Punk subculture
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The punk subculture is a subculture that is based around punk rock. It emerged from the larger rock and roll scene in the mid-to-late-1970s in the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia. The punk movement has spread around the globe and developed into a number of different forms.
Punk culture encompasses distinct styles of music, ideologies, fashion, visual art, dance, literature, and film. Punk also lays claim to a lifestyle and community.[1] The punk scene is composed of an assortment of smaller subcultures, such as Oi! and pop punk. These subcultures distinguish themselves through unique expressions of punk culture. Several subcultures have developed out of punk to become distinct in their own right, including hardcore, goth and psychobilly. The punk movement has had a tumultuous relationship with popular culture, and struggles to resist commercialization and appropriation.
History
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The punk subculture emerged in the United States, United Kingdom and Australia in the mid-to-late-1970s, and has since undergone several developments.[2][3][4][5][6][7][1] The punk subculture originated from a number of antecedents and influences. Various philosophical and artistic movements influenced and preceded to the punk movement. In particular, several strains of modern art anticipated and affected punk. Various writers, books, and literary movements were important to the formation of the punk aesthetic. Punk rock has a variety of musical origins in the rock and roll genre. Previous youth subcultures also had major influences on punk.
The earliest form of punk, retroactively named protopunk, arose in the north-eastern United States in the early-to-mid-1970s. The first ongoing music scene that was assigned the punk label appeared in New York City between 1974 and 1976. Around that same time, a punk scene developed in London. Soon after, Los Angeles became home to the third major punk scene. These three cities formed the backbone of the burgeoning movement, but there were also other scenes in cities such as Brisbane, and Boston.
Starting in 1977, the subculture diversified, and factions such as 2 tone and Passi-punk came into their own. As the punk movement began to lose steam, Pop-punk, New Wave, and No Wave gained the media's attention. Sometime around the early 1980s, punk underwent a renaissance in the form of the hardcore punk subculture. Hardcore proved fertile in much the same way as the original punk subculture, producing several new groups. These subcultures stand alongside the older subcultures under the punk banner.
The underground punk movement in the United States in the 1980s produced scenes that either evolved from punk or claimed to apply its spirit and DIY ethics to a completely different music, securing punk's legacy in the alternative rock and indie scenes. The commercial success of alternative rock gave way to another style that the mainstream media dubbed pop punk. A new movement in America became visible in the early and mid-1990s, claiming to be a revival of punk.
Music
Music is the most important aspect of the punk subculture. Punk music is called punk rock, sometimes shortened to punk. Most punk rock is performed in a specific style of rock music, although punk musicians sometimes incorporate elements from other genres. Different punk subcultures often distinguish themselves by having a unique style of punk rock, although not every style of punk rock has its own associated subculture. Most punk rock songs are short, have complicated arrangements and feature lyrics that express punk values. Punk rock is usually played in bands instead of by solo artists.
Ideology
Punk ideology is concerned with the individual's intrinsic right to freedom, and a less restricted lifestyle. Punk ethics espouse the role of personal choice in the development of, and pursuit of, greater freedom. Common punk ethics include a radical rejection of conformity, the DIY (Do It Yourself) ethic, direct action for political change, and not selling out to mainstream interests for personal gain.
Punk politics cover the entire political spectrum, although most punks find themselves categorized into left-wing or progressive views. Punks often participate in political protests for local, national or global change. Some common trends in recent punk politics include anarchism, anti-authoritarianism, anti-militarism, anti-capitalism, anti-racism, anti-sexism, anti-nationalism, anti-homophobia, environmentalism, vegetarianism, veganism, and animal rights. Some individuals within the subculture hold right-wing views (see Conservative punk) or other political views conflicting with the aforementioned, though these comprise a minority. Well-known punks with conservative values include Michale Graves and Johnny Ramone.
Fashion
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Punks seek to outrage propriety with the highly theatrical use of clothing, hairstyles, cosmetics, tattoos, jewelry and body modification. Early punk fashion adapted existing objects for aesthetic effect: ripped clothing is held together by safety pins or wrapped with tape; ordinary clothing is customized by embellishing it with marker or adorning it with paint; a black bin liner becomes a dress, shirt or skirt; safety pins and razor blades are used as jewelry. Leather, rubber, and vinyl clothing are also popular, possibly due in part to the fact that the general public associates it with transgressive sexual practices like bondage and S&M. Punks also sometimes wear tight "drainpipe" jeans, T-shirts with risqué images, rocker jackets (which are often decorated by painting on band logos, adorning the lapels and pocket flaps with pins and buttons, and covering sections of the jacket, especially the back and sleeves of the jacket, in large numbers of carefully placed studs or spikes), and footwear such as Converse sneakers, skate shoes, brothel creepers, or Dr. Martens boots.
Some punks style their hair to stand in spikes, cut it into Mohawks or other dramatic shapes, often coloring it with vibrant, unnatural hues. Punks tend to adorn their favorite jacket or vest with pin-back buttons and patches of bands they love and ideas they believe in, telling the world around them a little bit about who they are. They sometimes flaunt taboo symbols such as the Iron Cross. Some early punks occasionally wore clothes displaying a Nazi swastika for shock-value, but most modern punks are staunchly anti-racist and are more likely to wear a crossed-out swastika symbol.
In contrast to punks who believe the fashion is a central part of the punk subculture, there are some punks who are decidedly "anti-fashion," arguing that music and/or ideology should define punk, not fashion. This is most common in hardcore punk.
Visual art
Punk aesthetics determine the type of art punks enjoy, usually with underground, minimalistic, iconoclastic and satirical sensibilities. Punk artwork graces album covers, flyers for concerts, and punk zines. Usually straightforward with clear messages, punk art is often concerned with political issues such as social injustice and economic disparity. The use of images of suffering to shock and create feelings of empathy in the viewer is common. Alternatively, punk artwork may contain images of selfishness, stupidity, or apathy to provoke contempt in the viewer. Much of the earlier artwork was in black and white, because it was distributed in zines reproduced at copy shops. Punk art also uses the mass production aesthetic of Andy Warhol's Factory studio. Punk played a hand in the revival of stencil art, spearheaded by Crass. The Situationists also influenced the look of punk art, particularity that of the Sex Pistols. Punk art often utilizes collage, exemplified by the art of Crass, Jamie Reid, and Winston Smith. John Holmstrom was a punk cartoonist who created work for the Ramones and Punk Magazine. The Stuckism art movement had its origin in punk, and titled its first major show The Stuckists Punk Victorian at the Walker Art Gallery during the 2004 Liverpool Biennial. Charles Thomson, co-founder of the group, described punk as "a major breakthrough" in his art.[8]
Dance
The punk subculture has developed a variety of dancing styles, some which appear chaotic and violent. This has led some punk concerts to look like small-scale riots. The dance styles most associated with punk rock are pogo dancing (allegedly invented by Sid Vicious of the Sex Pistols) and moshing (known earlier as slam dancing). Stage diving and crowd surfing were originally associated with protopunk bands such as The Stooges, and have appeared at punk, metal and rock concerts. Ska punk promoted an updated version of skanking and Hardcore dancing is a later development influenced by all of these styles.
Literature
Punk has generated a considerable amount of poetry and prose. Punk has its own underground press in the form of punk zines, which feature news, gossip, cultural criticism, and interviews. Some zines take the form of perzines. Important punk zines include Maximum RocknRoll, Punk Planet, Cometbus, and Search & Destroy . Several novels, biographies, autobiographies, and comic books have been written about punk. Love and Rockets is a notable comic with a plot involving the Los Angeles punk scene.
Examples of punk poets include: Jim Carroll, Patti Smith, John Cooper Clarke, Seething Wells and Attila the Stockbroker. The Medway Poets performance group included punk musician Billy Childish and had an influence on Tracey Emin. Jim Carroll's autobiographical works are among the first known examples of punk literature. The punk subculture has inspired the cyberpunk and steampunk literature genres.
Film
Many punk films have been made, and punk rock music videos and punk skate videos are common. The use of stock footage typifies punk film. Several famous groups have participated in movies, such as the Ramones in Rock 'n' Roll High School and the Sex Pistols in The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle. Some well-known punks have even had biopics made about them, such as Sid and Nancy, which tells the story of Sid Vicious (portrayed by Gary Oldman) and Nancy Spungen (portrayed by Chloe Webb).
Original footage of punk bands is also often used in music documentaries. The seminal punk documentary is The Filth and the Fury, detailing the rise of the Sex Pistols. In addition to the members of that band and its affiliates (Malcolm McLaren, Vivienne Westwood, Nancy Spungen, etc.) it also features archival footage of Billy Idol, Sting, Shane McGowan, and a young teenaged girl who would grow up to be Siouxsie Sioux, among others. One of the highlights of the movie is footage of the Sex Pistols playing "God Save the Queen" on a barge in the middle of the Thames during the Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II, and their subsequent arrest.
The No Wave Cinema and Remodernist film movements owe much to punk aesthetics. Derek Jarman and Don Letts are notable punk filmmakers. Many other films are associated with punk, such as 24 Hour Party People, which presents the evolution of punk rock into New Wave and Madchester, and Threat, which focuses on militant Straight edge punks in the New York hardcore scene.
Lifestyle
Punks can come from any and all walks of life and economic classes. The subculture is predominantly male, with the exception of the riot grrrl movement. Compared to some alternative cultures, punk is much closer to being gender equalist in terms of its ideology.[9] Although the punk subculture is mostly anti-racist, it is vastly white (at least in predominantly-white countries). However, members of other groups (such as Blacks, Latinos, Asians and Cambodians)have also contributed to the development of the subculture.[citation needed] Substance abuse has sometimes been a part of the punk scene, with the notable exception of the straight edge movement. Violence has also sometime appeared in the punk subculture, but has been opposed by some subsets of the subculture, such as the pacifist strain of anarcho-punk.[1]
Community
Punks often form a local scene, which can have as few as half a dozen, or as many as thousands of members.[1] A local scene usually has a small group of dedicated punks surrounded by a more casual periphery. A typical punk scene is made up of bands, fans, zine publishers, visual artists, clothing makers, and those who work at music venues or independent record labels.[1] Squatting plays a role in some punk communities, providing shelter and other forms of support. Squats and punk houses sometimes provide bands a place to stay while on tour. There are some punk communes, such as the Dial House. The Internet has been playing an increasingly larger role in punk, specifically in the form of virtual communities and file sharing programs.
Subcultures within punk
The punk subculture is made up of a diverse assortment of subgroups that distinguish themselves from one another through different attitudes, music, and clothing styles. Some of these groups are antagonistic towards one another, and there is widespread disagreement within punk whether or not some are even part of the larger subculture. An individual punk may identify with several of these factions, or none in particular.
| Subculture | Origins | Music | Major bands | Ideology & Lyrics | Fashion |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anarcho-punk | 1970s and 1980s United Kingdom | Range of punk music styles | MDC, Crass, Conflict, Flux of Pink Indians, Subhumans | Anarchism and other political and social themes | Anarchist symbolism, often all-black militaristic dress |
| Art punk | Mid-1970s New York City | Protopunk, art rock | Television, Wire, Suicide | Bohemianism, abstract lyrics | |
| Celtic punk | 1970s Ireland and United Kingdom | Punk rock, Celtic music, Oi!, Celtic rock | Dropkick Murphys, Flogging Molly, The Real Mckenzies | Scottish, Irish or Welsh themes, various spiritual or social issues, working class pride | Includes a variety of punk and skinhead styles, as well as influences from Celtic heritage |
| Crack Rock Steady | Recent evolution of punk encompassing many styles | Elements of crust punk, ska, hardcore and dub with orchestral breaks. | Leftover Crack, Choking Victim, No-Cash, Morning Glory. | Predominantly about death, squatting, drugs, mysanthropy, killing police and the government. | Mainly a combination of the anarcho and crusty styles, also including many traits of the squatter style. |
| Christian punk | Early 1980s American hardcore | Hardcore punk and a range of other punk styles | Headnoise, The Crucified, Crashdog, Flatfoot 56 | Various spiritual, political and social themes. Some profess as Christian Anarchists | Variety of punk styles, such as Anarcho/Crust punk, DIY, anti-fashion, and hardcore punk |
| Crust punk | Late 1980s to early 1990s anarcho-punk | Similar to grindcore; uses elements of d-beat; fuses anarcho-punk, heavy metal, hardcore | Amebix, Doom, Nausea, Antisect | Anarchism | Anarchist symbolism, DIY clothing |
| Deathrock | Late 1970s California punk | Punk and post-punk-influenced west coast United States Goth rock | Christian Death, 45 Grave, Cinema Strange | Horror film themes, Nihilism | Black clothing, torn fishnets, makeup, deathhawks, Doc Martins |
| Folk punk | Late 1970s United Kingdom | Fuses folk music and punk rock | The Pogues, Attila the Stockbroker, Billy Bragg, Defiance, Ohio, The Levellers | Various themes, including leftist ideologies | Various styles, usually plain |
| Glam punk | Early 1970s north-eastern United States | Protopunk, glam rock | New York Dolls, Hanoi Rocks, D Generation | Aestheticism, dandyism, narcissism, recreational drug use | Cross-dressing, cosmetics, fetish fashion |
| Hardcore punk | Early 1980s to Now North America and United Kingdom | Faster and heavier version of punk rock | Black Flag,DOA,Bad Brains, | Various themes, sometimes political | Plain working class clothing, anti-fashion, athletic wear; usually short hair (with the exception of dreadlocks). |
| Horror punk | Early 1980s New Jersey | Punk or hardcore punk with elements of doo-wop or rockabilly | The Misfits, The Undead | Horror film and science fiction themes | Black clothing, corpse paint, devilock |
| Nazi punk & Rock Against Communism | Late 1970s punk, 1980s Oi! and hardcore | Typical punk, Oi!, hardcore and heavy metal music styles | Skrewdriver, Passi and the Jews, Landser, RaHoWa | neo-Nazism, racism, white nationalism | Nazi symbolism with typical punk, skinhead, hardcore and metal fashions |
| Oi! | Pub rock, glam rock, football chants, late 1970s punk rock | Typical rock band instrumentation, sing-along choruses, simple melodies | Cock Sparrer, Cockney Rejects, Angelic Upstarts, The 4-Skins, The Blood, Sham 69. | Patriotism, populism, socialism, football hooliganism and other working class themes. Oi! bands that play humorous songs have been called punk pathetique.[10] | Includes styles associated with 1980s UK punks and skinheads, such as: Dr. Martens, flat caps, Levi' jeans, rocker jacket or flight jacket |
| Pop punk | Late 1970s United Kingdom and United States | Punk rock fused with various styles of pop music | Ramones, The Buzzcocks, Green Day, The Queers, The Offspring | Off-color and toilet humour, relationships | Rocker jackets, Chuck Taylor All-Stars, trucker hats, neckties, elements of other punk fashions |
| Queercore | Mid 1980s American hardcore punk | Range of punk styles | God Is My Co-Pilot, The Dicks, Pansy Division, Team Dresch, Limp Wrist, | Homosexuality, gay rights, marginalized sexuality, Štefan ml. | Similar to hardcore styles |
| Riot grrrl | Early 1990s Seattle, Olympia, and Washington, D.C. hardcore punk | Alternative rock-influenced punk | Bratmobile, Bikini Kill, Free Kitten | Feminism, female empowerment, and some themes similar to queercore | Kinderwhore |
| Scum punk | 1990s American hardcore punk and shock rock artists like Alice Cooper | Intentionally abrasive and loud, with poor musicianship | GG Allin, The Scumfucs, Antiseen | Transgressive art, sexual and violent lyrics with taboo subjects | |
| Ska punk | 1980s North America and United Kingdom | Typical punk instrumentation plus brass instruments and other wind instruments; influenced by 2 Tone, hardcore punk, pop punk and reggae rock | Mighty Mighty Bosstones, Operation Ivy, Goldfinger, Less Than Jake,Reel Big Fish | Anti-racism, unity, light personal themes | Styles influenced by the 2 Tone, pop punk and hardcore punk scenes |
| Skate punk | Early 1980s California skateboarding and surfing scenes | Similar to hardcore punk | JFA, Big Boys, Suicidal Tendencies, Drunk Injuns, Septic Death (to some degree) | Anti-authoritarianism, extreme sports | Sagging clothes, skate shoes, trucker hats |
| Straight Edge | 1980s Washington, D.C. hardcore punk | Hardcore, heavy metal and metalcore | Minor Threat, Youth of Today, Slapshot, Earth Crisis | Abstinence from alcohol, tobacco, recreational drug use, and promiscuity | Athletic apparel, camouflage shorts, black X drawn on hand |
| UK82 | 1980s United Kingdom | Elements of Oi! and hardcore; fast, angry and rough | The Exploited, Charged GBH, The Virus, Clit 45 | Working class life, inner-city themes; sometimes political | Includes styles associated with 1980s UK punks |
Subcultures influenced by punk
Several subcultures started out closely related to the punk subculture but broke away, becoming distinct and separate cultures. Some of these groups have retained friendly and cooperative relations with punks, but others have developed a feeling of mutual animosity.
| Subculture | Origins | Music | Major bands | Ideology & Lyrics | Fashion |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 Tone | 1970s UK punk, ska, rocksteady, reggae, pop | Typical punk instrumentation plus brass instruments and other wind instruments | The Specials, The Selecter, The Beat, Madness | Escapism (dancing), anti-racism, working class populism | Suits, Trilby hats, & other skinhead/rude boy/mod fashion |
| Emo | Late 1980s Washington, D.C. hardcore punk | Emotional hardcore | Rites of Spring, Embrace, The Promise Ring | Personal emotional subjects, Straight-edge | Emo fashion |
| Goth | Late 1970s UK post-punk and positive punk | Gothic rock | Bauhaus, The Sisters of Mercy, Siouxsie & the Banshees | Horror film themes, macabre outlook and fascination with dark subjects | Goth fashion |
| Grindcore | Late-1980s, US hardcore punk and UK crust punk | Grindcore and it's sub-genre's | Napalm Death, Extreme Noise Terror, Carcass, Terrorizer | Anarchist/leftist politics, gore and death, explicite sexual/pathological themes | Various, heavy metal fashion, anti-fashion etc |
| Grunger | Mid-1980s Seattle, Washington | Grunge, Post-grunge, Alternative Rock | Nirvana, Pearl Jam, Soundgarden, Alice in Chains, Mudhoney | Social alienation, angst, nihilism, anti-sexism, anti-media, Generation X | Unkempt, flannel shirts, ripped jeans, Converse and Dr. Martens boots |
| Hardline | Late 1980s/early 1990s straight edge | Hardcore, heavy metal and metalcore | Vegan Reich, Raid | Authoritarianism, anti-abortion, heterosexism, veganism, deep ecology, straight edge lifestyle. Many also have affiliation with Abrahamic religions, especially Islam and Rastafarianism. | Varies, but usually typical hardcore styles |
| Indie | Mid-1980s US and UK | Alternative rock, Garage Punk, experimental, glitch, power pop and other genres | R.E.M., The Smiths, Sonic Youth, Pavement | Independent labels, regional diversity, grassroots fanbases | Various styles |
| Mod revival | Late 1970s UK | Influences from 1960s mod-related genres; 1970s punk and pop punk; power pop | The Jam, Secret Affair, Purple Hearts | Aestheticism, narcissism, escapism (dancing), youth issues, working class populism | Suits, military parkas, Fred Perry and Ben Sherman shirts |
| New Wave | Mid-1970s New York City protopunk | New Wave (music) | Blondie, Elvis Costello, Talking Heads | More pop-oriented, but still edgy | More mainstream punk styles, suits, pop art influences |
| Psychobilly | Late 1970s US & early 1980s UK | Upright bass instead of an electric bass | The Cramps, The Meteors, Demented Are Go, Nekromantix | Rockabilly, horror film and science fiction themes | Rockabilly fashion mixed with punk fashion |
| Taqwacore | Late 1990s hardcore | Fast and heavy punk/metal | The Kominas | Islamism, progressive and more syncretic forms of Islam (such as the MKO, who follow a syncretic hybrid of Marxism and Islam, for example) | Varies, but Hardcore fashion or even traditional Islamic dress with punk influences are common |
Interactions with other subcultures
The late-1960s skinhead subculture had largely died out by 1972, but was revived in the late 1970s, partly because of the influence of punk rock. This led to the development of the working class Oi! movement. Conversely,soul, ska and reggae, popular among traditionalist skinheads, has had an influence on punk music. Punks and skinheads have had both antagonistic and friendly relationships, depending on the social circumstances, time period and geographic location.
Punk and hip hop emerged around the same time in New York City, and there has been some interaction between the two subcultures. Some of the first hip hop MCs called themselves punk rockers, and some punk fashions have found their way into hip hop dress. Malcolm McLaren played roles in introducing both punk and hip hop to the United Kingdom. Hip hop has influenced some punk and hardcore bands, such as Blaggers I.T.A., Biohazard, The Transplants and Refused.
The punk and heavy metal subcultures have shared similarities since punk's inception. The early 1970s metal scene was instrumental in the development of protopunk. Glam rockers New York Dolls were massively influential on early punk fashion, and also influenced glam punk and glam metal. Alice Cooper was a forerunner of the fashion and music of both the punk and metal subcultures. Motörhead, since their first album release in 1977, have had continued popularity in the punk scene, and singer Lemmy is a fan of punk rock. Punk-related genres such as metalcore, grindcore, punk metal and crossover thrash were greatly influenced by heavy metal. The New Wave of British Heavy Metal influenced the UK 82 style, and hardcore punk was a primary influence on thrash metal bands such as Metallica and Slayer; and by proxy, was an influence on death metal and black metal. The grunge subculture was in large a fusion of punk and metal styles in the late 1980s. However, metal's mainstream incarnations have proven anathema to punk. Hardcore and grunge developed in part as reactions against the metal music popular during the 1980s. The industrial subculture also has several ties to punk, in terms of music, fashion and attitude.
In punk's heyday, punks faced harassment and violent attacks from the general public and from members of other subcultures. It has been reported that in the UK, punks were involved in brawls with Teddy Boys, greasers and bikers. There was also considerable enmity between positive punks and the New Romantics. In the United States, punks sometimes faced abuse from rednecks and other right-wing groups such as white power skinheads. In Sweden, the raggare have sometimes attacked punks.
Interactions with popular culture
In the years following the birth of punk, elements of the subculture have become more socially acceptable (at least in Western-style democratic countries). It many cases, punk was looked at as merely a youthful fashion statement. Some maintain that the punk scene has lost the very heart of its former nature as one of explosive creativity, rebellion, anger, and individualism, and that it has become a mere caricature of what once was. Bryn Chamberlain writes, "By the mid 1980s, the punk became publicly acceptable. The punk became intelligent, artistic and fun. This became the constructed punk: a sterilized figure, a shadow of his mindless adolescent ancestor."[11]
Punk has influenced, and has been influenced by, popular culture in a number of ways. Since the beginning of the subculture, major label record labels, haute couture, and the mass media have attempted to use punk for profit. For the most part, punk has met this cultural appropriation with resistance, because of the punk ethic of musical integrity.[12]
Footnotes
- ^ a b c d e Grossman, Perry. ""Punk"". St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture. Retrieved December 27th.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Marsh, Dave (May 1971). ""Will Success Spoil The Fruit?"". Creem magazine. Retrieved November 19.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help)CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ Moore, Thurston (1996). ""Grabbing Ankles"". Bomb Magazine. Retrieved November 19.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Robb, John (2005-11-05). "The birth of punk". The Independent (UK). Retrieved 2006-12-17.
- ^ Savage, Jon. England's Dreaming: The Sex Pistols and Punk Rock. Faber and Faber, 1991. ISBN 0-312-28822-0
- ^ Australian Broadcasting Corporation (October 2, 2003). ""Misfits and Malcontents"". abc.net.au. Retrieved November 1.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help)CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ Dougan, John. ""The Saints: Biography"". billboard.com. Retrieved November 1.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ http://www.artistica.co.uk/2006/01/29/interview-with-charles-thomson-of-the-stuckists
- ^ Lee, Michelle (Nov/Dec 2002). ""Oh bondage up yours! The early punk movement--and the women who made it rock"". Off Our Backs. Retrieved December 27th.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=and|year=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help)CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ http://www.garry-bushell.co.uk/oi/index.asp
- ^ Chamberlain, Bryn (1996). ""The Quintessential Punk"". Retrieved July 2nd.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Goshert, John Charles (Spring 2000). """Punk" after the Pistols: American Music, Economics, and Politics in the 1980s and 1990s"". Popular Music and Society. Retrieved December 27th.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
Bibliography
- Willoughby Sharp Joseph Nechvatal, Machine Language Books, 1984, 74 pages
- Alan Moore and Marc Miller, eds., ABC No Rio Dinero: The Story of a Lower East Side Art Gallery (Colab, i.e. Collaborative Projects, NY, 1985)
- Marty Munsch All Grown Up the Movie, 2006, 2.2 Hrs