakers in Canada (1991) |
% of all language mother tongue speakers in Canada (1991) |
Population (1996)[35] | % of non-official language mother tongue speakers in Canada (1996) |
% of all language mother tongue speakers in Canada (1996) |
Population (2001)[36] | % of non-official language mother tongue speakers in Canada (2001) |
% of all language mother tongue speakers in Canada (2001) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Albanian | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
Belarusan | N/A | N/A | N/A | 420 | 0.0% | 0.0% | 530 | 0.0% | 0.0% |
Bosnian | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
Bulgarian | N/A | N/A | N/A | 6,330 | 0.1% | 0.0% | 9,130 | 0.2% | 0.0% |
Catalan | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
Croatian | N/A | N/A | N/A | 50,105 | 1.1% | 0.2% | 54,880 | 1.1% | 0.2% |
Czech | N/A | N/A | N/A | 24,985 | 0.5% | 0.1% | 24,795 | 0.5% | 0.1% |
Danish | N/A | N/A | N/A | 20,280 | 0.4% | 0.1% | 18,230 | 0.4% | 0.1% |
Dutch | 124,535 | 3.5% | 0.5% | 133,805 | 2.9% | 0.5% | 128,670 | 2.5% | 0.4% |
Estonian | N/A | N/A | N/A | 10,690 | 0.2% | 0.0% | 8,720 | 0.2% | 0.0% |
Finnish | N/A | N/A | N/A | 24,735 | 0.5% | 0.1% | 22,400 | 0.4% | 0.1% |
Flemish | N/A | N/A | N/A | 6,980 | 0.2% | 0.0% | 6,010 | 0.1% | 0.0% |
Frisian | N/A | N/A | N/A | 2,915 | 0.0% | 0.0% | 3,185 | 0.1% | 0.0% |
German | 424,645 | 12.0% | 1.6% | 450,140 | 9.8% | 1.6% | 438,080 | 8.4% | 1.5% |
Greek | 114,370 | 3.2% | 0.4% | 121,180 | 2.6% | 0.4% | 120,365 | 2.3% | 0.4% |
Hungarian | 72,900 | 2.1% | 0.3% | 77,235 | 1.7% | 0.3% | 75,550 | 1.5% | 0.3% |
Icelandic | N/A | N/A | N/A | 2,675 | 0.1% | 0.0% | 2,075 | 0.0% | 0.0% |
Italian | 449,660 | 12.7% | 1.7% | 484,500 | 10.5% | 1.7% | 469,485 | 9.0% | 1.6% |
Latvian | N/A | N/A | N/A | 9,635 | 0.2% | 0.0% | 8,230 | 0.2% | 0.0% |
Lithuanian | N/A | N/A | N/A | 9,385 | 0.2% | 0.0% | 8,770 | 0.2% | 0.0% |
Macedonian | N/A | N/A | N/A | 19,300 | 0.4% | 0.1% | 16,905 | 0.3% | 0.1% |
Maltese | N/A | N/A | N/A | 7,120 | 0.2% | 0.0% | 7,375 | 0.1% | 0.0% |
Norwegian | N/A | N/A | N/A | 10,235 | 0.2% | 0.0% | 8,725 | 0.2% | 0.0% |
Polish | 171,975 | 4.9% | 0.6% | 213,410 | 4.6% | 0.7% | 208,370 | 4.0% | 0.7% |
Portuguese | 186,995 | 5.3% | 0.7% | 211,290 | 4.6% | 0.7% | 213,815 | 4.1% | 0.7% |
Romanian | N/A | N/A | N/A | 35,710 | 0.8% | 0.1% | 50,900 | 1.0% | 0.2% |
Russian | N/A | N/A | N/A | 57,495 | 1.3% | 0.2% | 94,555 | 1.8% | 0.3% |
Scottish Gaelic | N/A | N/A | N/A | 2,175 | 0.0% | 0.0% | 2,155 | 0.0% | 0.0% |
Serbian | N/A | N/A | N/A | 28,620 | 0.6% | 0.1% | 41,175 | 0.8% | 0.1% |
Serbo-Croatian | N/A | N/A | N/A | 17,940 | 0.4% | 0.1% | 26,685 | 0.5% | 0.1% |
Slovak | N/A | N/A | N/A | 18,285 | 0.4% | 0.1% | 17,540 | 0.3% | 0.1% |
Slovene | N/A | N/A | N/A | 14,085 | 0.3% | 0.0% | 12,800 | 0.2% | 0.0% |
Spanish[nb 4] | 158,655 | 4.5% | 0.6% | 212,890 | 4.6% | 0.8% | 245,495 | 4.7% | 0.8% |
Swedish | N/A | N/A | N/A | 9,760 | 0.2% | 0.0% | 9,070 | 0.2% | 0.0% |
Ukrainian | 166,830 | 4.7% | 0.6% | 162,695 | 3.5% | 0.6% | 148,085 | 2.8% | 0.5% |
Welsh | N/A | N/A | N/A | 1,670 | 0.0% | 0.0% | 1,615 | 0.0% | 0.0% |
Yiddish | N/A | N/A | N/A | 21,415 | 0.1% | 0.5% | 19,290 | 0.4% | 0.1% |
Language | Population (2006)[37] | % of non-official language mother tongue speakers in Canada (2006) |
% of all language mother tongue speakers in Canada (2006) |
Population (2011)[38] | % of non-official language mother tongue speakers in Canada (2011) |
% of all language mother tongue speakers in Canada (2011) |
Population (2016)[33] | % of non-official language mother tongue speakers in Canada (2016) |
% of all language mother tongue speakers in Canada (2016) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Albanian | N/A | N/A | N/A | 23,820 | 0.4% | 0.1% | 26,890 | 0.4% | 0.1% |
Belarusan | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 810 | 0.0% | 0.0% |
Bosnian | 12,790 | 0.2% | 0.0% | 11,685 | 0.2% | 0.0% | 12,210 | 0.2% | 0.0% |
Bulgarian | 16,790 | 0.3% | 0.1% | 19,050 | 0.3% | 0.1% | 20,025 | 0.3% | 0.1% |
Catalan | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 865 | 0.0% | 0.0% |
Croatian | 55,335 | 0.9% | 0.2% | 49,730 | 0.8% | 0.2% | 48,200 | 0.7% | 0.1% |
Czech | 24,450 | 0.4% | 0.1% | 23,585 | 0.4% | 0.1% | 22,290 | 0.3% | 0.1% |
Danish | 18,735 | 0.3% | 0.1% | 14,145 | 0.2% | 0.0% | 12,630 | 0.2% | 0.0% |
Dutch | 128,905 | 2.1% | 0.4% | 110,490 | 1.7% | 0.3% | 99,020 | 1.4% | 0.3% |
Estonian | 8,245 | 0.1% | 0.0% | 6,385 | 0.1% | 0.0% | 975 | 0.0% | 0.0% |
Finnish | 21,030 | 0.3% | 0.1% | 17,415 | 0.3% | 0.1% | 2,790 | 0.0% | 0.0% |
Flemish | 5,665 | 0.1% | 0.0% | 4,690 | 0.1% | 0.0% | 3,895 | 0.1% | 0.0% |
Frisian | 2,890 | 0.0% | 0.0% | 14,935 | 0.1% | N/A | 2,100 | 0.0% | 0.0% |
German | 450,570 | 7.3% | 1.4% | 409,200 | 6.2% | 1.2% | 384,035 | 5.2% | 1.1% |
Greek | 108,925 | 1.7% | 0.3% | 106,525 | 1.5% | 0.3% | 117,285 | 1.9% | 0.4% |
Hungarian | 73,335 | 1.2% | 0.2% | 67,920 | 1.0% | 0.2% | 61,235 | 0.8% | 0.2% |
Icelandic | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 1,285 | 0.0% | 0.0% |
Italian | 455,040 | 7.4% | 1.5% | 407,485 | 6.2% | 1.2% | 375,635 | 5.1% | 1.1% |
Latvian | 6,995 | 0.1% | 0.0% | 6,200 | 0.1% | 0.0% | 5,455 | 0.1% | 0.0% |
Lithuanian | 8,335 | 0.1% | 0.0% | 7,245 | 0.1% | 0.0% | 7,075 | 0.1% | 0.0% |
Macedonian | 18,440 | 0.3% | 0.0% | 17,245 | 0.3% | 0.1% | 16,775 | 0.2% | 0.0% |
Maltese | 6,405 | 0.1% | 0.0% | 6,220 | 0.1% | 0.0% | 5,565 | 0.1% | 0.0% |
Norwegian | 7,225 | 0.1% | 0.0% | 5,800 | 0.1% | 0.0% | 4,615 | 0.1% | 0.0% |
Polish | 211,175 | 3.4% | 0.7% | 191,645 | 2.9% | 0.6% | 181,710 | 2.5% | 0.5% |
Portuguese | 219,270 | 3.6% | 0.7% | 211,335 | 3.2% | 0.6% | 221,540 | 3.0% | 0.6% |
Romanian | 78,500 | 1.3% | 0.3% | 90,300 | 1.4% | 0.3% | 96,665 | 1.3% | 0.3% |
Russian | 133,575 | 2.2% | 0.4% | 164,330 | 2.5% | 0.5% | 188,255 | 2.6% | 0.5% |
Scottish Gaelic | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 1,090 | 0.0% | 0.0% |
Serbian | 51,665 | 0.8% | 0.2% | 56,420 | 0.9% | 0.2% | 57,350 | 0.8% | 0.2% |
Serbo-Croatian | 12,510 | 0.2% | 0.0% | 10,155 | 0.2% | 0.0% | 9,555 | 0.1% | 0.0% |
Slovak | 18,825 | 0.3% | 0.1% | 17,580 | 0.3% | 0.1% | 17,580 | 0.2% | 0.1% |
Slovene | 13,135 | 0.2% | 0.0% | 10,775 | 0.2% | 0.0% | 9,790 | 0.1% | 0.0% |
Spanish[nb 4] | 345,345 | 5.6% | 1.1% | 410,670 | 6.3% | 1.2% | 458,850 | 6.3% | 1.3% |
Swedish | 8,220 | 0.1% | 0.0% | 7,350 | 0.1% | 0.0% | 6,840 | 0.1% | 0.0% |
Ukrainian | 134,500 | 2.2% | 0.4% | 111,540 | 1.7% | 0.3% | 102,485 | 1.4% | 0.3% |
Welsh | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 1,075 | 0.0% | 0.0% |
Yiddish | 16,295 | 0.3% | 0.1% | 15,205 | 0.2% | 0.0% | 13,555 | 0.2% | 0.0% |
Year | Population | % of immigrants in Canada |
% of Canadian population |
---|---|---|---|
1986[39] | 2,430,470 | 62.2% | 9.3% |
1991[39] | 2,364,695 | 54.5% | 8.4% |
1996[39] | 2,334,005 | 47.0% | 7.9% |
2001[40] | 2,287,535 | 42.0% | 7.4% |
2006[41] | 2,269,705 | 36.7% | 7.0% |
2011[42] | 2,226,100 | 30.8% | 6.5% |
2016[43] | 2,082,765 | 27.6% | 5.7% |
Culture
The various cultures of the Canadians of European descent have had a predominant influence on the culture of Canada. Over time, many people of European Canadian origins have contributed literature, art, architecture, cinema and theater, religion and philosophy, ethics, agricultural skills, foods, medicine, science and technology, fashion and clothing styles, music, language, business, economics, legal system, political system, and social and technological innovation to Canadian culture. Canadian culture derived many of its earliest influences from English, French, Scottish, Welsh, and Irish settlers. The culture has been developing since long before Canada became a country. Much of English-Canadian culture shows influences from the cultures of the British Isles, with later influence, due to 19th-century immigration from different regions of Europe, such as Eastern Europe. Colonial ties to Great Britain and the cultural presence of the United States spread the English language, legal system and other cultural attributes.
In contrast to those who emphasize the European roots of Canadian culture, other Canadians see the Cultural Mosaic, which promotes multiculturalism and an equality of cultures, as a distinctive feature of Canadian culture, one that sets it apart from the melting pot philosophy of many Americans.
Canadian flag
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Ruth_%26_George_Stanley.jpg/175px-Ruth_%26_George_Stanley.jpg)
- Canadian flag - In 1964, Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson formed a committee to resolve the issue, sparking a serious debate about a flag change to replace the Union Flag. Out of three choices, the maple leaf design by George Stanley,[44] based on the flag of the Royal Military College of Canada, was selected. The flag made its first official appearance on February 15, 1965. This flag replaced the Red Ensign, a flag that had that of Britain in the upper left corner, and the change reflected evolution from a country that had been part of the British Empire to an independent nation within the British Commonwealth.
Music
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Robert_Stanley_Weir_1899.png/175px-Robert_Stanley_Weir_1899.png)
Another area of cultural influence are Canadian Patriotic songs:
- Canadian National Anthem - Two Canadians of French descent Adolphe-Basile Routhier wrote the lyrics and Calixa Lavallée composed the music in 1880.[45][46] The English lyrics were written in 1908 by Scottish-Canadian Robert Stanley Weir.[47] The lyrics have also been translated into many other languages spoken by different Canadian minority populations, including other European languages.[48][49][50][51][52]
- The Maple Leaf Forever - is an older but unofficial national anthem written by Scotsman Alexander Muir in 1867.[53] It was in consideration for official national anthem, however, as no French version was ever written, it was never popular with Francophones.[54]
Sport
- Ice Hockey - British soldiers and immigrants to Canada and the United States brought their stick-and-ball games with them and played them on the ice and snow of winter. Ice hockey was first played in Canada during the early nineteenth century, based on similar sports such as field hockey that were played in Europe.[55] The sport was originally played with a stick and ball, but in 1860 a group of English veterans from the Royal Canadian Rifle Regiment played a game in Kingston, Ontario, utilising a puck for what is believed to be the first time. This match, played on the frozen harbour by the city, is sometimes considered to be the birth of modern ice hockey.[56] According to legend, the first hockey pucks were molded from fresh cow dung that was then allowed to freeze in below-zero outdoor temperatures.[57] Whether or not this was how the first puck was made, the use of horse or cow droppings was common thereafter, a distinctively Euro-Canadian aspect of the game made possible by the country’s Northern climate.[58][59]
Institutions
As European Canadians lack a common language, religion, or nation of origin, no institutions serving the European Canadian community as such exist in Canada.
Prime Ministers
Most of the heritage that all twenty-three Canadian Prime Ministers come from (or in some combination thereof): is British (English, Scottish, Ulster Scot or Welsh) ancestry. Later Canadian Prime Ministers' ancestry can often be traced to ancestors from multiple nations in Europe.
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|
See also
- European diaspora
- Métis people (Canada)
- Ethnic origins of people in Canada
- European Americans
- Demographics of Canada
Notes
- ^ a b c d e Statistic includes all persons that did not make up part of a visible minority or an aboriginal identity.
- ^ a b All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by Canada's nationality laws. However, "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestry. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire. "The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones), however no-longer self identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage.
Source 1: Jack Jedwab (April 2008). "Our 'Cense' of Self: the 2006 Census saw 1.6 million 'Canadian'" (PDF). Association for Canadian Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 2, 2011. Retrieved March 7, 2011.
Source 2: Don Kerr (2007). The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population. Canadian Scholars' Press. pp. 313–317. ISBN 978-1-55130-322-2. - ^ English and French are not included here because although they are European originating languages, they are the two official languages of Canada and therefore may also be the mother tongue of non-European Canadians.
- ^ a b Not all speakers are European (ie. Mexicans and South Americans).
References
- ^ a b c Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (February 8, 2017). "Census Profile, 2016 Census - Canada [Country] and Canada [Country]". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved August 6, 2019.
- ^ www.oxforddictionaries.com Euro-Canadian definition
- ^ Kappler, Maija (September 11, 2018). "Eye-Opening Show, 'First Contact,' Tackles White Canadians' Racism Toward Indigenous People". Huffington Post.
Example of White Canadian being used
- ^ Menzies, Charles (1994). "Stories from Home: First Nations, Land Claims, and Euro-Canadians". American Ethnologist. 21 (4). American Anthropological Association: 776–791. doi:10.1525/ae.1994.21.4.02a00060. JSTOR 646839.
Example of Euro-Canadian being used
- ^ A. S. Whiteley (1932). "The Peopling of the Prairie Provinces of Canada". American Journal of Sociology (Volume 38 ed.). University of Chicago Press . pp. 240–252.
The Prairie born constituted the largest single element in the population in 1926 and with those from other provinces comprised 62.75 per cent of the total. With respect to "origin," about one-half of those from Central, South, and East Europe and less than one-fourth of those from Northwest European stocks were foreign born.
- ^ James Muir (2016). "Keeping Canada British: The Ku Klux Klan in 1920s Saskatchewan by James M. Pitsula (review)". University of Toronto Quarterly (Volume 85 ed.). University of Toronto Press. p. 541-542.
Similarly, a broad spectrum of people, from J.S. Woodsworth to John Diefenbaker, accepted as truth the imagined superiority of British people and northwestern Europeans over central and southern Europeans, let alone Africans, Asians, and North American indigenous people.
- ^ David Goutor (2008). Guarding the Gates: The Canadian Labour Movement and Immigration, 1872-1934. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0774813655.
From 1903 to 1914, more than one-quarter of all immigrants came from continental Europe, with a pronounced increase in the migration of Ukrainians, Poles, Italians and other eastern and southern Europeans ... a growing proportion of eastern and southern Europeans were brought in to do the rough, unskilled work in Canada's flourishing railway, mining, lumbering, and manufacturing sectors.
- ^ Kevin Woodger (2017), "Whiteness and Ambiguous Canadianization: The Boy Scouts Association and the Canadian Cadet Organization", Journal of the Canadian Historical Association (Volume 28 ed.), Canadian Historical Association, p. 95–126,
Indeed, the 1969 Canadian Scout Handbook section on "Canada's National Origins," which purported to outline Canada's contemporary ethnic and racial composition, continued to emphasize the British and French as the two founding nations, while detailing the myriad different national origins of northwestern, Eastern and Southern European Canadians.
- ^ Bennett, Ethel M. G. (1979) [1966]. "Desportes, Hélène". In Brown, George Williams (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. I (1000–1700) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.
- ^ "The Pier 21 Story" (PDF). pier21.ca. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 7, 2014. Retrieved August 13, 2019.
- ^ Magazine, Smithsonian. "When an Influx of French-Canadian Immigrants Struck Fear Into Americans". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved November 1, 2021.
- ^ "WashingtonPost.com: FBI Finds Nixon Aides Sabotaged Democrats". www.washingtonpost.com. Retrieved November 1, 2021.
- ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (February 8, 2017). "Census Profile, 2016 Census - Canada [Country] and Canada [Country]". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved March 5, 2020.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Table 1: Population by Ethnic Origin, Canada 1921-1971 (P.2)" (PDF). justice.gc.ca. Retrieved March 5, 2020.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Ethnic origins: Census of Canada (Page: 17)" (PDF). Retrieved March 5, 2020.
- ^ a b Census Profile, 2016 Census - Ethnic origin population
- ^ a b c d e f "Canada Year Book 1922-23: Racial Origin" (PDF). Census and Statistics Office of Canada. 1921. pp. 158–59.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Canada - Origins according to the censuses. 1871, 1881, 1901, 1911 AND 1921. (Page: 134-135)
- ^ Nationalism and National Integration By Anthony H. Birch (Page: 169)
- ^ "Census of Canada, A population and dwelling counts" (PDF). Statistics Canada. 1997. Retrieved June 22, 2010.
- ^ a b "Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved August 6, 2019.
- ^ a b "2001 Census Aboriginal Population Profiles". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved August 6, 2019.
- ^ a b "2006 Census Area Profiles". Statistics Canada. 2006. Retrieved August 6, 2019.
- ^ a b "National Household Survey Profile". Statistics Canada. 2011.
- ^ a b Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (February 8, 2017). "Census Profile, 2016 Census - Canada [Country] and Canada [Country]". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved August 6, 2019.
- ^ a b c Multiculturalism and Immigration in Canada: An Introductory Reader By Elspeth Cameron (Page: 73-73)
- ^ a b c Statistics Canada Distribution of the population, by ethnic group, census years 1941, 1951 and 1961
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Further reading
- Bramadat, Paul; David Seljak (2009). Religion and Ethnicity in Canada. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 9781442610187.
- Bramadat, Paul; David Seljak (2008). Christianity and Ethnicity in Canada. U of Toronto Press. p. 247. ISBN 9780802095848.
- Haig-Brown, C.; Nock, D.A. (2006). With Good Intentions: Euro-Canadian and Aboriginal Relations in Colonial Canada. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-1138-5.
- Kallen, Evelyn (2003). Ethnicity and Human Rights in Canada: A Human Rights Perspective on Ethnicity, Racism, and Systemic Inequality. Oxford UP. ISBN 9780195417425.
- Kralt, John. "Country of Birth of Parents And Ethnic Origins - A Comparison of Reporting Patterns in the 2001 Census,"
- Magocsi, Paul R (1999). Encyclopedia of Canada's peoples. Society of Ontario, University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-2938-6.; 1300pp; comprehensive scholarly coverage of every group
- McLean, Lorna R. "Education, identity, and citizenship in early modern Canada." Journal of Canadian Studies/Revue d'études canadiennes 41.1 (2007): 5-30.
- Resnick, Philip (2005). The European Roots Of Canadian Identity. Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview Press. ISBN 978-1-55111-705-8.
- Yedlin, Tova (1985). Central and East European Ethnicity in Canada: Adaptation and Preservation. Central and East European Studies Society of Alberta. ISBN 9780888649539.
Statistical
- Statistics Canada (2008). Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867-1967. Ottawa: Federal Publications (Queen of Canada).
- Statistics Canada (October 27, 2010). Canada Year Book. Ottawa: Federal Publications (Queen of Canada). Catalogue no 11-402-XPE.