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Coordinates: 51°41′S 59°10′W / 51.683°S 59.167°W / -51.683; -59.167
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"Falklands" and "Malvinas" redirect here. For other uses of Falklands, see Falkland (disambiguation). For other uses of Malvinas, see Malvinas (disambiguation).

Falkland Islands
Motto: "Desire the Right"
Anthem: God Save the Queen  (official)
Song of the Falklands [a]
Location of the Falkland Islands.
Location of the Falkland Islands.
Capital
and largest city
Stanley
Official languagesEnglish
Demonym(s)Falkland Islander
GovernmentBritish Overseas Territory[b]
• Monarch
Elizabeth II
• Governor
Nigel Haywood[2]
Keith Padgett[3]
• Responsible Minister (UK)
Hugo Swire MP
LegislatureLegislative Assembly
Establishment
1833
1841
1981[c]
2002
2009
Area
• Total
12,173 km2 (4,700 sq mi) (162nd)
• Water (%)
0
Population
• 2012 estimate
2,932[4] (220th)
• Density
0.26/km2 (0.7/sq mi) (241st)
GDP (PPP)2007 estimate
• Total
$164.5 million[5] (222nd)
• Per capita
$55,400[5] (9th)
Gini (2010)34.17[6]
medium inequality (64th)
HDI (2010)0.874[7]
very high (20th)
CurrencyFalkland Islands pound[d] (FKP)
Time zoneUTC−3 (FKST[e])
Drives onleft
Calling code500
ISO 3166 codeFK
Internet TLD.fk
  1. ^ Song of the Falklands is used as the islands' anthem at sporting events.
  2. ^ Parliamentary democratic dependency under constitutional monarchy.
  3. ^ Interrupted by Argentine military government in 1982.
  4. ^ Fixed to the Pound sterling (GBP).
  5. ^ The Falklands has been on FKST year-round since September 2010.[8]

The Falkland Islands (/ˈfɔːlklənd/; Spanish: Islas Malvinas) are an archipelago located in the South Atlantic Ocean on the Patagonian Shelf. The principal islands are about 300 miles (500 kilometres) east of the Patagonian coast at a latitude of about 52°S. The archipelago, which has an area of 4,700 square miles (12,173 square kilometres), comprises East Falkland, West Falkland and 776 smaller islands. As a British overseas territory, the islands enjoy a large degree of internal self-governance, with the United Kingdom guaranteeing good governance and taking responsibility for their defence and foreign affairs. The islands' capital is Stanley on East Falkland.

Controversy exists over the Falklands' original discovery and subsequent colonisation by Europeans. At various times, the islands have had French, British, Spanish, and Argentine settlements. Britain re-established its rule in 1833, though the islands continue to be claimed by Argentina. In 1982, following Argentina's invasion of the islands, the two-month-long undeclared Falklands War between both countries resulted in the surrender of all Argentine forces and the return of the islands to British administration.

The population, estimated at 2,932 in 2012, primarily consists of native Falkland Islanders, the majority of British descent. Other ethnicities include French, Gibraltarian, and Scandinavian. Immigration from the United Kingdom, Saint Helena, and Chile has reversed a former population decline. The predominant and official language is English. Under the British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983, Falkland Islanders are legally British citizens.

The islands lie on the boundary of the subarctic and temperate maritime climate zones with both major islands having mountain ranges reaching to 2,300 feet (700 m). The islands are home to large bird populations, although many no longer breed on the main islands due to the effects of introduced species. Major economic activities include fishing, tourism, and sheep farming with an emphasis on high-quality wool exports. Oil exploration, licensed by the Falkland Islands Government, remains controversial as a result of maritime disputes with Argentina.

Etymology

See also: List of Falkland Islands placenames

The Falkland Islands are named after the Falkland Sound, a strait that separates the archipelago's two main islands.[9] The name "Falkland" was applied to the channel by John Strong, the captain of an English expedition that landed on the islands in 1690. Strong named the strait in honor of Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount of Falkland, the Treasurer of the Navy who had sponsored the long journey.[10][11] The Viscount's title in turn comes from the town of Falkland, Scotland, whose name comes from the term "folkland" (meaning land held by folkright).[11] The name would not be applied to the islands until 1765, when British captain John Byron claimed them for King George III as "Falkland's Islands".[11][12]

The Spanish name for the archipelago, Islas Malvinas, comes from the French Îles Malouines, the name given to the islands by French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville in 1764.[13] Bougainville, who founded the islands' first settlement, named the area after the port of Saint-Malo, the point of departure for his ships and colonists.[11][13] The port, located in the Brittany region of western France, was in turn named after St. Malo (or Maclou), the Christian evangelist who founded the city.[14]

Philologist Félix Rodríguez González argues that, in the English language, the Spanish name functions "as a semiotic sign" with a prejudicial meaning. He bases his conclusion on "the general rejection of the [Spanish] name" by media in the United States and Britain during the Falklands War, and adds that British newspaper The Guardian "[defied] national pride" when it "dared to call the islands Malvinas".[15] The United Nations uses both the Spanish and English names "when referring to the islands";[16] its official designation for the territory is "Falkland Islands (Malvinas)".[17]

History

Main articles: History of the Falkland Islands and Timeline of the history of the Falkland Islands

Fuegians from Patagonia possibly visited the Falkland Islands in prehistoric times,[18]. Arrowheads and the remains of a canoe have been cited as evidence of pre-european discovery. However the islands were uninhabited at the time of European discovery.[19] Discussion of the island's discovery is filled with controversial claims dating back to the 16th century.[20][21][A] No consensus exists in academia "if any of [the explorers] actually located the Falklands or other south Atlantic islands".[20] Regardless, the first recorded landing on the Falklands is attributed to English captain John Strong, who, while on a voyage "to the coast of Chile and Peru",[23] discovered the Falkland Sound and "noted the water and game on the islands" in 1690.[24][25]

For subsequent decades, the Falklands remained uninhabited until two separate settlements, one established on East Falkland in 1764 by French captain Louis Antoine de Bougainville and the other founded on West Falkland in 1766 by British captain John MacBride,[B] were established, possibly unaware of one another.[28][C] After France "relinquished its rights [over the Falklands] to Spain" in 1766, the Spanish settled the islands in 1767.[29] Problems began when Spain discovered the British settlement at Port Egmont; an imminent war, caused by Spain's capture of the port in 1770, was avoided by the restitution of the settlement to Britain.[30] Yet, the Falklands were again abandoned when the British evacuated them in 1774 and the Spanish followed suit in 1811, except for "a few gauchos and fishermen" who remained "to look after themselves".[31][D]

The status of the archipelago went unchecked until 1820, when American colonel David Jewett, a privateer working for the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, informed "the more than 50 ships at anchor" about Buenos Aires' 1816 claim of possession "over Spain's rights to the islands in the South Atlantic".[33][32][E] However, due to Jewett's inability "to establish his authority over this hard-living crowd",[35] coupled with little emigration from Buenos Aires to the islands,[33] the Falklands remained ungoverned until Luis Vernet re-established the old Spanish settlement under its former French name (Port Louis)[F] in 1826.[36][40][G] Vernet's venture lasted until a dispute over fishing and hunting rights led to a raid by the USS Lexington in 1831,[42][H] at which point the ship's commander "declared the island government at an end".[43]

Buenos Aires attempted to reorganize its authority over the settlement by forming a garrison, but a mutiny of troops in 1832 was inadvertently followed by the arrival of British forces who reasserted Britain's rule in 1833.[44][I] Nonetheless, the British soon departed, leaving the area into "a kind of no man's land", returning months later to find the port ravaged by murder and looting.[J] In 1840, the Falklands "officially became a Crown Colony", and "a governor and a few Scotsmen arrived to establish a British pastoral settlement".[49] By 1844, "almost all settlers" relocated to Port Stanley, deemed an improved location for governance of the islands.[50]

Naval confrontation during the 1914 Battle of the Falkland Islands. Painting by William Lionel Wyllie

In the first half of the 20th century, the Falklands "proved to be an important military base for controlling the South Atlantic during the two world wars". A World War I naval encounter, the December 1914 Battle of the Falkland Islands, resulted in a British victory over imperial Germany. In World War II, "the same waters" hosted the December 1939 Battle of the River Plate, which ended in a victory of the Royal Navy over the Kriegsmarine.[19]

Sovereignty of the Falklands again became an important issue in the second half of the 20th century, when Argentine president Juan Perón "asserted Argentine sovereignty" over the archipelago, causing a rise in tensions.[51] The sovereignty dispute again intensified in the 1960s, shortly after the United Nations passed a resolution on decolonization that Argentina identified as favorable to its position.[52] Negotiations between the United Kingdom and Argentina failed to reach any meaningful conclusion.[51] In 1982, the disagreement became an armed conflict when Argentina invaded the Falklands and other British territories in the South Atlantic, briefly occupying them until a UK expeditionary force retook the territories that same year.[53][54][K]

After the war, the United Kingdom expanded its military presence on the islands, constructing RAF Mount Pleasant and increasing the garrison's size.[56] The UK and Argentina "normalized" diplomatic relations in 1990.[53] In 1998, Argentine president Carlos Menem, in a letter to Falklanders, "called for reconciliation 'to heal old wounds'". Nevertheless, relations thereafter deteriorated due to air travel disagreements and the UK's refusal to resume sovereignty negotiations "in the absence of evidence that the islanders themselves sought a change".[57][L] At present, ongoing disputes among the involved governments have led "some analysts [to] predict a growing conflict of interest between Argentina and Great Britain ... because of the recent expansion of the fishing industry in the waters surrounding the Falklands".[58]

Government

Main article: Politics of the Falkland Islands
The Government House of the Falkland Islands is the Governor's official residence

The Falkland Islands are a self-governing British Overseas Territory.[59] Under the 2009 Constitution, the islands have full internal self-government, whereas the UK government is responsible for foreign affairs and retains power "to protect UK interests and to ensure the overall good governance of the territory".[60] The Monarch of the United Kingdom is the head of state, but executive authority is exercised on the monarch's behalf by the Governor of the Falkland Islands. The islands' Chief Executive, appointed by the Governor, is the head of government.[61] The islands' current Governor, Nigel Haywood, was appointed on October 2010;[2] the current Chief Executive, Keith Padgett, was appointed on March 2012.[3]

The Governor acts on the advice of the islands' Executive Council, composed by the Chief Executive, the Director of Finance, three elected members of the Legislative Assembly, and the Governor as chairman.[61] The Legislative Assembly, a unicameral legislature, consists of the Chief Executive, the Director of Finance, and eight members (five from Stanley and three from Camp) elected for four-year terms by universal suffrage.[61] All politicians in the Falkland Islands are independents; no political parties exist in the islands.[2]

The islands' judicial system, overseen by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, is largely based on English statutory law.[62] The constitution binds the territory to the principles of the European Convention on Human Rights.[60] Residents have the right of appeal to the European Court of Human Rights and the Privy Council.[63][64] Crime control and prisons are under the responsibility of the Royal Falkland Islands Police (RFIP).[62] Military defence of the islands is provided by the United Kingdom.[65] A British military garrison is stationed in the islands, and the Falkland Islands government funds an additional company-sized light infantry unit of defense.[66]

Sovereignty dispute

Main article: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute
File:Malvinas cartel - Puerto Iguazú.jpg
A sign in Argentina proclaims "The Malvinas are Argentine".

The United Kingdom and Argentina claim control over the Falkland Islands and its dependencies. The UK bases its position on continuous administration of the islands since 1833 (apart from 1982) and the islanders having a "right to self determination, including their right to remain British if that is their wish".[67] Argentina posits that it acquired the Falklands from Spain, upon achieving independence in 1816, and that the UK illegally occupied them in 1833.[68]

The present dispute began shortly after the passage, in 1960, of the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1514 on decolonization. Argentina then reasserted its sovereignty claims "before the United Nations special committee for non-self-governing territories". In 1965, the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 2065, which "called upon both Britain and Argentina to peacefully settle the dispute through bilateral negotiations".[52]

Later that decade, intending to improve its relations with South America by transferring the Falkland Islands (with provisions to protect the islanders' way of life), the United Kingdom secretly discussed the subject with Argentina. However, when the news became public, the Falklanders protested against the plans. As a result, the UK increased its focus on the Islanders' self-determination; Argentina disagreed, and negotiations effectively remained at a stalemate.[69][70] Subsequent talks between the two nations took place until 1981, but they failed to reach a conclusion on sovereignty.[71]

Diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Argentina, which were severed at the outbreak of the Falklands War in 1982, were re-established in 1990.[53] In 1994, Argentina promulgated a new constitution which "repeated the claim to the islands". In 2007, Argentina reasserted its claim over the Falkland Islands.[57] In 2009, British prime minister Gordon Brown met with Argentine president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner and declared that there would be no talks over the future sovereignty of the Falkland Islands.[72] The UK's position is that, "in the absence of evidence that the [Falklanders] themselves [seek] a change", there are no pending issues to resolve concerning the Falkland Islands.[57][73]

Modern Falkland Islanders continue to reject the Argentine sovereignty claim. In 2010, Falklands correspondent Tom Leonard of The Daily Telegraph, wrote that "The 3,000-strong community is already proudly British ... The younger islanders may not share the older generation's memories but there is clearly no love lost with the Argentines among them".[74] On 10 and 11 March 2013, the Falkland Islands held a referendum over its political status, and voters favoured (99.8%) remaining under British rule.[75][76]

Contemporary Argentine policy maintains the position that modern Falkland Islanders do not have a right to self-determination. Argentina claims that, in 1833, the UK expelled Argentine authorities and settlers from the Falklands with a threat of "greater force" and that the UK afterwards barred Argentines from resettling the islands.[68][77] Argentina reiterated its position towards the Falklanders in 2012, after a meeting of the UN Decolonization Committee, when its representatives refused to accept a letter from the Falkland Islands offering the opening of direct talks between both governments.[78] Moreover, in 2013, Argentina dismissed the Falkland Islands' sovereignty referendum. Argentina recognises the UK government only as a legitimate partner in negotiations,[79][80] and considers the islands, along with South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, as part of the Islas del Atlántico Sur department of Tierra del Fuego province.[81]

Geography

Main article: Geography of the Falkland Islands
Map of the Falkland Islands

The Falkland Islands have a total land area of 4,700 square miles (12,173 square kilometres) and a coastline estimated at 800 miles (1,288 km).[82][83] Two main islands, West Falkland and East Falkland, and about 776 smaller islands comprise the archipelago.[82] The Falklands are continental crust fragments that resulted from the break-up of Gondwana and the opening of the South Atlantic that began 130 million years ago. The islands are located in the South Atlantic Ocean, on the Patagonian Shelf, and 310 miles (500 kilometres) east of Patagonia in southern Argentina.[84]

The Falklands approximately lie at latitude 51°40′ - 53°00′ S and longitude 57°40′ - 62°00′ W.[83] The archipelago's two main islands are separated by the Falkland Sound,[85] and its deep coastal indentations form natural harbors.[86][87] East Falkland houses Stanley, the capital and largest city,[83] the U.K. military base at RAF Mount Pleasant, and the archipelago's highest point, Mount Usborne, at 2,313 feet (705 m).[85]

Land formations in the Falklands are predominantly mountainous and hilly,[86] with the major exception being the "low-lying" plains of Lafonia, a peninsula forming the southern part of East Falkland.[88] The climate in the islands is usually "cold, windy, and humid maritime".[84] Rainfall is common "on more than half of days in [a] year", averaging 610 millimetres (24 in) in Stanley, and light snowfall occurs sporadically "throughout most of the year". Also prevalent on the islands are "strong westerly winds" and cloudy skies.[86]

Biodiversity

Main article: Wildlife of the Falkland Islands
A colony of Southern Rockhopper Penguins at Saunders Island

Biogeographically, the Falkland Islands are classified as part of the "mild" Antarctic zone.[89] Strong connections exist with the flora and fauna of Patagonia in mainland South America.[90] Land birds make up most of the Falklands' avifauna; a total of 63 species breed on the islands, including 16 endemic species.[91] Arthropod diversity in the islands is also abundant.[92] The Falklands' diverse flora has 163 native vascular species.[93] The islands' only endemic mammal, the warrah or Falkland Islands fox, was hunted to extinction by European settlers.[94]

The Falkland Islands are frequented by marine mammals such as the southern elephant seal and the South American fur seal. Offshore islands house the rare striated caracara. Fish endemic to the islands are mostly from the genus Galaxias.[92] The Falklands are "naturally treeless" and have wind-resistant vegetation that, although varied, is "dominated by dwarf shrubs".[95]

Virtually the entire area of the islands is used as pasture for sheep.[5] Introduced species include reindeer, hares, rabbits, Patagonian foxes, pigs, horses, brown rats, and cats.[96] The detrimental impact several of these species have caused to native flora and fauna has led authorities to contain, remove, or exterminate invasive species such as foxes, rabbits, and rats. Endemic land animals have been the most affected by introduced species.[97] The extent of human impact on the Falklands is currently unclear due to little long-term data on habitat changes.[90]

Economy

Main article: Economy of the Falkland Islands
Port Stanley is the main financial center of the Falkland Islands' economy.[98]

The economy of the Falkland Islands is classified as the 222nd largest in the world by GDP (PPP), and ranks 9th in the globe by GDP (PPP) per capita.[5] Unemployment was at a 4.1% rate in 2010, and inflation was last calculated at a 1.2% rate in 2003.[5] Based on 2010 data, the islands have a very high Human Development Index of 0.874,[7] but a medium Gini coefficient for income inequality of 34.17.[6]

Economic development was historically advanced by ship resupplying and sheep farming for high-quality wool.[99][100] In the 1980s, while synthetic fibers and ranch underinvestment considerably hurt the sheep farming sector, the Falkland Islands government found a major source of profit through the establishment of an exclusive economic zone and the sale of fishing licenses to "anybody wishing to fish within this zone".[99] Since the end of the Falklands War in 1982, the islands' economic activity increasingly focused on oil field exploration and tourism.[101]

Recent years have seen the port city of Stanley regain the islands' economic focus along with an increase in population due to workers migrating from Camp.[102] Fear of dependence on the selling of fishing licenses, and threats from overfishing, illegal fishing, and fish market price fluctuations have increased interest on oil drilling as an alternative source of revenue. Nonetheless, exploration efforts have yet to find "exploitable reserves".[98]

Agriculture, primarily in the form of sheep farming and fishing, accounts for 95% of the Falkland Islands' gross domestic product, followed by industry and services at 5%.[103] Present development projects in education and sports have been funded by the Falklands government without aid from the United Kingdom.[99] The islands' major exports include wool, hides, venison, fish, and squid; its main imports include fuel, building materials, and clothing.[5]

Demographics

See also: Origins of Falkland Islanders
Photograph of two men and a cat standing next to a truck on the side of a road
Falkland Islanders are predominantly of Welsh and Scottish ancestry.[104]

The Falkland Islands are a predominantly homogeneous society, with the majority of its inhabitants descending from the Scottish and Welsh immigrants who settled the territory in 1833.[104][M] Nevertheless, in recent times, immigration from the United Kingdom, Saint Helena, and Chile has "reversed a former gradual decline in the island population".[105] The legal term for having the right of residence is "belonging to the islands".[61] The passage of the British Nationality Act of 1983 provided Falkland Islanders with British citizenship.[104]

In the 2012 census, a majority of residents described their nationality as Falkland Islander (59%), followed by British (29%), Saint Helenian (9.8%), and Chilean (5.4%).[4] A small number of Argentines also reside in the islands.[N] The 2006 census showed some Falklands residents identified as descendants of French, Gibraltarians, and Scandinavians.[107] Though the same census indicated that only a third of residents were born on the archipelago, some foreign-born residents "have become assimilated" with the local culture.[108]

The Falkland Islands are the least populated territory in South America. According to the 2012 census, the average daily population of the Falklands was 2,932 (excluding British Ministry of Defence personnel and families based at RAF Mount Pleasant).[O] Stanley, with a population of 2,121, is the most populated location in the archipelago, followed by Mount Pleasant (369 residents, mostly air base contractors), and Camp (351 people).[4] Age distribution in the islands is skewed towards people of working age (20–60). Males outnumber females (53 to 47%) with the deviation being most prominent in the 20–60 age group.[107] In the 2006 census, most of the islanders identified themselves as being Christians (67.2%), followed by those who refused to answer or had no religious affiliation (31.5%). The remaining 1.3% (39 individuals) identified as adherents of other faiths.[107]

Education in the Falkland Islands, which follows the English system, is free and compulsory.[109] Primary education is available at Stanley, RAF Mount Pleasant (for children of service personnel), and at a number of rural settlements. Secondary education is only available in Stanley, which offers boarding facilities and 12 subjects to General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) level. Students aged 16 or older may study at colleges in England for their GCE Advanced Level or vocational qualifications. The Falkland Islands government pays for older students to attend institutions of higher education, usually in the United Kingdom.[109]

Culture

Main article: Culture of the Falkland Islands
Painting of Port Louis, probably 1838 or 1839; an example of Falklands art[110]

Falklands culture is fundamentally "based on the British culture brought with the settlers from the British Isles", though it has been partly influenced by the cultures of Hispanic South America.[105] Some terms and toponyms used by the islands' former Gaucho inhabitants are still commonly used in local speech.[111] The Falklands' predominant language is British English, and part of the population (2.5%) is Spanish-speaking.[105] According to naturalist Will Wagstaff, "the Falkland Islands are a very social place, and stopping for a chat is a way of life".[111]

The islands have two weekly newspapers, Teaberry Express and The Penguin News.[112] Television and radio broadcasts generally feature programming from the United Kingdom.[105] Wagstaff describes local cuisine as "very British in character with much use made of the homegrown vegetables, local lamb, mutton, beef, and fish". Common between meals are "home made cakes and biscuits with tea or coffee".[113] Moreover, social activities in the Falklands are, in the words of Wagstaff, "typical of that of a small British town with a variety of clubs and organisations covering many aspects of community life".[114]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Based on his analysis of the numerous Falkland Islands discovery claims, historian John Dunmore concludes that "[a] number of countries could therefore lay some claim to the archipelago under the heading of first discoverers: Spain, Holland, Britain, and even Italy and Portugal – although the last two claimants might be stretching things a little."[22]
  2. ^ In 1764, Bougainville claimed the islands in the name of Louis XV of France. In 1765, British captain John Byron claimed the islands in the name of George III of Great Britain, leaving behind a small garden which Britain later claimed as proof of possession over the archipelago.[26][27]
  3. ^ Foreign affairs expert Lowell Gustafson explains that Britain had at least partial knowledge about the existence of the French settlement. Gustafson further writes that "[t]he Spanish, who had already purchased but not formally taken control of the French colony, would argue that it was public knowledge that France had settled on the islands before anyone else".[26]
  4. ^ Historian Daniel Gibran posits that Britain's withdrawal was "partly because of new strategic priorities and economic considerations", but "left behind a plaque" asserting the territory as "the sole right and property of His Most Sacred Majesty George the Third".[31] Gibran adds that for the next several years, "Spain, through its vice-royalty in Buenos Aires, was the sole administrator of the Falkland Islands". However, the unsuccessful development of the settlement culminated in Spain's withdrawal amidst fears of invasion during the Napoleonic Wars.[32]
  5. ^ According to Argentine legal analyst Roberto Laver, the United Kingdom disregards Jewett's actions because the government he represented "was not recognized either by Britain or any other foreign power at the time" and "no act of occupation followed the ceremony of claiming possession".[34]
  6. ^ Vernet's venture received permission and encouragement from Buenos Aires;[33][36] but, prior to departing for the Falklands, Vernet "took his grant to the British Consulate where it received their stamp".[37] Historian Mary Cawkell explains that Vernet would again repeat his actions with the British Consulate after "the Buenos Aires Government ... extended his grant [in 1828] to cover the entire islands and Staten Island and exempted his enterprise from all taxation provided he established a colony within three years".[38] Cawkell further claims that the positive relations between Vernet and the British Consulate led the former to express "the wish that, in the event of the British returning to the islands, HMG would take his settlement under their protection".[39]
  7. ^ Afterwards, in 1829, Buenos Aires proclaimed Vernet as the military and civil commander of the islands.[41]
  8. ^ The log of the Lexington only reports the destruction of arms and a powder store, but Vernet made a claim for compensation from the US Government stating that the entire settlement was destroyed.[42]
  9. ^ The Argentine Confederation, headed by Buenos Aires governor Juan Manuel de Rosas, protested Britain's reacquisition of the Falklands.[45] Nevertheless, as discussed by Roberto Laver, not only did Rosas not break relations with Britain due to the "essential" nature of "British economic support", but he even offered the Falklands "as a bargaining chip ... in exchange for the cancellation of Argentina's million-pound debt with the British bank of Baring Brothers".[46] Moreover, in 1850, Rosas' government ratified the Arana–Southern Treaty which put "an end to the existing differences, and of restoring perfect relations of friendship" between the United Kingdom and Argentina.[47]
  10. ^ Vernet's deputy, the Scotsman Matthew Brisbane, returned to the islands "in the hope of restarting the business". His venture came to an abrupt end after unrest at Port Louis caused a group of "malcontents", led by Antonio Rivero, to murder Brisbane (and other residents) and loot the port. The survivors "fled to a cave on a near island".[48]
  11. ^ The 1982 Falklands War lasted a few months, starting with the Argentine invasion on April 2 and ending with the Argentine surrender on June 14.[55]
  12. ^ In 1999, when Chile protested General Augusto Pinochet's detention in London by temporarily halting flights to the Falklands, "the only such contact between the islands and South America", Argentina and the UK "agreed to permit air travel between Argentina and the islands". Nonetheless, in 2004, after Argentina "granted its flagship airline two routes between Buenos Aires and Stanley", the Falkland Islanders "rejected the prospect of regularly scheduled flights from Argentina". The Argentine government responded by forbidding Chilean airplanes from flying through Argentine airspace.[57]
  13. ^ Roberto Laver argues this is likely the result of government policies which successfully reduced the number of non-British populations that at one point also inhabited the archipelago. Laver states that "naturalization ordinances" in the first decades of the British colony "show a wide variety of settlers from places in Europe, Northern, and Central America, and a couple from Argentina".[104]
  14. ^ In the 2013 Falkland Islands sovereignty referendum, "18 Argentines [were] on the electoral register".[106]
  15. ^ 91 Falklands residents were overseas at the time of the 2012 census.[4]

References

  1. ^ Joshua Project. "Ethnic People Groups of Falkland Islands". Joshua Project. Retrieved 28 February 2010.
  2. ^ a b c Central Intelligence Agency 2011, p. "Falkland Islands (Malvinas) - Government".
  3. ^ a b "Keith Padgett, first Falklands' government CE recruited in the Islands". MercoPress. 7 March 2012. Retrieved 9 July 2013.
  4. ^ a b c d "Falkland Islands Census 2012: Headline results" (PDF). Falkland Islands Government. 10 September 2012. Retrieved 19 December 2012.
  5. ^ a b c d e f "Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)". Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
  6. ^ a b Avakov 2013, p. 54.
  7. ^ a b Avakov 2013, p. 47.
  8. ^ "Falkland Islands will remain on summer time throughout 2011". MercoPress. 31 March 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2012.
  9. ^ Jones 2009, p. 73.
  10. ^ Dotan 2010, p. 165.
  11. ^ a b c d Room 2006, p. 129.
  12. ^ Paine 2000, p. 45.
  13. ^ a b Hince 2001, p. 121.
  14. ^ Balmaceda 2011, p. Chapter 36.
  15. ^ Rodríguez González 1996, p. 75.
  16. ^ Osmańczyk 2003, p. 1373.
  17. ^ "Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications". United Nations Statistics Division. 13 February 2013. Retrieved 3 July 2013.
  18. ^ G. Hattersley-Smith (1983). "Fuegian Indians in the Falkland Islands". Polar Record. 21 (135). Cambridge University Press: 605–606. doi:10.1017/S003224740002204X. Retrieved 1 February 2012. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  19. ^ a b Carafano 2005, p. 367.
  20. ^ a b Michael White (2 Feruary 2012). "Who first owned the Falkland Islands?". The Guardian. Retrieved 3 July 2013. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. ^ Goebel 1971, pp. xiv–xv.
  22. ^ Dunmore 2005, p. 93.
  23. ^ Heawood 2011, p. 182.
  24. ^ Gustafson 1988, p. 5.
  25. ^ Headland 1989, p. 66.
  26. ^ a b Gustafson 1988, pp. 9–10.
  27. ^ Dunmore 2005, p. 139–140.
  28. ^ Goebel 1971, pp. 226, 232, 269.
  29. ^ Segal 1991, p. 240.
  30. ^ Gibran 1998, p. 26.
  31. ^ a b Gibran 1998, pp. 26–27.
  32. ^ a b Gibran 1998, p. 27.
  33. ^ a b c Marley 2008, p. 714.
  34. ^ Laver 2001, p. 73.
  35. ^ Graham-Yooll 2002, p. 48.
  36. ^ a b Sicker 2002, p. 32.
  37. ^ Cawkell 2001, p. 48.
  38. ^ Cawkell 2001, pp. 49–50.
  39. ^ Cawkell 2001, p. 50.
  40. ^ Smith 2006, p. 14.
  41. ^ Pascoe & Pepper 2008, pp. 540–546. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFPascoePepper2008 (help)
  42. ^ a b Pascoe & Pepper 2008, pp. 541–544. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFPascoePepper2008 (help)
  43. ^ Peterson 1964, p. 106.
  44. ^ Graham-Yooll 2002, p. 50.
  45. ^ Reginald & Elliot 1983, pp. 25–26.
  46. ^ Laver 2001, pp. 122–123.
  47. ^ Hertslet 1851, p. 105.
  48. ^ Graham-Yooll 2002, pp. 51–52.
  49. ^ Aldrich & Connell 1998, p. 201.
  50. ^ Reginald & Elliot 1983, p. 27.
  51. ^ a b Zepeda 2005, p. 102.
  52. ^ a b Laver 2001, p. 125.
  53. ^ a b c Zepeda 2005, pp. 102–103.
  54. ^ Reginald & Elliot 1983, pp. 5, 67.
  55. ^ Reginald & Elliot 1983, pp. 10–12.
  56. ^ Gibran 1998, pp. 130–135.
  57. ^ a b c d Lansford 2012, p. 1528.
  58. ^ Zepeda 2005, p. 103.
  59. ^ Cahill 2010, p. "Falkland Islands".
  60. ^ a b "New Year begins with a new Constitution for the Falklands". MercoPress. 1 January 2009. Retrieved 9 July 2013.
  61. ^ a b c d "The Falkland Islands Constitution Order 2008" (PDF). The Queen in Council. 5 November 2008. Retrieved 9 July 2013.
  62. ^ a b Sainato 2010, pp. 157–158.
  63. ^ "A New Approach to the British Overseas Territories" (PDF). London: Ministry of Justice. 2012. p. 4. Retrieved 25 August 2013.
  64. ^ "The Falkland Islands (Appeals to Privy Council) (Amendment) Order 2009", legislation.gov.uk, The National Archives, SI 2006/3205
  65. ^ Central Intelligence Agency 2011, p. "Falkland Islands (Malvinas) - Transportation".
  66. ^ Martin Fletcher (6 March 2010). "Falklands Defence Force better equipped than ever, says commanding officer". The Times. Retrieved 18 March 2011.
  67. ^ "Falkland Islands (British Overseas Territory)". Travel & living abroad. United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Retrieved 17 May 2011.
  68. ^ a b Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores. "La Cuestión de las Islas Malvinas" (in Spanish). Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto (República Argentina). Retrieved 10 October 2013.
  69. ^ Richard D. Chenette (4 May 1987). "The Argentine Seizure Of The Malvinas [Falkland] Islands: History and Diplomacy". Marine Corps Staff and Command College.
  70. ^ Laver 2001, pp. 126–131.
  71. ^ Richard Norton-Taylor and Rob Evans (28 June 2005). "UK held secret talks to cede sovereignty". The Guardian. Retrieved 24 August 2013.
  72. ^ "No talks on Falklands, says Brown". BBC News. 28 March 2009. Retrieved 24 August 2013.
  73. ^ Nicholas Watt (27 March 2009). "Falkland Islands sovereignty talks out of the question, says Gordon Brown". The Guardian. Retrieved 24 August 2013.
  74. ^ Tom Leonard (22 February 2010). "Falkland Islands: Argentina can't scare us, say islanders". The Telegraph. Retrieved 24 August 2013.
  75. ^ "Falklands referendum: Islanders vote on British status". BBC News. 10 March 2013. Retrieved 24 August 2013.
  76. ^ Marcos Brindicci and Juan Bustamante (12 March 2013). "Falkland Islanders vote overwhelmingly to keep British rule". Reuters. Retrieved 24 August 2013.
  77. ^ Michael Reisman (1983). "The Struggle for The Falklands". Yale Law Journal. 93 (287). Faculty Scholarship Series: 306. Retrieved 23 October 2013. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  78. ^ "Summers invites Argentina to sit down and enter into a dialogue with the people of the Falklands". MercoPress. 15 June 2012. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
  79. ^ "Falkland Islands: respect overwhelming 'yes' vote, Cameron tells Argentina". The Guardian. 12 March 2013. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  80. ^ "Canciller argentino no acepta carta de los isleños". Terra. 14 June 2012. Retrieved 27 November 2012.
  81. ^ Ley Provincial (1990), Provincia de Tierra del Fuego, Antártida e Islas del Atlántico Sur
  82. ^ a b Sainato 2010, p. 157.
  83. ^ a b c Guo 2007, p. 112.
  84. ^ a b Klügel 2009, p. 66.
  85. ^ a b Hemmerle 2005, p. 318.
  86. ^ a b c Central Intelligence Agency 2011, p. "Falkland Islands (Malvinas) - Geography".
  87. ^ Blouet & Blouet 2009, p. 100.
  88. ^ Trewby 2002, p. 79.
  89. ^ Jónsdóttir 2007, pp. 84–86.
  90. ^ a b Helen Otley; Grant Munro; Andrea Clausen; Becky Ingham (May 2008). "Falkland Islands State of the Environment Report 2008" (PDF). Environmental Planning Department Falkland Islands Government. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
  91. ^ Clark & Dingwall 1985, p. 131.
  92. ^ a b Clark & Dingwall 1985, p. 132.
  93. ^ Clark & Dingwall 1985, p. 129.
  94. ^ Hince 2001, p. 370.
  95. ^ Jónsdóttir 2007, p. 85.
  96. ^ Bell 2007, p. 544.
  97. ^ Bell 2007, pp. 542–545.
  98. ^ a b Royle 2001, p. 171.
  99. ^ a b c Royle 2001, p. 170.
  100. ^ Calvert 2004, p. 134.
  101. ^ Hemmerle 2005, p. 319.
  102. ^ Royle 2001, pp. 170–171.
  103. ^ Central Intelligence Agency 2011, p. "Falkland Islands (Malvinas) - Economy".
  104. ^ a b c d Laver 2001, p. 9.
  105. ^ a b c d Minahan 2013, p. 139.
  106. ^ "Falklands Referendum: Voters from many countries around the world voted Yes". MercoPress. 28 June 2013. Retrieved 22 July 2013.
  107. ^ a b c "Falkland Islands Census Statistics, 2006" (PDF). Falkland Islands Government. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
  108. ^ "Falklands questions answered". BBC News. 4 June 2007. Retrieved 22 July 2013.
  109. ^ a b "Education". Falkland Islands Government. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
  110. ^ The date of this picture is unknown, but the artist, Lt Lowcay, was the official British resident in the islands from 1838 to 1839 (see "Part 33 - Louis Vernet: The Great Entrepreneur". A Brief History of the Falkland Islands. Falklands.info. Retrieved 28 November 2012.).
  111. ^ a b Wagstaff 2001, p. 21.
  112. ^ Wagstaff 2001, p. 66.
  113. ^ Wagstaff 2001, pp. 63–64.
  114. ^ Wagstaff 2001, pp. 65.

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  • Bell, Brian (2007). Beau Riffenburgh (ed.). Introduced Species. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-97024-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |encyclopedia= ignored (help)
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  • Cahill, Kevin (2010). Who Owns the World: The Surprising Truth About Every Piece of Land on the Planet. New York: Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-0-446-55139-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Calvert, Peter (2004). A Political and Economic Dictionary of Latin America. London: Europa Publications. ISBN 0-203-40378-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Carafano, James Jay (2005). Will Kaufman; Heidi Slettedahl Macpherson (eds.). Falkland/Malvinas Islands. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-431-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |encyclopedia= ignored (help)
  • Dotan, Yossi (2010). Watercraft on World Coins: America and Asia, 1800–2008. Vol. 2. Portland: The Alpha Press. ISBN 978-1-898595-50-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Gibran, Daniel (1998). The Falklands War: Britain Versus the Past in the South Atlantic. Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Inc. ISBN 0-7864-0406-X. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Goebel, Julius (1971). The Struggle for the Falkland Islands: A Study in Legal and Diplomatic History. Port Washington: Kennikat Press. ISBN 978-0-8046-1390-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Guo, Rongxing (2007). Territorial Disputes and Resource Management. New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. ISBN 978-1-60021-445-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Gustafson, Lowell (1988). The Sovereignty Dispute Over the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504184-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Headland, Robert (1989). Chronological List of Antarctic Expeditions and Related Historical Events. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30903-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Heawood, Edward (2011). F.H.H. Guillemard (ed.). A History of Geographical Discovery in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Reprint ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-60049-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Hemmerle, Oliver Benjamin (2005). R.W. McColl (ed.). Falkland Islands. Vol. 1. New York: Golson Books, Ltd. ISBN 0-8160-5786-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |encyclopedia= ignored (help)
  • Hertslet, Lewis (1851). A Complete Collection of the Treaties and Conventions, and Reciprocal Regulations, At Present Subsisting Between Great Britain and Foreign Powers, and of the Laws, Decrees, and Orders in Council, Concerning the Same. Vol. 8. London: Harrison and Son. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Jones, Roger (2009). What's Who? A Dictionary of Things Named After People and the People They are Named After. Leicester: Matador. ISBN 978-1-84876-047-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Jónsdóttir, Ingibjörg (2007). Jorge Rabassa; Maria Laura Borla (eds.). Botany during the Swedish Antarctic Expedition 1901–1903. Leiden: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-41379-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |encyclopedia= ignored (help)
  • Klügel, Andreas (2009). Rosemary Gillespie; David Clague (eds.). Atlantic Region. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25649-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |encyclopedia= ignored (help)
  • Lansford, Tom (2012). Thomas Muller; Judith Isacoff; Tom Lansford (eds.). Political Handbook of the World 2012. Los Angeles: CQ Press. ISBN 978-1-60871-995-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Laver, Roberto (2001). The Falklands/Malvinas Case. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 90-411-1534-X. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Pascoe, Graham; Pepper, Peter (2008). David Tatham (ed.). Luis Vernet. Ledbury: David Tatham. ISBN 978-0-9558985-0-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |encyclopedia= ignored (help)
  • Peterson, Harold (1964). Argentina and the United States 1810–1960. New York: University Publishers Inc. ISBN 0-87395-010-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Reginald, Robert; Elliot, Jeffrey (1983). Tempest in a Teapot: The Falkland Islands War. Wheeling: Whitehall Co. ISBN 0-89370-267-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Rodríguez González, Félix (1996). Félix Rodríguez González (ed.). Stylistic Aspects of Spanish Borrowings in the Political Press: Lexical an Morphological Variations. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-014845-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |encyclopedia= ignored (help)
  • Royle, Stephen (2001). A Geography of Islands: Small Island Insularity. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-203-16036-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Sainato, Vincenzo (2010). Graeme Newman; Janet Stamatel; Hang-en Sung (eds.). Falkland Islands. Vol. 2. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-35133-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |encyclopedia= ignored (help)
  • Segal, Gerald (1991). The World Affairs Companion. New York: Simon & Schuster/Touchstone. ISBN 0-671-74157-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Sicker, Martin (2002). The Geopolitics of Security in the Americas. Westport: Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-97255-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Zepeda, Alexis (2005). Will Kaufman; Heidi Slettedahl Macpherson (eds.). Argentina. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-431-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |encyclopedia= ignored (help)

Further reading

51°41′S 59°10′W / 51.683°S 59.167°W / -51.683; -59.167

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